DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA

SIG3005
GEOLOGY RESEARCH PROJECT

Research Topic
LINEAMENT AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES
OF THE SOUTHERN BOK BAK FAULT ZONE

By
MISRATUL A’LA BINTI MAHYUDDIN
17068071/1

Supervisor
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR. NG THAM FATT
LINEAMENT AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES
OF THE SOUTHERN BOK BAK FAULT ZONE

MISRATUL A’LA BINTI MAHYUDDIN

17068071/1

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
UNIVERSITI MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR

SESSION 2020/2021
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis entitled “Lineament and Geomorphological Analyses of
The Southern Bok Bak Fault Zone” is the result of my own research except as cited in the
references. This thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently
submitted in candidature of any other degree.

____________________________________

MISRATUL A’LA BINTI MAHYUDDIN

17068071/1
 LINEAMENT AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF THE
SOUTHERN BOK BAK FAULT ZONE

ABSTRACT

Southern Bok Bak Fault Zone located near Perak-Kelantan border, covers the nearby area

surrounding one of the major strike-slip faults in Peninsular Malaysia, Bok Bak Fault.

This study attempts to provide a detailed lineament map digitized from SRTM Digital

Elevation Model (DEM) data acquired from a public domain. A combination of maps

including one direction hillshade and multidirectional hillshade, topographic position

index (TPI) and Red Relief Image Map (RRIM) were processed using ArcGIS software

throughout the digitizing process to delineate the lineaments. RRIM was the best method

to extract the lineaments. Geomorphological analysis was done using quantitative GIS

parameters which are elevation, slope gradient, slope aspect, relative relief, stream order,

TPI and topographic ruggedness index (TRI) to demarcate the geomorphology of the

study area. Out of the 4 lineament sets, Set 1 (NW-SE) parallel to Bok Bak fault recorded

the highest lineaments frequency for the whole area. A fault buffer zone of 5 km width

was created to compare all analysis results within the fault zone versus the overall area.

Slope aspect and drainage patterns showed the best contrast between the overall area and

within the fault zone indicating high influence of faulting. TPI, TRI, relative relief and

slope gradient did not present very significant disparity between the two because the

whole area is collectively affected by the fault due to strain hardening. The

geomorphology of the study area is not only affected by its geology but also faults.

Keywords: lineament, geomorphology, GIS

i
 ANALISIS LINEAMEN DAN GEOMORFOLOGI DI SELATAN
ZON SESAR BOK BAK

ABSTRAK

Zon Selatan Sesar Bok Bak yang terletak berhampiran sempadan Perak-Kelantan,

merangkumi kawasan berdekatan salah satu sesar gelinciran-jurus utama di Semenanjung

Malaysia, Sesar Bok Bak. Kajian ini cuba menghasilkan peta lineamen terperinci dari

data topografi SRTM Digital Elevation Model (DEM) yang diperoleh dari domain awam.

Kombinasi peta termasuk teduhan bukit satu arah dan teduhan bukit pelbagai arah, indeks

kedudukan topografi (TPI) dan Peta Imej Merah (RRIM) diproses menggunakan perisian

ArcGIS sepanjang proses pendigitan untuk menggambarkan lineamen. RRIM adalah

kaedah terbaik untuk mengenal pasti lineamen. Analisis geomorfologi dilakukan dengan

menggunakan parameter GIS kuantitatif yang meliputi elevasi, kecerunan cerun, aspek

cerun, jasad timbul nisbi, tertib sungai, TPI dan indeks kekasaran topografi (TRI) untuk

membezakan geomorfologi kawasan kajian. Daripada 4 set lineamen, Set 1 (NW-SE)

selari dengan Sesar Bok Bak mencatatkan frekuensi lineamen tertinggi untuk seluruh

kawasan. Zon sesar dengan lebar 5 km telah dibuat untuk membandingkan semua hasil

analisis dalam zon sesar dengan keseluruhan kawasan kajian. Aspek cerun dan pola

saliran menunjukkan kontras terbaik antara keseluruhan kawasan dan dalam zon sesar

menunjukkan pengaruh aktiviti sesar yang tinggi. TPI, TRI, jasad timbul nisbi dan

kecerunan cerun tidak menunjukkan perbezaan yang sangat ketara kerana keseluruhan

kawasan kajian dipengaruhi oleh sesar akibat pengerasan keterikan. Geomorfologi

kawasan kajian tidak hanya dipengaruhi oleh geologinya tetapi juga sesar.

Kata kunci: lineamen, geomorfologi, GIS

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises to Allah SWT, the Almighty God for granting me with good health and

countless blessings which allows me to complete this final year project within the

stipulated time.

First of all, my utmost gratitude and appreciation go to my project supervisor, Associate

Prof. Dr. Ng Tham Fatt for giving me an opportunity to do this project. I am entirely

grateful for him for sharing his immense knowledge and wisdom to me throughout the

period of this project implementation. Besides his great guidance, I really appreciate his

patience and the time he dedicated to make sure I am always on the right path and on time

with the project.

I would also like to express my thanks to the Department of Geology, University of

Malaya led by Prof. Dr. Azman Abdul Ghani for being understanding to all the students

doing the final year project this session. Thank you for accommodating to our needs and

facilitating this whole course despite the setbacks caused by the pandemic. Thank you to

my examiners, Dr. Noer El Hidayah and Dr. Jasmi Hafiz Abdul Hafiz as well for their

insightful feedbacks which allowed me to gain deeper understanding on my project from

another perspectives.

My sincere thanks also go to my parents for always supporting me financially and

emotionally, most importantly providing a conducive environment for remote learning.

Last but not least, I want to give some credits to my 3 friends under the same supervisor,

Nurul Izzati, Nurliyana and Nur Alia Afrina for always sharing input and knowledge

regarding the projects with me.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Study Area ............................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Geology of Study Area .......................................................................................... 4
1.5 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 9
2.1 Lineament and geomorphological study using GIS ........................................... 9
2.2 Previous works .................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 12
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Desk Study ........................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Data Retrieval ...................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 14
3.4.1 Lineament Image Processing Methods .......................................................... 16
3.4.1.1 Hillshade ................................................................................................. 16
3.4.1.2 Multidirectional hillshade ....................................................................... 17
3.4.1.3 Red Relief Image Map (RRIM) .............................................................. 17
3.4.1.4 Topographic Position Index (TPI) .......................................................... 18
3.4.2 Lineament Data Analysis Methods ................................................................ 19
3.4.2.1 Orientation............................................................................................... 19
3.4.2.2 Density .................................................................................................... 19
3.4.3 Geomorphological Parameters Analysis Methods ......................................... 20
3.4.3.1 Geomorphology ...................................................................................... 20
3.4.3.2 Terrain ..................................................................................................... 21
3.4.3.3 Drainage .................................................................................................. 23
iv
 3.5 Report Writing .................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 4 : LINEAMENT ANALYSIS ................................................................. 25
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Lineament Extraction ......................................................................................... 26
4.2.1 Hillshade Map ................................................................................................ 26
4.2.2 Multidirectional Hillshade Map ..................................................................... 29
4.2.3 Red Relief Image Map (RRIM) ..................................................................... 31
4.2.4 Topographic Position Index (TPI) Map ......................................................... 33
4.2.5 Limitations ..................................................................................................... 35
4.3 Distribution .......................................................................................................... 37
4.4 Orientation ........................................................................................................... 42
4.5 Density .................................................................................................................. 48
4.6 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 51
4.6.1 Summary ........................................................................................................ 51
4.6.2 Sense of Shear ................................................................................................ 51
4.6.3 Relative Age ................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 5 : GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS ........................................... 55
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 55
5.2 Topographic Position Index (TPI) ..................................................................... 56
5.2.1 TPI in Different Geology ............................................................................... 60
5.3 Terrain ................................................................................................................. 64
5.3.1 Elevation ........................................................................................................ 65
5.3.2 Slope Gradient ................................................................................................ 70
5.3.3 Slope Aspect .................................................................................................. 74
5.3.4 Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI) ........................................................... 78
5.3.5 Relative Relief................................................................................................ 80
5.4 Drainage ............................................................................................................... 85
5.4.1 Stream Order .................................................................................................. 85
5.4.2 Drainage Pattern ............................................................................................. 89
5.5 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 98
CHAPTER 6 : CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 100
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 102

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Geological map of study area digitized from the geological map of Peninsular
Malaysia by JMG (2014) .................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3.1: Project flowchart........................................................................................... 12
Figure 3.2: Generated Bok Bak fault buffer zone on geological map from JMG (2014)
......................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3.3: Hillshade map flowchart ............................................................................... 16
Figure 3.4: Multidirectional hillshade map flowchart..................................................... 17
Figure 3.5: Red relief image map (RRIM) flowchart ..................................................... 18
Figure 3.6: TPI flowchart ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 3.7: TRI flowchart ............................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.8: Relative relief flowchart ............................................................................... 23
Figure 3.9: Stream order flowchart ................................................................................. 24
Figure 4.1: Hillshade map ............................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.2: 3D coloured hillshade map with drawn lineaments (pink line denotes Bok Bak
fault marked by JMG (2014)) ......................................................................................... 28
Figure 4.3: Multidirectional Hillshade map .................................................................... 30
Figure 4.4: Red Relief Image Map (RRIM) .................................................................... 32
Figure 4.5: Topographic Position Index (TPI) map ........................................................ 34
Figure 4.6: Comparison between Hillshade (left) and Multidirectional Hillshade (right)
......................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.7: Comparison between RRIM (left) and TPI (right) ....................................... 37
Figure 4.8: Digitized lineament map ............................................................................... 39
Figure 4.9: Lineaments within fault zone ....................................................................... 40
Figure 4.10: Lineament number frequency in the whole area ........................................ 44
Figure 4.11: Lineament length frequency in the whole area ........................................... 44
Figure 4.12: Lineament number frequency within fault zone ......................................... 45
Figure 4.13: Lineament length frequency within fault zone ........................................... 45
Figure 4.14: Lineament sets map .................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.15: Lineament density map............................................................................... 49
Figure 4.16: Very high density caused by intersections of several lineament sets (purple
line) ................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 4.17: (a) Set 2 appears to terminate against and cut by set 1 indicating that the
former is older; (b) Set 3 is cut by set 1 suggesting set 3 is older than set 1; (c) Set 2
displaces set 1 indicating set 1 is older than set 2; (d) Set 1 is cut by set 2 sinistrally
implying that set 1 is older .............................................................................................. 53
Figure 4.18: (a) Set 3 is offset by set 2 indicative of set 3 being older; (b) Set 2 appears
to be cut by set 3 indicating set 2 is older; (c) Set 4 cuts set 1 sinistrally signifying the
former is older; (d) Set 4 displaces set 2 indicating that set 2 is older than set 4 ........... 54
Figure 5.1: Topographic Position Index (TPI) map ........................................................ 57
Figure 5.2: TPI in the whole area .................................................................................... 60
vi
Figure 5.3: TPI within fault zone .................................................................................... 60
Figure 5.4: TPI box plot .................................................................................................. 60
Figure 5.5: TPI in granites .............................................................................................. 62
Figure 5.6: TPI in metasediments (right side)................................................................. 63
Figure 5.7: 3D TPI map .................................................................................................. 64
Figure 5.8: Elevation map ............................................................................................... 66
Figure 5.9: Elevation box plot......................................................................................... 68
Figure 5.10: Histogram of elevation in the whole area ................................................... 69
Figure 5.11: Histogram of elevation within fault zone ................................................... 69
Figure 5.12: Slope gradient map ..................................................................................... 71
Figure 5.13: Slope gradient box plot ............................................................................... 72
Figure 5.14: Histogram of slope gradient in the whole area ........................................... 73
Figure 5.15: Histogram of slope gradient within fault zone ........................................... 73
Figure 5.16: Slope aspect map ........................................................................................ 75
Figure 5.17: Rose diagram of overall slope aspect ......................................................... 77
Figure 5.18: Rose diagram of slope aspect within fault zone ......................................... 77
Figure 5.19: Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI) map ............................................... 79
Figure 5.20: TRI in the whole area ................................................................................. 80
Figure 5.21: TRI within fault zone.................................................................................. 80
Figure 5.22: Relative relief map...................................................................................... 82
Figure 5.23: Relative relief box plot ............................................................................... 83
Figure 5.24: Histogram of relative relief in the whole area ............................................ 84
Figure 5.25: Histogram of relative relief within fault zone ............................................ 84
Figure 5.26: Stream order map........................................................................................ 86
Figure 5.27: Stream order in the whole area ................................................................... 88
Figure 5.28: Stream order within fault zone ................................................................... 88
Figure 5.29: Drainage patterns; (a) Trellis; (b) Sub-dendritic; (c) Dendritic; (d) Pinnate;
(e) Rectangular; (f) Parallel; (g) Radial .......................................................................... 90
Figure 5.30: Dendritic drainage pattern .......................................................................... 91
Figure 5.31: Sub-dendritic drainage pattern near Bok Bak fault (magenta line) ............ 91
Figure 5.32: Trellis drainage pattern along Bok Bak fault (magenta line) ..................... 92
Figure 5.33: Rectangular drainage pattern ...................................................................... 94
Figure 5.34: Radial drainage pattern ............................................................................... 94
Figure 5.35: Parallel drainage pattern ............................................................................. 95
Figure 5.36: Pinnate drainage pattern ............................................................................. 95
Figure 5.37: Stream number frequency ........................................................................... 97
Figure 5.38: Stream length frequency ............................................................................. 97

