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Experimental study of the stabilization effect of cement on diesel-

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DOI: 10.1144/qjegh2016-115

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Research article Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology
Published online May 4, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2016-115 | Vol. 50 | 2017 | pp. 199–205

Experimental study of the stabilization effect of cement on diesel-

contaminated soil
Huie Chen, Yaling Jiang, Wen Zhang* & Xiaohong He
College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, 938, Ximinzhu Street, Changchun, Jilin 130061, China
H.C., 0000-0003-0073-5480; W.Z., 0000-0002-6827-4775
* Correspondence: zhang_wen@jlu.edu.cn

Abstract: Soil samples with different contaminant concentrations were stabilized by different added doses of cement.
Unconfined compressive test results were used to analyse the influence of curing time, diesel content and cement