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Lineament frequency in the whole area ......................................................... 41

Table 4.2: Lineament frequency within fault zone ......................................................... 42
Table 4.3: Lineament sets frequency in the whole area .................................................. 46
Table 4.4: Lineament sets frequency within fault zone .................................................. 46
Table 5.1: Parameters and classification principles ........................................................ 55
Table 5.2: TPI classes of the whole area ......................................................................... 59
Table 5.3: TPI classes within fault zone ......................................................................... 59
Table 5.4: Elevation classes in the whole area ................................................................ 68
Table 5.5: Elevation classes within fault zone ................................................................ 68
Table 5.6: Slope gradient classes in the whole area ........................................................ 72
Table 5.7: Slope gradient classes within fault zone ........................................................ 72
Table 5.8: Slope aspect classes in the whole area ........................................................... 76
Table 5.9: Slope aspect classes within fault zone ........................................................... 76
Table 5.10: TRI classes in the whole area....................................................................... 78
Table 5.11: TRI classes within fault zone ....................................................................... 78
Table 5.12: Relative relief classes in the whole area ...................................................... 83
Table 5.13: Relative relief classes within fault zone....................................................... 83
Table 5.14: Stream order classes in the whole area ........................................................ 87
Table 5.15: Stream order classes within fault zone......................................................... 87
Table 5.16: Stream orientation ........................................................................................ 96

viii
 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This thesis is made to fulfil the requirements for the Degree in Bachelor of Science in

Geology, University of Malaya. It comprises the whole aspects of the research starting

from project background, objectives, details on study area, methodology, data analysis

and conclusion. This project completion is part of the 10 credits compulsory core subject,

Geology Research Project (SIG3005) which will take a whole academic year or from

Semester 1 2020/2021 until the end of Semester 2 2020/2021. This project will be initiated

by desk study before execution of the project followed by thesis writing throughout the

second semester. The title of the project is “Lineament and geomorphological analyses of

the Southern Bok Bak Fault Zone”.

This study utilizes the easily accessible big Earth data from public domain and essentially

does not require field data. It makes use of remote sensing technology by using

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as the tool to extract, analyse and map lineaments

and to also provide quantitative description of landforms.

The digitized lineament map may facilitate the understanding of structural and

geomorphological features in southern zone of Bok Bak fault zone to correlate it with

tectonic activity and environmental hazards such as predicting landslide susceptibility and

possible earthquake activities besides interpreting the relationship between structural

deformations and geology.

1
1.2 Objectives

The purpose of this study is primarily to analyse lineaments and geomorphology around

the southern Bok Bak fault zone. Besides that, this project uses features of ArcGIS in

identifying and delineating lineaments from the digital elevation model (DEM) of the

study area to produce a lineaments map including minor faults surrounding the major Bok

Bak fault using the best method.

Essentially, the outcomes from this study will be useful if compared with fault patterns in

published geological map which did not use digital data when demarcating the lineaments.

This updated digitized map may facilitate the understanding of structural and

geomorphological features in southern zone of Bok Bak fault zone and correlating them.

The specific objectives of this study are as follow:

1. To select a suitable method for the demarcation of lineaments from DEM using

GIS.

2. To demarcate the geomorphological features in the vicinity of Bok Bak fault zone

using quantitative GIS parameters.

3. To determine the influence of faulting on geomorphology.

2
1.3 Study Area

The study area is around the southernmost extension of Bok-Bak Fault zone and also

covering the adjacent areas which includes the boundary between Perak and Kelantan

states. The study area is around 2850 square kilometres (km2). The vast study area also

covers Kuala Kangsar, Sungai Siput, Lenggong, Hulu Perak, Temengor, Gua Musang,

and Ulu Kelantan.

Based on topographic map of study area from Department of Survey and Mapping

Malaysia (JUPEM), generally the study area is full of forest, mountains, and hills. For

example, Hutan Rizab Korbu, Hutan Rizab Sungai Betis, Hutan Rizab Bukit Kinta, Hutan

Rizab Piah, Hutan Rizab Sungai Berok are the forest reserves in the study area. Gunung

Besar, Gunung Ulu Sepat, Gunung Korbu, Gunung Chingkai and Gunung Gerah are the

high mountains around the study area with Gunung Korbu as the highest elevated

landform with a peak of 2183 m.

3
1.4 Geology of Study Area

General Geology

The geological information of the study area was retrieved from the published geological

map by the Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia (JMG) (2014). The detailed

geological map of the study area adopted from this map is depicted in Figure 1.1.

The geology along the fault zone comprises of sedimentary rock unit and granitic igneous

bodies. Some of the formations are Main Range Granite, Baling Group, Tiang Schist, and

unnamed formations of schist, metasandstone, and limestone. The unnamed schist has

never been mapped before hence there is no name. There are also little studies on the

stratigraphy in this area hence the information is lacking. The sedimentary formations are

listed chronologically from the bottom up in the map legend indicating stratigraphic age

from older to younger (Figure 1.1). The formations are aged from Ordovician-Silurian to

Silurian-Devonian. Majority of the area is underlain by Main Range Granite with a

considerable amount of quartz vein intrusion. Main Range granites is associated with tin

mineralization and are majorly of S-type. The entire Main Range Granite was cut across

by Bok Bak fault (Mustaffa Kamal, 2009a).

Bok Bak Fault

As written in the title of this project, Bok Bak Fault is the main geological structure of

interest. Bok Bak fault is one of the major faults in Peninsular Malaysia whose name is

derived from the locality in Kupang, Baling Kedah called Kampung Bok Bak which

stands on both sides of the fault (Burton, 1965). From Figure 1.1, the southern part of

Bok-Bak fault is seen trending Northwest-Southeast (NW-SE) at the lower left of the map.

Prominent minor faults trend in the same direction as Bok-Bak fault with a few of them

orienting towards the Northeast-Southwest (NE-SW).

4
From the recent geological map published by JMG (2014), it is observable that Bok-Bak

fault stretches from Kedah in the northwest end through Perak and Kelantan at the

southeast end. At the beginning of its discovery, the approximately 330° trending Bok-

Bak fault zone is limited to east Kedah and northwest Perak only. However, the prevalent

lineaments striking 320° to 340° and 50° to 70° observed from Landsat imagery suggested

the southeastward extension of the fault into central Perak and southwest Kelantan (Raj,

1982).

Assisted by aerial photographs, “the faulting was confirmed by offset and collinear stream

courses; wide, straight river valleys; linear topographic disconformities (scarps, valleys,

ridges, etc.); shearing; linear developments (not necessarily continuous) of vein quartz,

leucogranite, and other late-stage diaschistites which infill the fault planes and linear

zones of alteration (chloritization, etc.)” (Burton, 1965).

According to Mustaffa Kamal (2009a), the fault zone may be as wide as 10 km and it is

portrayed by a broad zone of sub-parallel faults with intense fracturing. The net

displacement was estimated to be 55 km (Burton, 1965) while Raj (1982) reckoned it to

be 20 km. The values vary in different papers and according to different researchers. The

appearance and orientation of Bok Bak fault zone is similar to that of Kuala Lumpur fault

zone (Mustaffa Kamal, 2009a). Bok Bak and Kuala Lumpur fault zones were formed just

during or after emplacement of Main Range Granite by the Jurassic-Cretaceous NW-SE

dextral strike-slip faulting. Then, in Late Cretaceous, the NW-SE dextral strike-slip faults

to sinistral strike-slip faults (Mustaffa Kamal, 2009b).

5
Burton (1965) postulated that the sinistral movement of the fault happened during

Mesozoic orogeny (Jurassic to Cretaceous). Ahmad Faiz (2017) further mentioned that

the first report of radiometric dating of the Bok-Bak Fault stated that the plateau age of

the fault is 136.1 ± 1.4 Ma. The age produced from 40Ar/39Ar radiometric dating of

biotite in mylonite is considered as the timing of the fault’s initiation. He added, based on

geochronological data, the Bok-Bak Fault is interpreted to start in Early Cretaceous,

signifying a major tectonic event in Sundaland before the collision of India into Eurasia,

where cratonization happened and major faults were being developed.

6
Figure 1.1: Geological map of study area digitized from the geological map of
Peninsular Malaysia by JMG (2014)

7
1.5 Thesis Structure

Chapter 1 (Introduction): Outlines the study objectives, define the study area and its

geology.

Chapter 2 (Literature Review): Review on application of GIS in lineament, fault and

geomorphological studies and previous research done in the study area or using similar

methods.

Chapter 3 (Methodology): Describes the methods used in the research project such as

desk study, data retrieval, GIS analysis and thesis writing.

Chapter 4 (Lineament Analysis): Present and analyse the digitized lineament map to

find out the best lineament extraction method as well as analysing the lineament data

obtained from the GIS analysis to determine the number and length frequency of the

various orientation lineaments. Analysed data presented in comparison between whole

study area and within the generated fault zone.

Chapter 5 (Geomorphological Analysis): Present and analyse the geomorphological

parameters used to explain the study area by comparing the whole study area to the fault

buffer zone.

Chapter 6 (Conclusion): Conclude analysis from earlier chapters by deducing their

relationships as well as answering the presented objectives.

8
 CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Lineament and geomorphological study using GIS

Lineaments are linear structural features on the landscape showing subsurface structural

weakness, such as faults, and are usually extracted by visual analysis of enhanced image

data (Muhammad & Awdal, 2012). The identification of lineaments would be extremely

difficult if it only depends on fieldwork (Radaideh et al., 2016). Hence, digital elevation

model (DEM) aided by satellite imagery are commonly used to identify lineaments

through topographic features such as sudden tonal variations and alignment of vegetation,

straight rock boundaries, straight valleys and continuous scarps and systematic offset of

rivers (Ali Imran et al., 2020). Lineament analysis is one of the most effective remote

sensing methods for studying faults framework and deep structures of a geological region.

GIS tools is capable of not only confirming the presence of already known faults, but also

identify unknown fault zones (Petrov et al., 2017).

Applications of GIS in geomorphology encompasses pure visualization approaches,

landform classification, land surface and hydrological analysis, process and erosion

modelling, topographic change detection and hazard susceptibility modelling (Otto et al.,

2017). Geomorphological features such as valleys, ridges and slopes are often associated

with tectonic movements along faults besides being caused by the common earth surface

processes such as weathering and erosion. Thus, lineament and geomorphological

analysis go hand in hand.

9
2.2 Previous works

Most of the published research on Bok-Bak fault concentrate on the northern part of Bok-

Bak fault as it was the first recognized zone. Most of these studies are in the scope of

structural geology like the ones done by Burton (1965), Almashoor (1996), and (Zaiton

& Basir, 1999) which focused on mapping the fault and identifying the effects of the

faulting to sedimentary rock unit. However, following IT advancements and the

emergence of new spatial analysis methods at the end of 20th century into the 21st century,

GIS started to be adopted more frequently in geological research including lineaments

study.

In one of the related studies, Ahmad Faiz (2017) used Digital Elevation Model-Shuttle

Radar Topographic Mission (DEMSRTM), LANDSAT satellite images and 1:25000

aerial photographs to delineate the distribution, trend, and extension of the Bok Bak fault

and its subsidiary faults around central and southeastern Kedah, with a small part of

northern Perak. He found that DEM-SRTM was the best data set to be used in extracting

and analysing lineament pattern. He created shaded relief images from DEM to accurately

pinpoint the lineaments and processed the DEM so that shaded relief images were

produced from various illumination conditions to prevent bias of lineament picking.

Besides that, Ali Imran et al. (2020) analysed various remote sensing data such as Landsat

5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM+, Landsat 8 OLI, digital elevation model (DEM) and drainage

pattern to trace lineament. The obtained trend of the lineaments in their study was

correlated with faults in the published geological map, especially in the Bok Bak Fault

proving that lineaments could be traced more accurately with the utilisation of various

remote sensing data. They also believed that manual lineament extraction method is better

than automatic lineament extraction method in their study because of the high vegetation

of the study area.

10
There has never been any research using the same methodology to examine the study area

which is the southern Bok Bak fault zone. Nevertheless, similar studies adopting similar

methodology proposed in this study include the case study in salt dome of Korsia-Darah

plain, Iran where Mokarram et al. (2015) classified landforms using topography position

index using SRTM DEM data (30 m resolution). Computed TPI values divided the

landforms into various classes which are canyons, shallow valleys, headwaters, u-shaped

valleys, open slopes, upper slopes, local ridges, mid slope ridges and high ridges.

11
 CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter touches on the steps towards the completion of this research project and the

detailed methods used to analyse the GIS data. The steps are desk study, data retrieval,

data analysis, and report writing (Figure 3.1).

Data Data Report

Desk Study
Retrieval Analysis Writing

Figure 3.1: Project flowchart

3.2 Desk Study

Desk study is the crucial first step of any research project to get the primary idea of the

study area, methodology, possible challenges, and expected outcomes. It involves

reviewing previous research papers and journals related to the proposed topic to gain more

information for the research. Other than that, analysing topography map and geological

map of proposed study area can help improve the understanding of the area’s lithology

and geological history as well as acting as references while doing the GIS analysis of the

digital data.

12
3.3 Data Retrieval

Data retrieval or the process of acquiring data is an important step especially in this GIS-

based study which primarily used Digital Elevation Model (DEM) as the data source.

According to U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), DEM is a representation of bare ground

topographic surface of the Earth. The data collection step is a relatively simpler step in

the methodology as the DEM data is readily downloadable from USGS Earth Explorer

website in the form of 1 arc-second Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with 30

m spatial resolution.

To download the DEM from USGS Earth Explorer, signing up to the website

(https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) is firstly needed. Then the area of interest must be

selected under the ‘Search Criteria’ tab where the location can be customized by

searching specific features in specific states, inputting the coordinates, or by uploading a

shapefile of the study area. Date range and cloud cover can also be set accordingly.

Moving on to the ‘Data Sets’ tab, the type of data can be chosen. In this case, SRTM 1-

ArcSecond Global was picked under the SRTM option under Digital Elevation dropdown.

Additional criteria can be set or else the data will be available under the ‘Results’ tab and

ready to be downloaded.

Topographic data was obtained from Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia

(JUPEM) while geological data was from Department of Mineral and Geoscience

Malaysia (JMG). The geological and topographic maps will aid in the name

identifications of the geological features and places in the study area. The 8th (1985) and

9th (2014) editions of the JMG geological maps will be used as references to create the

new geological map specific to this study and to determine the relationship between

analysed parameters with geology. Throughout this study, JMG marked Bok Bak fault

will be used extensively as a reference point for the analysis.

13
3.4 Data Analysis

Data analysis will be done predominantly using the ArcGIS 10.5 software specifically

ArcMap as well as ArcScene to create the 3D maps. For topographic or geomorphological

analysis, extensions or add-ins like Raster Analysis Tools will be used in calculating some

parameters. Global Mapper software was also used for a short while to carry out

processing which cannot be done using ArcGIS which is previewing the map while doing

the analysis as opposed to having to finish generating the map first before viewing the

output if using ArcGIS. Here, Global Mapper was used at the beginning to make coloured

shaded relief map.

Two main GIS analysis will be done which are lineament analysis and geomorphological

analysis. Different lineament image processing methods such as single direction hillshade,

multidirectional hillshade, red relief image map (RRIM) and topographic position index

(TPI) were used during the lineament extraction process and compared among each other

for the analysis. As lineaments are topographic anomaly, anomaly detection will also help

determine the position of lineaments by identifying the low and high relief areas. The best

method of lineament demarcation chosen will be used to digitize the lineaments. In

lineament data analysis, frequency, orientation, and density of the lineaments were also

calculated.

For geomorphological analysis, topographic position index (TPI), elevation, slope

gradient, slope aspect, topographic ruggedness, relative relief, and drainage parameters

were all calculated using Spatial Analyst Tools. Like lineament data analysis,

geomorphological parameters also compared the data between the overall area and in fault

zone. Collected statistical data were tabulated and presented using Microsoft Excel and

will be explain in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.

14
For both lineament and geomorphological analysis, the data analysis was done for both

the overall area and within a designated fault zone. The fault zone was constructed in

ArcMap by making a buffer zone of the Bok Bak fault marked by JMG that is 2.5 km in

radius or in total 5 km wide (Figure 3.2). The value is chosen based on the width of the

nearby Bukit Tinggi Fault Zone.

Figure 3.2: Generated Bok Bak fault buffer zone on geological map from JMG (2014)

15
3.4.1 Lineament Image Processing Methods

This section presents the steps to make the 4 maps in which lineaments can be extracted

from and then digitized.

3.4.1.1 Hillshade

Hillshade is an imaging technique that uses shading to show the shape of hills and

mountains. The process of creating a hillshade map begins with DEM that was run

through the Hillshade tool under Surface tab in Spatial Analyst Tools. Figure 3.3 below

shows the flowchart of the production of hillshade map. In the example, an azimuth of

45° and altitude of 60° were used. Azimuth refers to light direction while altitude is light

angle measured clockwise from 0° at the North. 45° azimuth was used instead of the

default 315° because from desk study, the orientation of Bok Bak fault was known which

is Northwest-Southeast so naturally to visualize that trending lineaments, an azimuth

perpendicular to the direction which is Northeast (45°) was chosen. Besides that, an

altitude of 60° was picked instead of the default 45° because it has better display with

more prominent shadows.

Figure 3.3: Hillshade map flowchart

16
3.4.1.2 Multidirectional hillshade

Adopting the same method as creating unidirectional hillshade map, the multidirectional

hillshade map was produced by just displaying different azimuth hillshade maps on top

of each other. This was done by firstly creating separate hillshade map with different

azimuth before combining the layers at a transparency of 30% as displayed in Figure 3.4.

In Figure 3.4 too, 0°, 45°, and 315° are chosen equivalent to light directions from North,

Northeast, and Northwest. That is only one combination example, many combinations

can be used with more than 3 layers. In this study, other combinations were also tried

with the hillshade maps of 135°, 225° and 270° azimuths.

Figure 3.4: Multidirectional hillshade map flowchart

17
3.4.1.3 Red Relief Image Map (RRIM)

RRIM was produced by combining DEM, Slope Gradient and Topographic Openness at

a certain transparency value for each layer. This multi-layered RRIM allows simultaneous

visualization of the topographic slope, concavities and convexities (Chiba et al., 2008).

Topographic Openness tool under Raster Analysis Tools in ArcMap produced upward

and downward topographic openness maps by measuring upward angle and downward

angle in relation to each point of landform. In topographic openness, the maximum

measured angle is 90°. In upward topographic openness, angles opened outward or to the

sky was measured whereas in downward topographic openness, angles limited to ground

was measured. Thus, in upward openness, smaller angle indicates valley while bigger

angle indicates top of hill and vice versa for downward openness. Flowchart in Figure 3.5

below shows the different layers juxtaposed at different transparency to create RRIM.

Figure 3.5: Red relief image map (RRIM) flowchart

3.4.1.4 Topographic Position Index (TPI)

Essentially a geomorphological parameter, TPI can also be used in digitizing lineaments

using demarcated valleys. Detailed process and flowchart will be presented in 3.4.3.1.
18
3.4.2 Lineament Data Analysis Methods

The digitized lineaments were analysed quantitatively to describe distribution of the

lineaments in terms of number and length frequency to orientation as well as lineament

density.

3.4.2.1 Orientation

To determine the orientation of the lineaments, geometry attributes such as length and

bearing were added to the vector data. A new attribute named strike was created by

reclassifying the bearings into a range of 0° to 180°. After that, the strikes were classified

into 18 classes at an interval of 10°. Using the ‘Select by attributes’ feature in the Selection

tab in ArcMap menu bar. The length and counts of each class of strikes were recorded

and used to draw rose diagrams using Microsoft Excel.

To do the data analysis for lineaments within the fault zone, the lineaments were extracted

within the border of the created fault zone using Analysis Tools > Extract > Clip. The

same data collection was done and rose diagrams drawn were compared with that of the

whole area.

3.4.2.2 Density

Lineament density were calculated using a fixed process in ArcMap called Line Density

(Spatial Analyst Tools > Density > Line Density). The tool calculates density of a polyline

feature in units of length per unit area. In this study, the output density values are in

square-kilometres (km2). Density was reclassed into 5 classes ranging from Very Low to

Very High by changing the number of classes to 5 in the classified dropdown button

(Layer Properties > Symbology > Classified).

19
3.4.3 Geomorphological Parameters Analysis Methods

This section will present the process on how to create different geomorphological

parameters to be used during analysis. TPI will be discussed in 3.4.3.1, while elevation,

slope gradient, slope aspect, topographic ruggedness index (TRI) and relative relief will

be explained in 3.4.3.2. Lastly, method to make drainage parameters will be described in

the final section of this topic. The parameters will be analysed in the whole area and

within fault zone too so each of the produced raster data will be clipped using the fault

zone as a boundary using ‘Extract by mask’ tool (Spatial Analyst Tools > Extraction >

Extract by mask). Data taken from the software were counts which will then be converted

to area by multiplying with the cell size (30.7 m). To measure statistical data of these

parameters, quantiles classification was used (Layer properties > Symbology > Classified

> Classify) to obtain the 1st quartile (Q1), median (Q2), 3rd quartile (Q3) and maximum

(Q4).

3.4.3.1 Geomorphology

Topographic Position Index (TPI)

TPI was created using the Focal Statistics tool under Neighbourhood through the steps in

Figure 3.6 using 500 m neighbourhood equivalent to a cell radius of 17. After the mean

and standard deviation DEM were produced, TPI was manually calculated using Raster

Calculator tool. The resulting TPI was reclassified under the Symbology tab of the layer

properties to input the standard deviation values. Recommended value of TPI in Weiss

(2001) is -1, -0.5, 0.5, 1 and >1 to determine Valley, Lower Slope, Middle Slope, Upper

Slope and Ridge respectively. However, in this study -1 and -0.5 were changed into -0.75

and -0.25 to change the display and intensity of middle slope which otherwise will be

exaggerated.

20
 Figure 3.6: TPI flowchart

3.4.3.2 Terrain

Elevation

Elevation map was produced by reclassifying DEM into 11 classes using 200 m intervals

then under Classify, select manual classification and change the break values starting from

200, 400, 600, …, 2200 (Spatial Analyst Tools > Reclass > Reclassify).

Slope Gradient

Slope gradient map was created through a fixed process (Spatial Analyst Tools > Surface

> Slope) but was then reclassified by manually changing the break values from 5, 15, 25,

35, 60, and 90 as JMG slope classification was used.

Slope Aspect

Slope aspect map was created by going to Spatial Analyst Tools > Surface > Aspect.

Slope aspect map will be created instantly where the slope plane directions are classified

into 8 compass directions.

21
Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI)

Like TPI, Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI) calculation also utilized Neighbourhood

tool. The same neighbourhood value was used as the TPI which is 500 m. TRI was

generated applying a series of algorithms to a DEM. TRI was developed by Riley et al.

(1999) which calculates the sum of square of the difference in elevation values from a

centre cell and the eight cells immediately surrounding it in a 3x3 grid. High TRI value

equals to high ruggedness or roughness. Figure 3.7 shows in detail the calculation

processes of TRI using Focal Statistics tool and Raster Calculator.

For statistical data analysis, TRI was reclassify using Quantiles classification where it

was divided into Very Low, Low, Moderate, High and Very High TRI. Since this

classification will produce similar percentages for all classes, to observe better difference

of TRI between overall area and within fault zone, the same break values generated from

classification for the overall area was used for the TRI in fault zone as well.

Figure 3.7: TRI flowchart

22
Relative Relief

Relative relief was calculated manually using Raster Calculator tool in ArcMap. Before

that, the maximum DEM was calculated using Focal Statistics tool (Spatial Analyst Tools

> Neighbourhood > Focal Statistics). The principle behind the formula is having the

maximum elevation in the area subtracting the elevation of all other topography points. If

the relative relief is high, there is a greater difference between the elevation of the points

and if the relative relief is generally low over the whole area, there is smaller differences

indicating that the elevation of the whole area is close to the maximum elevation. The

steps to produce relative relief map is shown below (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.8: Relative relief flowchart

23
3.4.3.3 Drainage

Stream Order

Figure 3.9 shows how stream orders can be determined from extracted streams in ArcMap

using the Strahler method. Number of stream orders will increase when smaller threshold

is used for stream extraction. Stream orientation was measured from the streams that have

been split so that they become individual differently trending lines (Data management

tools > Features > Split Line At Vertices). The method used to record the strikes are the

same as in lineament data analysis. Rose diagrams were made in Microsoft Excel to see

the correlation between lineament sets and stream orientations.

Figure 3.9: Stream order flowchart

3.5 Report Writing

Report writing will be done throughout the whole period of the research project starting

with the proposal writing and the thesis writing after data analysis. A few adjustments

will be needed after getting feedbacks from examiners and panel of lecturers during the

seminar and viva sessions before the final submission.

24
 CHAPTER 4 : LINEAMENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the detailed study of the lineaments in the study area including

from the extraction methods and the data analysis. “A lineament is a mappable, simple or

composite linear feature of a surface, whose parts are aligned in a rectilinear or slightly

curvilinear relationship and which differs distinctly from the patterns of adjacent features

and presumably reflects a subsurface phenomenon” (O’Leary et al., 1976). In other words,

lineaments are straight or almost straight geological features on the surface of the Earth

which can indicate the geological structures beneath the surface such as faults.

Lineaments can be divided into positive and negative lineaments which appear as

topographic highs such as strike ridges and dykes, and topographic lows such as valleys,

respectively (Raj, 1983 as cited in Intan Irwani, 2018).

As previously stated, several methods were adopted in the process of digitizing

lineaments in this study. This chapter will present all produced maps and explains how

lineaments can be extracted from them. The final topic in this section will also discuss

the limitations of the methods and brief comparisons.

This chapter will also describe the digitized lineaments in terms of distribution,

orientation, and density as well as interpreting the sense of shear and relative age of the

lineament sets from the produced lineament map. As mentioned in Chapter 3.4, the

analysis will be carried out comparing the whole study area with the assigned hypothetical

fault zone. Hence, the term “within fault zone” in the analysis strictly refers to the made-

up buffer zone for the purpose of analysis. Based on the lineaments characteristics, the

results of this analysis will be used to deduce the extent of Bok Bak fault zone as well as

correlating the faults to the geomorphology of the study area.

25
4.2 Lineament Extraction

4.2.1 Hillshade Map

Figure 4.1 below shows the hillshade map produced using the azimuth or light direction

at 45° and altitude or light angle at 60°. The map shows the undulating topography where

hills can be distinguished from the low-lying areas. As light shines from the Northeast

(045), the shadows are formed at Southwest. Hence, the Northwest-Southeast (NW-SE)

trending lineaments are mostly observed through the single directional hillshade map.

Using hillshade, lineaments are identified when they are perpendicular to the light

direction or when casted shadows can accentuate or bring out the lineaments clearly.

Negative lineaments can be discerned from low elevation straight lines like sharp valleys

as rocks around fault are usually highly denudated. Hence, in Figure 4.1 the lineaments

are recognized through the straight lines expressed from the shadows of the hills.

For better visualization, some obvious negative lineaments are also drawn on top of the

three-dimensional (3D) coloured hillshade map in Figure 4.2. The orange to red spectrum

signifies the high elevation area which is the Main Range Granite while the blue denotes

the low elevation metasedimentary rock formation. The pink line represents the Bok Bak

fault marked by JMG and the black lines are faults extractable through the produced

hillshade map. Overall, locating lineaments for a big study area using one direction

hillshade map is time-consuming and not all can be delineated due to being masked by

the light.

26
Figure 4.1: Hillshade map

27
Figure 4.2: 3D coloured hillshade map with drawn lineaments (pink line denotes Bok
Bak fault marked by JMG (2014))

28
4.2.2 Multidirectional Hillshade Map

Three layers of hillshade maps of varying azimuth were juxtaposed to produce a

multidirectional hillshade map (Figure 4.3). Altitude of 60° and azimuth of 0°, 45° and

315° were used as the light settings before the hillshade maps are layered together by

reducing transparency of all layers to a value of 30%. In other words, the light shines

from 3 compass directions which are from the North, Northeast, and Northwest.

Numerous combinations can be used but prior understanding of the fault will be beneficial

as we can expect which light direction will show the lineaments better.

In this map, some lineaments can be seen clearer compared to when using just one

direction hillshade map. This is because hillshade depends greatly on the light direction

and angle so if the lineaments are parallel to the light direction, no shadows will be cast

making them hard to see or even invisible. For example, in the hillshade map using 45°

light angle equivalent to Northeast direction, the Northeast-Southwest (NE-SW) trending

lineaments were poorly exhibited in contrast to the NW-SE lineaments. Hence, by using

this multidirectional hillshade map, both lineament sets of different trends can now be

projected at the same time.

Ideally, multidirectional hillshade map should make the ordinary hillshade map more

enhanced as more than one direction of light will illuminate different parts of the study

area at the same time, cancelling some shadows hence improving the visualization of

topographic features.

29
Figure 4.3: Multidirectional Hillshade map

30
4.2.3 Red Relief Image Map (RRIM)

A combination of DEM, topographic openness, and slope gradient layers produced the

new visualization technique of topographic data called RRIM (Figure 4.4). RRIM utilizes

the openness parameter consisting of upward and downward openness which are

automated using the principle of upward angle and downward angle measurements of

each point of topography. Upward openness or positive openness represents convexity

where the bigger angles indicate mountain peak, ridge, and crest. Downward or negative

openness on the other hand represents concavity with bigger values denoting valley, gully

and the inside of a crater (Chiba et al., 2008). Accordingly, steeper hills will have bigger

upward angle compared to gentler slope and narrow valley will have bigger downward

angle compared to wider valley.

The RRIM map of the study area produced in Figure 4.4 used the downward topographic

openness layered with slope gradient and DEM to complete the visualization. DEM layer

adopted the blue to red colour ramp while the slope gradient used the white to red to

symbolize the values. Therefore, the reds represent high elevation and slope gradient

while the blue and white portray the low elevation and slope gradient, respectively. The

downward topographic openness used black to white colour ramp, so the white implies

high downward openness and vice versa. As the focus is to extract lineaments which

corresponds to linear valley, the white lines are identified as lineaments.

The clear straight lines established gives merit to this method against the hillshade maps

because it is not light dependent hence there is no bias in lighting. This saves time when

digitizing the lineaments as the lineaments are easily extracted.

31
Figure 4.4: Red Relief Image Map (RRIM)

32
4.2.4 Topographic Position Index (TPI) Map

Topographic Position Index (TPI) is principally used in geomorphology as it can classify

slope positions and landforms. Figure 4.5 shows the TPI of the study area where valleys,

lower slope, middle slope, upper slope and ridges are determined. However, TPI can also

be adopted in lineament digitizing process as it highlights valleys which are negative

topographic anomaly associated with faults. The blue lines in Figure 4.5 which accounts

for valleys are hence accepted as lineaments. Similar to RRIM, demarcation of lineaments

using TPI is easier than using hillshade maps given that the landforms classes are clearly

differentiated by colours. Additional details on TPI concept will be discussed in the next

chapter.

33
Figure 4.5: Topographic Position Index (TPI) map

34
4.2.5 Limitations

In this study, lineaments were digitized by zooming in the study area in map scale of

1:10000, drawing as short as around two hundred meters lineaments at a time instead of

1:96610 map scale of the study area. Consequently, most lineaments are shorts and broken

down or fragmented. This prevents very long and extensive lineaments to be digitized

like how the JMG’s published geological map marked Bok Bak fault.

Regarding the lineament digitizing process, there is no infallible method to identify and

visualize the lineaments as all of them have both pros and cons. Therefore, all methods

were used as a guide collectively and complementarily to extract the lineaments during

the lineament digitizing process.

TPI and RRIM are the two most efficient lineaments image processing technique. This is

because hillshade maps have more disadvantages than the two. In this study, lineaments

are made up of many sets although desk study revealed that Bok Bak Fault major

orientation is NW-SE. Many light directions also need to be assessed during the digitizing

process because the objective was to draw as many lineaments as possible in the whole

area so different direction hillshade layers were constantly turned on and off one by one.

By using only one direction for the hillshade map, lineaments trending the same direction

as the light direction cannot be located because they are concealed by the light. This gives

rise to the production of multidirectional hillshade map with more than 1 azimuth which

can display more different set lineaments. For example, in Figure 4.6, the multidirectional

hillshade map with 0°, 45° and 315° removed some Southwest shadows which are

prominent in the hillshade map on the left and highlighting NE-SW lineaments which are

poorly demonstrated in hillshade map. Hence, as Tzvetkov (2018) mentioned that the use

of multi-illuminated hill-shading method allowed better identification of linear features

than using one lighted hill-shaded image, multidirectional hillshade map is better.

35
Multidirectional hillshade map although did manage to enhance the unidirectional

hillshade map, is highly influenced by the way the layers of different azimuth hillshades

were arranged in ArcMap. Although the transparency is reduced to the same amount for

all layers that were to be combined, the topmost layer will still be the dominant display

in the outcome. In the effort to solve this problem, a higher value of transparency was

used to give a more uniform exposure for all layers but that resulted in a hazier display

with poor contrast. Because of this, even the same 3 layers will have different resulting

multidirectional hillshade map depending on how the layers are arranged in ArcMap.

Although TPI clearly distinguished the lineaments, the lineaments imaging is still

different than in RRIM. In RRIM, in total, more lineaments are observable than in TPI

and some lineaments expressed as white lines in RRIM do not match up to the blue lines

which was assumed to be lineaments too (Figure 4.7). This is due to the concept of TPI

calculation using neighbourhood statistics which emphasizes surrounding landforms in

relative to the reference point. For example, for TPI to classify valley, both neighbouring

topography of the measured point must be higher than it as valleys are zone of depression.

Therefore, if a valley is asymmetrical with one side steeper than the other, the true

position of the valley may be shifted because of the way TPI is calculated. This makes

TPI unfavourable as compared to shaded relief maps and RRIM in terms of accuracy.

In conclusion, as these comparisons were made purely using interpretation skills, the way

lineaments are drawn may vary according to the person carrying out the process.

Mathematically, it is not possible to compare these methods in determining the best way

to digitize lineaments but ideally, the same topographic data will be given to several

experts and the resulting lineament maps will be compared by using statistical test to

determine error and reliability. As this study is done by one person, reliability cannot be

truly verified.

36
Figure 4.6: Comparison between Hillshade (left) and Multidirectional Hillshade (right)

Figure 4.7: Comparison between RRIM (left) and TPI (right)

37
4.3 Distribution

Data analysis was done on the extracted and digitized lineaments for the whole area to

describe them quantitatively. A total of 4367 lineaments were digitized and mapped from

the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (Figure 4.8). The figure also shows that the

distribution of lineaments is relatively sparse in the middle of the study area as compared

to the eastern and western boundary of study area. This corresponds to the underlying

geology of the study area in which granitic bodies contribute to the occurrence of bigger-

spaced lineaments due to the taller and bigger hills in granite. Inversely, lineaments on

metasedimentary rocks are shorter and closely distanced to each other due to the fact that

these rocks are less resistant and easily fractured. Nevertheless, a very clear elongated

cluster of lineaments can be seen from the overall digitized lineaments matching the

position of the major Bok Bak fault drawn on JMG geological map which indicate that it

is a major fault.

A separate set of data was obtained by clipping the lineaments within the 5 km-width

fault zone created in reference to Bok Bak Fault marked by JMG to compare the

lineaments within the fault zone to the overall area (Figure 4.9). From Figure 4.9,

published geological map from JMG illustrated Bok Bak fault as a single long continuous

NW-SE strike-slip fault near the Southwest of the study area. However, the digitized

lineaments show a significantly more extensive lineaments all over the study area

indicating that the Bok Bak fault consist of many fragmented faults.

38
Figure 4.8: Digitized lineament map

39
Figure 4.9: Lineaments within fault zone

40
Table 4.1 and 4.2 show a detailed further breakdown of the lineaments data in the whole

area and within the fault zone respectively. The lineaments were grouped into 18 classes

of trends of an interval of 10° from 0° to 180°. The length of the 4367 lineaments in the

whole area totalled up to 3139.70 km (Table 4.1). They range from a minimum length of

192 m up to 6967 m. Out of these, 745 lineaments of a total length of 472.98 km are

grouped into the category of lineaments within fault zone (Table 4.2). The individual

lineament length ranges from 214 m to 3662 m.

Table 4.1: Lineament frequency in the whole area

Trend (°) Count Percentage (%) Length (m) Percentage (%)

0 - 10 228 5.22 150035 4.78
10 - 20 167 3.82 112804 3.59
20 - 30 205 4.69 138720 4.42
30 - 40 313 7.17 211022 6.72
40 - 50 360 8.24 228190 7.27
50 - 60 340 7.79 229127 7.30
60 - 70 238 5.45 163370 5.20
70 - 80 177 4.05 123306 3.93
80 - 90 226 5.18 151279 4.82
90 - 100 254 5.82 184665 5.88
100 - 110 178 4.08 142315 4.53
110 - 120 217 4.97 171894 5.47
120 - 130 312 7.14 263271 8.39
130 - 140 334 7.65 241104 7.68
140 - 150 283 6.48 240658 7.67
150 - 160 184 4.21 149810 4.77
160 - 170 141 3.23 96977 3.09
170 - 180 210 4.81 141150 4.50
TOTAL 4367 100.00 3139696 100.00

41
 Table 4.2: Lineament frequency within fault zone

Trend (°) Count Percentage (%) Length (m) Percentage (%)

0 - 10 42 5.64 22633 4.79
10 - 20 33 4.43 18511 3.91
20 - 30 22 2.95 11953 2.53
30 - 40 55 7.38 32260 6.82
40 - 50 81 10.87 45696 9.66
50 - 60 70 9.40 41778 8.83
60 - 70 52 6.98 32384 6.85
70 - 80 29 3.89 17706 3.74
80 - 90 37 4.97 20487 4.33
90 - 100 42 5.64 28349 5.99
100 - 110 29 3.89 22338 4.72
110 - 120 25 3.36 17821 3.77
120 - 130 41 5.50 27853 5.89
130 - 140 55 7.38 36876 7.80
140 - 150 55 7.38 50013 10.57
150 - 160 23 3.09 15443 3.26
160 - 170 19 2.55 11587 2.45
170 - 180 35 4.70 19289 4.08
TOTAL 745 100.00 472976 100.00

42
4.4 Orientation

From the grouped trends of the digitized lineaments in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2, the rose

diagrams of the number frequency and the length frequency of both the whole area and

within fault zone were also plotted (Figure 4.10 – Figure 4.13). From these rose diagrams,

2 major and 2 minor sets of lineaments were distinguished. The lineaments not belonging

to the 4 sets were grouped into a random set. Set 1 trends NW-SE perpendicular to Set 2

which is towards NE-SW whereas Set 3 orients North-South (N-S) and Set 4 contains

lineaments trending East-West (E-W). The detailed percentage for both number and

length of the lineaments of different sets in the whole area and in the fault zone are

tabulated in Table 4.3 and 4.4 respectively. Using the data from these tables, the digitized

lineaments map was modified to produce a new lineament sets map as depicted in Figure

4.14 where the lineaments are differentiated by colours according to orientations.

For the overall area, Set 1 (NW-SE) dominated both the counts and the lengths of the

lineaments as observed from Figure 4.10, Figure 4.11 and Table 4.3. Out of 4367

lineaments, 1146 or 26.24% of the lineaments with a total length of 916.93 km (29.20%)

trend NW-SE. This major orientation follows the orientation of the Bok Bak fault marked

in JMG’s geological map.

Within the fault zone, Set 2 (NE-SW) lineaments are most abundant but Set 1 (NW-SE)

lineaments are the longest (Figure 4.12, Figure 4.13 and Table 4.4). Set 2 had the highest

counts at 216 out of 745 (28.99%) but Set 1 recorded the greatest lengths at 28.03%

equivalent to 132.56 km out of the total lineaments’ lengths of 472.98 km.

The observed difference of the counts to length ratio within the designated fault zone is

due to Set 1 being more persistent than Set 2. Hence, they are longer as they do not break

easily.

43
Figure 4.10: Lineament number frequency in the whole area

Figure 4.11: Lineament length frequency in the whole area

44
Figure 4.12: Lineament number frequency within fault zone

Figure 4.13: Lineament length frequency within fault zone

45
 Table 4.3: Lineament sets frequency in the whole area

SET STRIKE (°) COUNT LENGTH (m) COUNT % LENGTH %

0 (Random) 1150 844087 26.33 26.88

1 (NW-SE) 110 - 150/ 290 - 330 1146 916927 26.24 29.20

2 (NE-SW) 25 - 60/ 205 - 240 1122 739278 25.69 23.55

3 (N-S) 165 - 190/ 345 - 10 502 337131 11.50 10.74

4 (E-W) 75 - 95/ 255 - 275 447 302273 10.24 9.63

TOTAL 4367 3139696 100.00 100.00

Table 4.4: Lineament sets frequency within fault zone

SET STRIKE (°) COUNT LENGTH (m) COUNT % LENGTH %

0 (Random) 194 122994 26.04 26.00

1 (NW-SE) 110 - 150/ 290 - 330 176 132563 23.62 28.03

2 (NE-SW) 25 - 60/ 205 - 240 216 125425 28.99 26.52

3 (N-S) 165 - 190/ 345 - 10 86 47014 11.54 9.94

4 (E-W) 75 - 95/ 255 - 275 73 44980 9.80 9.51

TOTAL 745 472976 100.00 100.00

46
Figure 4.14: Lineament sets map

47
4.5 Density

The digitized lineaments were used to create a lineament density map using the Line

Density feature in ArcMap which emphasizes the major fault location by measuring how

dense lineaments are per unit area. From the density map, areas with the highest lineament

frequency can be mapped and viewed better. As shown in the map legend in Figure 4.15,

the density is classified into 5 classes namely Very Low, Low, Moderate, High, and Very

High. Area marked red has the greatest lineament density while the dark green area

signifies the area least concentrated with lineaments.

From the lineament density map, the density is high along the Bok Bak fault zone and

very high at the top of the fault zone at a lineament junction. This very high density was

caused when two or more lineament sets meet or intersect (Figure 4.16). The middle of

the study area recorded low density because the ratio of magnitude of lineaments to the

unit area is low. The density changes from high to moderate when dissipating away from

the fault zone.

High density at the far most eastern side of study area can be associated with the Bentong-

Raub suture zone which is also a linear zone of intense deformation. The zone was an

indication of Paleo-Tethys ocean closure.

48
Figure 4.15: Lineament density map

49
Figure 4.16: Very high density caused by intersections of several lineament sets
(purple line)

50
4.6 Discussion

4.6.1 Summary

Among the 4 lineament image processing methods, Red Relied Image Map (RRIM) best

visualized the position of lineaments. 4367 digitized lineaments were distributed in a

cluster along fault zone, and sparsely in granite compared to in metasedimentary rocks.

Two major sets of lineaments, Northwest-Southeast (NW-SE) and Northeast-Southwest

(NE-SW) and two minor sets, North-South (N-S) and East-West (E-W) were identified.

Majority lineaments number and length frequency are the highest in Set 1 (NW-SE)

following the major known orientation of Bok Bak Fault. In the fault zone however, the

frequency changes whereby the number frequency is dominated by Set 2 (NE-SW) but

Set 1 (NW-SE) lineaments are still longer indicating persistence. Density of lineaments

is the highest along fault zone especially at some lineament junctions.

4.6.2 Sense of Shear

Other than describing distribution, orientation and density, further inspection of the

digitized lineaments can help deduce the sense of movement of the lineaments. This can

be done by scrutinizing the different orientation lineament sets and observing the

displacement of each lineament to know its movement. Nevertheless, the lateral

movements deduced may not be accurate given that the dip slip movement cannot be

considered when doing GIS analysis and interpretation. Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18

presented some of the lineaments cross-cutting relationships.

51
From Figure 4.17 (a), Set 2 is offset by Set 1 in a dextral manner and in Figure 4.17 (b),

Set 3 is offset by Set 1 in a sinistral manner. In the same figure, (c) shows that Set 2

displaced Set 1 dextrally but in (d), Set 1 was displaced by Set 2 sinistrally. In Figure

4.18, (a) Set 2 is dextral and in (b) Set 3 is sinistral as it cut Set 2. Figure 4.18 (c) and (d)

shows Set 4 laterally displaced both Set 1 and Set 2 but in both sinistral and dextral

manners, respectively.

From these observations of lineaments lateral movements, we can suggest that the

underlying fault may have moved both in right lateral and left lateral. This is supported

by the findings by Ahmad Faiz (2017) by which there was a predominantly dextral strike

slip movement in Bok Bak Fault shear zone. However, it was later reactivated through

sinistral movement during the India-Eurasia continental collision in Paleogene. Hence,

the dextral movement was old and prior movement, and the sinistral movement was

younger, and most recent.

4.6.3 Relative Age

From the figures, we can also try to find out the relative ages of these lineament sets.

Briefly, Set 1 cut Set 2 and 3, Set 2 cut Set 1 and 3, Set 3 cut Set 2, and lastly Set 4 cut

Set 1 and 2. From these statements, the only conclusive relative age is that of Set 4 which

must be younger than Set 1 and 2 as Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that

the cutting unit must be younger than the unit that was cut. There was no evidence of Set

3 cutting Set 1 but since Set 3 cut 2 and Set 2 cut 1, Set 3 should be younger than Set 1.

However, ironically Set 1 cut both Set 2 and 3 while Set 2 also cut Set 3.

Since a concrete successive relative age cannot be inferred, these inconsistent age

relationships bring about the inference that the faults may be formed contemporaneously

and formed conjugate sets.

52
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.17: (a) Set 2 appears to terminate against and cut by set 1 indicating that the
former is older; (b) Set 3 is cut by set 1 suggesting set 3 is older than set 1; (c) Set 2
displaces set 1 indicating set 1 is older than set 2; (d) Set 1 is cut by set 2 sinistrally
implying that set 1 is older
Note: Contradictory results in (a) set 2 older; (c) set 1 older - indicate that set 1 and 2
could be contemporaneous and form conjugate sets

53
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.18: (a) Set 3 is offset by set 2 indicative of set 3 being older; (b) Set 2 appears
to be cut by set 3 indicating set 2 is older; (c) Set 4 cuts set 1 sinistrally signifying the
former is older; (d) Set 4 displaces set 2 indicating that set 2 is older than set 4

54
 CHAPTER 5 : GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to discuss the GIS parameters used to characterize the geomorphic

features of the study area. “Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and

evolution of landforms and landscapes created by physical, chemical or biological

processes operating at or near the Earth's surface” (Balasubramanian, 2017). So, the

outcome of this analysis will be actively linked to the lineament analysis in previous

chapter to deduce if the geomorphology is affected by faulting.

Particularly, the geomorphological analysis will be done by comparing the whole study

area with the fault zone to distinguish the possibly different geomorphological features.

The GIS parameters include topographic position index (TPI), elevation, slope gradient,

slope aspect, topographic roughness index (TRI), relative relief, and stream order.

Drainage patterns were also studied from the extracted streams. Table 5.1 below shows

the 7 attributes used in the geomorphological analysis with their classification details.

Table 5.1: Parameters and classification principles

Parameters Number of Classes Classification Principles

Topographic Position Manual Classification in ArcGIS
5
Index (TPI) based on Weiss (2001)
Elevation 11 Equal Intervals of 200 m
Department of Mineral and
Slope Gradient 6
Geoscience Malaysia (JMG)
Slope Aspect 8 Compass Direction
Topographic Ruggedness
5 Quantile Classification in ArcGIS
Index (TRI)
Relative Relief 7 Equal Intervals of 100 m
Stream Order 7 Strahler Method

55
5.2 Topographic Position Index (TPI)

Topographic Position Index (TPI) is a concept pioneered by Andrew Weiss in 2001 where

he presented the ground-breaking but simple algorithm to automate geomorphology. “TPI

compares the elevation of each cell in a DEM to the mean elevation of a specified

neighbourhood around that cell” (Weiss, 2001). This method is useful to differentiate

shapes of landscape. The index can classify slope positions into valleys, middle slope,

upper slope, and ridges as well as further categorizing landforms into mountain tops, U-

shaped valleys, plains, and canyons for instance. Positive TPI tends towards hilltops and

ridges, zero (0) TPI value indicates flat areas or mid-slope when slope is steep enough,

whereas negative TPI indicates valleys and canyon bottoms. According to Weiss (2001)

too, topographic position intrinsically depends on the scale. As TPI compares each cell to

its surrounding, smaller scale of neighbourhood will differentiate the topographic

positions more than a larger scale. For example, the area within a large valley with

irregular or not flat bottom may be recognized as a valley, flat plain, lower slope and even

a ridge altogether when using a 100 m neighbourhood for example but it can also be

recognized as just a deep valley when using 1000 m neighbourhood.

In this study, Topographic Position Index (TPI) was calculated using 500 m

neighbourhood value to classify the slope positions into 5 which are Valley, Lower Slope,

Middle Slope, Upper Slope, and Ridge (Figure 5.1). The figure also demonstrates most

long blue lines representing valleys all trend the same direction which is parallel to the

Bok Bak fault.

56
Figure 5.1: Topographic Position Index (TPI) map

57
Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 show the detailed area and percentage of each TPI class for both

whole area and within fault zone. Meanwhile, Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3 illustrates this

information clearer. Over an area of 2850 km2, Middle Slope dominates the study area at

42.39% while the Ridge covered the least area with only 6.52% equivalent to 186 km2

(Table 5.2). Similarly, Middle Slope also has the highest percentage in the fault zone at a

slightly lower percentage than in the whole area which is 39.58% or 107.7 km2 out of the

total area of 272 km2 (Table 5.3).

Comparing the overall area with the fault zone, no stark difference can be observed on

the distribution of the landforms type as the shape of the bar chart of the TPI of the whole

area (Figure 5.2) is similar to that of the fault zone (Figure 5.3). Similarly, Middle Slope

recorded the highest percentage although it is 2.81% lower than that in the overall study

area, and the percentage of Valley increased by 1.69% from 12.87% to 14.56%.

The higher ratio of Valley to the other 4 slope positions in the fault zone as compared to

in the whole area may suggest that there is higher rate of weathering and erosion which

creates more low elevation areas within the fault zone. The changes between TPI in both

groups of area can also be seen statistically from the box plot in Figure 5.4. Apart from

the lower maximum value of TPI in fault zone in contrast to the whole area, the minimum,

1st quartile (Q1), median and 3rd quartile (Q3) values for both areas are almost identical.

58
 Table 5.2: TPI classes of the whole area

Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

Valley 389023 366965650 367 12.87
Lower Slope 742751 700637504 700 24.58
Middle Slope 1280793 1208172875 1208 42.39
Upper Slope 412081 388716277 389 13.64
Ridge 196920 185754765 186 6.52
TOTAL 3021568 2850247071 2850 100.00

Table 5.3: TPI classes within fault zone

Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

Valley 42028 39645040 39.6 14.56
Lower Slope 71046 67017738 67.0 24.62
Middle Slope 114218 107741914 107.7 39.58
Upper Slope 39061 36846267 36.8 13.53
Ridge 22255 20993156 21.0 7.71
TOTAL 288608 272244115 272 100.00

59
 TPI of Whole Area
45.00

40.00 42.39
35.00

30.00
Percentage

25.00
24.58
20.00

15.00

10.00 12.87 13.64

5.00
6.52
0.00
Valley Lower Slope Middle Slope Upper Slope Ridge

Figure 5.2: TPI in the whole area

TPI within Fault Zone

45.00

40.00
39.58
35.00

30.00
Percentage

25.00
24.62
20.00

15.00
14.56 13.53
10.00

5.00 7.71
0.00
Valley Lower Slope Middle Slope Upper Slope Ridge

Figure 5.3: TPI within fault zone

Figure 5.4: TPI box plot

60
5.2.1 TPI in Different Geology

Although not showing high distinctiveness in fault zone and away from fault zone, as a

topographic visualization method, TPI is useful in distinguishing different rock material

since it varies greatly between different geology. This was observed through the two main

rock types in the study area which are granitic bodies and metasedimentary rock. Granites

are known to be the resistant rock which fractures or breaks with greater pressure than the

less resistant metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin. These innate characteristics of

the rocks resulted in different visualization of TPI in different lithology.

Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6 shows the comparison of TPI for different lithology using the

same scale. In granites (Figure 5.5), the red-coloured Ridge and blue-coloured Valley are

elongated and more spaced out from each other as granites produce higher and bigger

hills and mountains. In metasedimentary rock, the rocks break easier along their planes

of weakness like foliations and bedding planes creating smaller and lower hills causing

TPI map to visualize the Valley and Ridge to be closer to each other and more rounded

(Figure 5.6). These contrasting illustrations proved that TPI is a good GIS parameter to

deduce rock type from the geomorphology in the case where no geological information

is available in the study area. The 3D TPI map can be used to express these differences

even more with the visualization of topography (Figure 5.7). The bottom middle part of

the figure marks the southwestern view of the study area which locates the

metasedimentary rock. The ridges are rounded in lower elevation metasedimentary rock

formation while slowly becoming longer as we approach the higher elevation granite

towards the Northeast.

61
Figure 5.5: TPI in granites

62
Figure 5.6: TPI in metasediments (right side)

63
Figure 5.7: 3D TPI map

64
5.3 Terrain

5.3.1 Elevation

Elevation is the height of a land surface relative to a reference datum commonly the mean

sea level. Elevation in the study area ranges from 72 m to 2168 m above mean sea level

where it is divided into 11 classes of 200 m intervals. As seen from the elevation map in

Figure 5.8, the green represents the lower elevation while the red represents the high

elevation. From the map, we can see most long green lines and the elongated mountain

ridges trend in the same direction which is roughly towards Northwest-Southeast. This

similar trending zones were created because they are cut by the faults parallel to Bok Bak

fault. Some of the obvious linear green marks even matched the position of the faults in

the published geological map by JMG.

65
Figure 5.8: Elevation map

66
Table 5.4 and Table 5.5 highlight the details of each elevation classes of the whole study

area and within fault zone in terms of area and percentage. The lowest class and upper

classes have smaller percentages compared to the middle classes. The box plot in Figure

5.9 presents the statistical elevation data for both overall and within fault zone. The Q1

(1st quartile), Q2 (median) and Q3 (3rd quartile) of the elevation in fault zone are

considerably lower than that in overall study area. This pattern is also supported by the

different histograms of elevation in the whole area versus the fault zone (Figure 5.10 and

Figure 5.11).

Figure 5.10 emphasizes the normal distribution shape of the elevation data with the peak

at 1000 m – 1200 m class (16.99%). In the fault zone, class 200 m – 400 m recorded the

highest percentage at 19.65%. However, the histogram shape of elevation within the fault

zone does not follow the unimodal shape of the overall elevation histogram but is bimodal

instead (Figure 5.11). Unlike the elevation in the overall area, there are two peaks in the

histogram distribution which are at the 200 m – 400 m (19.65%) and 600 m – 800 m class

(16.00%). This may be caused by the faults which interrupts the topography of the study

area. The fault movement has reduced the elevation of some landforms because of intense

weathering and erosion happening along the fault.

67
 Table 5.4: Elevation classes in the whole area

Class (m) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

<200 109197 103005602 103 3.61
200 - 400 350072 330223147 330 11.59
400 - 600 407618 384506326 385 13.49
600 - 800 425187 401079175 401 14.07
800 - 1000 487215 459590228 460 16.12
1000 - 1200 513235 484134911 484 16.99
1200 - 1400 395888 373441409 373 13.10
1400 - 1600 198315 187070669 187 6.56
1600 - 1800 101415 95664836 96 3.36
1800 - 2000 28666 27040657 27 0.95
>2000 4760 4490111 4 0.16
TOTAL 3021568 2850247071 2850 100.00

Table 5.5: Elevation classes within fault zone

Class (m) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

<200 29473 27801900 27.8 10.21
200 - 400 56725 53508730 53.5 19.65
400 - 600 27081 25545525 25.5 9.38
600 - 800 46190 43571057 43.6 16.00
800 - 1000 40973 38649858 38.6 14.20
1000 - 1200 38362 36186900 36.2 13.29
1200 - 1400 26467 24966338 25.0 9.17
1400 - 1600 12827 12099717 12.1 4.44
1600 - 1800 8064 7606776 7.6 2.79
1800 - 2000 2124 2003571 2.0 0.74
>2000 322 303743 0.3 0.11
TOTAL 288608 272244115 272 100.00

Figure 5.9: Elevation box plot

68
Figure 5.10: Histogram of elevation in the whole area

Figure 5.11: Histogram of elevation within fault zone

69
5.3.2 Slope Gradient

Slope gradient is the degree of inclination of a slope or a measure of how steep a slope is.

Slope gradient is a common terrain parameter used in slope classification for hill-side

development guideline and landslide risk assessment in engineering geology. In

describing the terrain of the area through slope gradient, it is classified into 6 classes

following the Geological Terrain Classification by the Department of Mineral and

Geoscience Malaysia (JMG). The classes are 0°-5°, 5°-15°, 15°-25°, 25°-35°, 35°-60°

and 60°-90°. Using this classification, the slope gradient map of the study area was

produced as shown in Figure 5.12. The detailed area and percentage of each slope gradient

classes are tabulated in Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 which represents the slope gradient in the

whole area and within fault zone respectively.

Based on Table 5.6, majority or 42.33% of the slopes in the study area inclined at a range

of 15°-25° or are moderately steep. Going into the fault zone, the pattern of the data is

similar to the overall area’s slope gradient with the 15°-25° class still recording the

highest percentage at 41.87% (Table 5.7). However, the overall slope gradient decreased

as can be seen from the percentage reduction of all classes but the first two classes (0°-5°

and 5°-15°) which inversely increase. From the box plot in Figure 5.13, the maximum

value of slope gradient in the fault zone dropped with the Q1, Q2, and Q3 values also

lower than that of the overall area. This postulates that the fault has somehow influenced

the degree of slope inclination within the fault zone by promoting weathering which also

eases the erosion of the slope.

Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15 shows distribution shapes for both histograms of slope

gradient in the whole area and in fault zone to be the same with only a minor change in

the height of the bars.

70
Figure 5.12: Slope gradient map

71
 Table 5.6: Slope gradient classes in the whole area

Class (°) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

0-5 116535 109927542 110 3.86
5 - 15 801360 755923412 756 26.52
15 - 25 1278883 1206371171 1206 42.33
25 - 35 713576 673116708 673 23.62
35 - 60 110841 104556388 105 3.67
60 - 90 373 351851 0 0.01
TOTAL 3021568 2850247071 2850 100.00

Table 5.7: Slope gradient classes within fault zone

Class (°) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

0-5 13345 12588347 12.6 4.62
5 - 15 85218 80386195 80.4 29.53
15 - 25 120830 113979018 114.0 41.87
25 - 35 61007 57547943 57.5 21.14
35 - 60 8207 7741668 7.7 2.84
60 - 90 1 943 0.0 0.00
TOTAL 288608 272244115 272 100.00

Figure 5.13: Slope gradient box plot

72
Figure 5.14: Histogram of slope gradient in the whole area

Figure 5.15: Histogram of slope gradient within fault zone

73
5.3.3 Slope Aspect

Slope aspect is the direction of the face of a slope which is always categorized into 8

compass directions. Slope aspect map above shows the 8 compass directions where the

slopes face which are towards the North, Northeast, East, Southeast, South, Southwest,

West, and Northwest. From first look at the map produced, it is evident that there is a

presence of elongated parallel bands following the Northwest-Southeast orientation

indicating that majority of the slopes should perpendicularly be facing either Northeast or

Southwest. Figure 5.16 below presents the slope aspect map of the study area. From a

quick look of the map, parallel bands orienting the same direction as Bok Bak fault

(Northwest-Southeast) can be observed.

From Table 5.8, over the whole study area, majority of the slopes face Southwest

(14.95%). As the highest elevated area in the Main Range are in the middle of the study

area and the lower elevation area are mainly towards West and Southwest, the general

slope aspect follows the topographic flow from high to low. Meanwhile in the fault zone

the most frequent slope aspect is Northeast at 14.98% (Table 5.9).

The rose diagrams in Figure 5.17 and Figure 5.18 showed clearer depictions of these

major slope aspects. Both confirm that the slope aspects are highly affected by fault

activities as the direction of the slope faces are perpendicular to the main orientation of

Bok Bak fault which trends NW-SE. The fact that most slopes face Northeast in the fault

zone situated at the southwestern side of the study area, and slopes in overall area mostly

face Southwest, created a V-like meeting point of the two slopes feet. This is plausible

considering how rocks will be disintegrated along the zone of weakness in the fault zone

caused by lateral movement of the strike-slip fault.

74
Figure 5.16: Slope aspect map

75
 Table 5.8: Slope aspect classes in the whole area
Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)
North 372433 351316292.6 351.3 12.36
Northeast 402101 379302136.4 379.3 13.34
East 363118 342529447 342.5 12.05
Southeast 341031 321694765.4 321.7 11.32
South 365356 344640553.8 344.6 12.12
Southwest 450600 425051274.8 425.1 14.95
West 383493 361749197.8 361.7 12.73
Northwest 335131 316129291.6 316.1 11.12
TOTAL 3013263 2842412959 2842 100.00

Table 5.9: Slope aspect classes within fault zone

Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

North 41353 39008311.95 39.0 14.33
Northeast 43219 40768510.98 40.8 14.98
East 36198 34145597.08 34.1 12.54
Southeast 30269 28552767.5 28.6 10.49
South 31166 29398908.19 29.4 10.80
Southwest 38731 36534977.64 36.5 13.42
West 33531 31629814.24 31.6 11.62
Northwest 34121 32186361.62 32.2 11.82
TOTAL 288588 272225249.2 272 100.00

76
 Figure 5.17: Rose diagram of overall slope aspect

Figure 5.18: Rose diagram of slope aspect within fault zone

77
5.3.4 Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI)

Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI) is another parameter using the neighbourhood tool

in ArcMap to describe the surface texture of an area. TRI or surface roughness

characterize elevation irregularity or how undulating the topography is. Harder or more

resistant rock like igneous rock usually have high TRI values while softer rocks have low

TRI values. Generally, old faults will have lower ruggedness value compared to younger

faults which has been less deformed because prolonged denudation of old tectonic

features will smoothen the fault planes (Intan Irwani, 2018).

TRI of the study area is divided into Very Low, Low, Moderate, High, and Very High in

the increasing order of ruggedness. From the TRI map in Figure 5.19, the intense red

colour all over the map suggests that the overall TRI is very high. This may be due to the

overall terrain of the study area which is already rough and undulating. Table 5.10 shows

the area and percentage of each TRI class in the whole area while Table 5.11 shows

similar attributes within fault zone.

Table 5.10: TRI classes in the whole area

Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

Very Low 605082 570774246 571 20.03
Low 606530 572140146 572 20.07
Moderate 606083 571718490 572 20.06
High 602107 567967927 568 19.93
Very High 601766 567646261 568 19.92
TOTAL 3021568 2850247071 2850 100.00

Table 5.11: TRI classes within fault zone

Class Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

Very Low 64561 60900434 61 22.37
Low 60701 57259293 57 21.03
Moderate 57041 53806813 54 19.76
High 52722 49732697 50 18.27
Very High 53583 50544879 51 18.57
TOTAL 288608 272244115 272 100.00
78
Figure 5.19: Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI) map

79
The position of prominent green lines indicative of very low TRI in Figure 5.19 matches

some of the faults in JMG geological map. Within the fault zone, TRI changed slightly

where the percentage of Very Low and Low classes increased slightly. This proves that

faults induce weathering and erosion which reduced the surface roughness. Figure 5.20

and Figure 5.21 below emphasize the percentages for all classes which are roughly plus

minus 20% as this parameter is calculated based on percentiles as explained in Chapter 3.

Percentage of TRI Classes of Whole Area

25.00

20.00
20.03 20.07 20.06 19.93 19.92
Percentage

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
Topographic Roughness

Figure 5.20: TRI in the whole area

Percentage of TRI Classes within Fault Zone

25.00

20.00 22.37
21.03
19.76
18.27 18.57
Percentage

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
Topographic Roughness

Figure 5.21: TRI within fault zone

80
5.3.5 Relative Relief

Relative relief is an elevation-related parameter whose calculation depends on the DEM.

Unlike elevation which uses the mean sea level as the lowest point of reference, relief

uses the lowest ground in the study area as the datum in measuring the difference in

elevation between the high and low points of a land surface.

The relative relief of the overall study area ranges from 0 m to 637 m and is classified

into 7 categories with 100 m intervals. As seen from Figure 5.22, the green represents the

low relative relief while the red represents the high relative relief. The map visibly shows

overall relief is on the low side meaning there is no highly distinct difference in the

relative change of elevation of the ground over the area. Although previously stated that

the study area is very rugged, the changes in the elevation between the maximum

elevation and the rest of land surfaces are not drastic enough to produce a very high

relative relief which means the overall area is of high elevation. The relative relief of both

overall area and in fault zone recorded highest percentage within the 100 – 200 m class

which are 55.55% and 56.08% respectively (Table 5.12 and Table 5.13).

From the box plot in Figure 5.23, the maximum relative relief reduced from 637 m in the

whole area to 529 m within the fault zone. Q1, median and Q3 values also were slightly

lowered in the fault zone. This pattern is similar to elevation, slope gradient and TRI

parameters, where within the fault zone, there seems to be not much difference than the

overall area other than having a slight decrease of percentages (Figure 5.24 and Figure

5.25).

81
Figure 5.22: Relative relief map

82
 Table 5.12: Relative relief classes in the whole area

Class (m) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

0 - 100 803126 757589281 758 26.58
100 - 200 1678402 1583237705 1583 55.55
200 - 300 505141 476499836 476 16.72
300 - 400 31710 29912064 30 1.05
400 - 500 2835 2674257 3 0.09
500 - 600 337 317892 0 0.01
600 - 700 17 16036 0 0.00
TOTAL 3021568 2850247071 2850 100.00

Table 5.13: Relative relief classes within fault zone

Class (m) Count Area (m2) Area (km2) Percentage (%)

0 - 100 91471 86284654 86 31.69
100 - 200 161865 152687360 153 56.08
200 - 300 33108 31230798 31 11.47
300 - 400 1875 1768689 2 0.65
400 - 500 271 255634 0 0.09
500 - 600 18 16979 0 0.01
TOTAL 288608 272244115 272 100.00

Figure 5.23: Relative relief box plot

83
Figure 5.24: Histogram of relative relief in the whole area

Figure 5.25: Histogram of relative relief within fault zone

84
5.4 Drainage

5.4.1 Stream Order

Geomorphology can also be explained through the characteristics of the stream networks

in the study area through extraction of streams and categorization of stream order. Stream

order is a GIS parameter under the hydrology function which explains the morphometry

and morphology of the streams or rivers in the study area.

For this study, 7 stream orders were produced from extracted streams. From stream order

map in Figure 5.26, roughly, most high order streams from order 5 to 7 orient the same

way as the main orientation of Bok Bak fault (NW-SE). Most extracted streams also

match well with the valleys highlighted in TPI map especially the high order ones.

Table 5.14 and Table 5.15 list down the length and count of all the stream order classes

in the whole area and fault zone. Table 5.14 presents that stream order 1 is prevalent

(>50%) meaning that the study area is made up mostly small tributaries or individually

branchless streams. Streams within the fault zone are also majorly of the first stream order

in both counts and lengths (Table 5.15).

85
Figure 5.26: Stream order map

86
 Table 5.14: Stream order classes in the whole area

Stream Order Count Length (m) Count % Length %

1 8114 3285294 50.67 52.20
2 3739 1573983 23.35 25.01
3 1930 723965 12.05 11.50
4 1098 359067 6.86 5.71
5 752 225786 4.70 3.59
6 282 94126 1.76 1.50
7 100 31615 0.62 0.50
TOTAL 16015 6293836 100.00 100.00

Table 5.15: Stream order classes within fault zone

Stream Order Count Length (m) Count % Length %

1 799 309644 49.81 50.86
2 370 148151 23.07 24.34
3 168 63140 10.47 10.37
4 111 33719 6.92 5.54
5 67 24867 4.18 4.08
6 40 13553 2.49 2.23
7 49 15703 3.05 2.58
TOTAL 1604 608777 100.00 100.00

87
From the bar charts in Figure 5.27 and Figure 5.28, there is no significant change on the

chart patterns and percentage of stream order classes between the whole area and within

the fault zone except for a slight rise in the percentage of high order streams in fault zone.

Percentage of Stream Order of Whole Area

Counts % Length %

60.00
52.20
50.67
50.00

40.00
Percentage

30.00 25.01
23.35
20.00
12.05
11.50
10.00 6.865.71
4.703.59
1.761.50 0.620.50
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Stream Order

Figure 5.27: Stream order in the whole area

Percentage of Stream Order within Fault Zone

Counts % Length %

60.00
50.86
49.81
50.00

40.00
Percentage

30.00 24.34
23.07
20.00
10.47
10.37
10.00 6.925.54
4.184.08 2.492.23 3.052.58
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Stream Order

Figure 5.28: Stream order within fault zone

88
5.4.2 Drainage Pattern

The extracted streams were also examined to find out the type of drainage patterns in the

study area and suggest how they were formed. Some drainage patterns which can be

recognized from the produced map are dendritic, sub-dendritic, parallel, rectangular,

pinnate, trellis and radial streams (Figure 5.29).

All these stream types are influenced by the fault except the radial stream. Firstly, as

granite is the main geology of the study area, dendritic and sub-dendritic streams should

be the easiest to spot in the map. Dendritic streams (Figure 5.30) mimicking tree branches

have always been associated with the homogenous rock like the intrusive granite. As the

rock is isotropic, the streams can flow in all directions where the smaller tributaries join

the main stream at all angles (Zernitz, 1932). However, in granite, some dendritic turns

into fault-controlled sub-dendritic streams like in Figure 5.31 where the main channel

now follows Set 1 fault (NW-SE). The magenta line represents Bok Bak fault in the map.

The next type of stream found is trellis. Trellis drainage pattern is usually common in

metasedimentary rocks because they are controlled by strata or bedding. Trellis pattern is

characterized by secondary tributaries which are parallel or at approximately right angles

to the main stream (Zernitz, 1932). One example of trellis stream is in Figure 5.32 where

the streams follow the main orientation of Bok Bak fault marked by the magenta line.

Here, the secondary tributaries are perpendicular to the fault.

89
 (d)
(c)

(a)
(g)

(b) (e)
(f)

Figure 5.29: Drainage patterns; (a) Trellis; (b) Sub-dendritic; (c) Dendritic;
(d) Pinnate; (e) Rectangular; (f) Parallel; (g) Radial

90
 Figure 5.30: Dendritic drainage pattern

Figure 5.31: Sub-dendritic drainage pattern near Bok Bak fault

(magenta line) 91
Figure 5.32: Trellis drainage pattern along Bok Bak fault
(magenta line)

92
Another heavily fault-controlled stream type is rectangular pattern (Figure 5.33).

Rectangular stream is identified by the right-angled bends of both main stream and its

tributaries. In contrast to trellis pattern, rectangular pattern is more irregular and the side

streams or tributaries are not parallel to each other like how the secondary tributaries in

trellis pattern are (Zernitz, 1932). Structural control is prominent in rectangular streams

as the pattern is directly caused by the right-angled jointing or faulting of rocks. In this

study area, the rectangular stream pattern is caused by two intersecting faults where in

this case are Set 1 (NW-SE) and Set 2 (NE-SW) which forces the streams to follow

rectangular pathways.

Besides that, some radial streams (Figure 5.34) were also observed in the study area. This

pattern is not fault-controlled but only formed due to the conical shape of the hill. In radial

pattern, streams move outwards from the top of the hill downwards from high elevation

to low elevation.

Parallel (Figure 5.35) and pinnate (Figure 5.36) drainage patterns were also present in the

study area where both directions follow the two major lineament sets. As the name

suggests, parallel streams flow nearly parallel or in the same orientation next to each other.

Pinnate on the other hand, is almost like dendritic pattern but instead of tree branches, the

streams look like ferns. The tributaries are almost straight to the main stream not dispersed

in all directions like in dendritic pattern.

93
Figure 5.33: Rectangular drainage pattern

Figure 5.34: Radial drainage pattern 94

Figure 5.35: Parallel drainage pattern

Figure 5.36: Pinnate drainage pattern

95
Thus, conclusively, as 6 out of 7 stream types were controlled by the lineament sets, it

can be said that most main tributaries follow the orientation of Bok Bak fault, and the

streams were affected by faulting. To confirm this numerically, stream orientation using

the same classification of lineament trends are tabulated in Table 5.16 while the number

and length frequency are presented through rose diagrams (Figure 5.37 and Figure 5.38).

Although from the table and figures, the E-W (90° - 100°) streams seem to be the most

dominant in both length and number frequencies, the percentage difference between that

and the next 2 highest classes which are NE-SW (40° - 50°) and NW-SE (130° - 140°), is

just 2-3%. Therefore, it is safe to say the streams follow fault orientation.

Table 5.16: Stream orientation

Trend (°) Count Percentage (%) Length (m) Percentage (%)

<10 4205 9.15 561011 8.91
10 – 20 1308 2.84 188830 3.00
20 – 30 1164 2.53 147236 2.34
30 – 40 2155 4.69 387262 6.15
40 – 50 6337 13.78 802987 12.76
50 – 60 2136 4.65 378862 6.02
60 – 70 1254 2.73 156944 2.49
70 – 80 1292 2.81 185758 2.95
80 – 90 534 1.16 138343 2.20
90 – 100 7464 16.23 928973 14.76
100 – 110 1205 2.62 168118 2.67
110 – 120 1138 2.48 139758 2.22
120 – 130 1798 3.91 306681 4.87
130 – 140 5751 12.51 659748 10.48
140 – 150 1861 4.05 317368 5.04
150 – 160 1128 2.45 136201 2.16
160 – 170 1172 2.55 165944 2.64
170 – 180 4075 8.86 523750 8.32
TOTAL 45977 100 6293772 100.00

96
 Stream Number Frequency (%)
0
350
18.00 10
340 20
330 16.00 30
320 14.00 40
310 12.00 50
300 10.00 60
8.00
290 6.00 70

280 4.00 80
2.00
270 0.00 90

260 100

250 110

240 120
230 130
220 140
210 150
200 160
190 170
180

Figure 5.37: Stream number frequency

Stream Length Frequency (%)

0
350 10
340 16.00 20
330 14.00 30
320 40
12.00
310 50
10.00
300 8.00 60
290 6.00 70
4.00
280 80
2.00
270 0.00 90

260 100

250 110
240 120
230 130
220 140
210 150
200 160
190 170
180

Figure 5.38: Stream length frequency

97
5.5 Discussion

In general, the geomorphology of the study area was able to be understood further through

the GIS analysis. The elevation map pinpoints the condition of the landscape while the

relative relief map further showed the elevation relationships among all the landforms.

TPI took it a step further by differentiating the landforms into 5 classes hence important

fault-related feature such as valley can be easily identified. Slope aspect map helped to

explain how the slopes were formed by relating it to the fault activities. Slope gradient

and TRI explained the conditions of the terrain which are moderately steep and very

rugged. Through the extraction of streams, stream orders and orientation can be

determined. Other than that, the drainage patterns were observed to explain their ways of

formation not only due to geology but also fault.

The data analysis of each parameter through the histograms showed minimal differences

between the whole study area and the designated fault zone. 5 out of 7 parameters which

are elevation, relative relief, slope gradient, TPI and TRI showed slight decrease in the

percentages from in overall area to within fault zone. However, the drainage patterns and

slope aspects show strong influence of faulting as most stream orientations follow the

fault and the slope aspects are perpendicular to direction of Bok Bak fault. The elevation,

slope gradient and topographic ruggedness were more affected by lithology which is why

in this study area dominated by granite, the overall data for these parameters are high.

Thus, these GIS parameters cannot decisively distinguish the area within Bok Bak fault

zone and area outside of it. A clear separation of fault zone and surrounding area could

not be established.

98
There is one possibility to explain the insignificant variations of these parameters when

compared in the whole area and fault zone, which is strain hardening. This possibility

takes into account the geology of the study area and its feasibly great influences on the

way the fault behaves and affects the rock. Strain hardening happens when the rock

becomes harder with increasing strain or becomes increasingly resistant to deformation

(Passchier & Trouw, 2005). In strain hardening, rock strength increases as fault

displacement increases (Brandes & Tanner, 2019). Strain hardening may lead to brittle

fracturing of the rock or termination of deformation as opposed to strain softening which

leads to localisation of the deformation in shear zones (Passchier & Trouw, 2005). In

other study, lithology was found to be a controlling factor of strain hardening behaviour

where coarse sandstone produce wider fault zones, while argillaceous material is prone

to strain softening (Knott et al.,1996 as cited in Brandes & Tanner, 2019). Thus, in

metasediments, upon deformation, some minerals can become soft and create some sort

of lubricant which make faults convenient enough to move along one way.

Strain hardening rheology creates new fractures, overall distributed or diffused

deformation, and structures of relatively small size compared to the overall dimensions

of the deforming domain (Ben-Zion & Sammis, 2003). Brandes & Tanner (2019) implied

that strain hardening is an important process during deformation band formation, in which

a single band evolves into a zone of parallel bands. This subsequently leads to an increase

of the fault zone thickness as progressive deformation caused by the fault shift into

surrounding parts of the host rock which are still weak. Thus, this can explain the

occurrence of several faults parallel to Bok Bak fault and how most high order streams in

the whole area trends the same direction too. The fact that fault-controlled stream patterns

are found all over the study area also supports the theory of a broad fault zone caused by

strain hardening.

99
 CHAPTER 6 : CONCLUSION

This study was carried out to perform detailed lineament and geomorphological analysis

of the Southern Bok Bak Fault Zone located near the border of Perak and Kelantan.

In summary, among Hillshade, Multidirectional Hillshade, Red Relief Image Map

(RRIM), and Topographic Position Index (TPI), the best method of lineaments

digitization from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is RRIM. There is not a single perfect

method to digitize lineaments, but RRIM managed to express the greatest number of

lineaments clearly unlike the other 3 methods. From the digitized lineament map, it can

be deduced that Bok Bak fault is not one continuous extensive fault but is essentially a

series of fragmented faults.

All 7 GIS geomorphological parameters used which are Topographic Position Index (TPI),

Elevation, Relative Relief, Slope Gradient, Slope Aspect, Topographic Ruggedness Index

(TRI), and Stream Order collectively allowed further understanding of the study area’s

geomorphology.

Geomorphology through TPI is revealed to be dominated with middle slope with majority

of the slopes in the whole area have slope gradients of 15° - 25° which is moderate.

Overall study area is very rugged as shown by the very high TRI values. In the whole

area, majority slopes face southwest towards the lower elevation from the high Main

Range. Slope aspects for both overall area (Southwest) and within fault zone (Northeast)

are perpendicular to the main orientation of Bok Bak fault which is NW-SE.

100
Out of the 7 parameters, Slope Aspect map showed the strongest correlation to the fault

besides drainage patterns which exhibit close connections to the fault. Through statistical

data analysis, Elevation, Relative Relief, Slope Gradient and TRI only decreased slightly

when compared between the overall area and within the fault zone due to intense

denudation associated with area close to faults.

Parameters quantitative analysis show minimal discrepancy due to whole area being

collectively affected by faulting thus creating a broad fault zone. This might be linked to

the strain hardening phenomenon which happens when faults move in an area with

resistant rock like granite. Strain hardening prevented the fault to move in a single line to

create one intense zone of deformation which is otherwise the case for strain softening in

metasedimentary rock. This also explains the parallel faults observed most significantly

to the east of the Bok Bak fault marked by JMG.

101
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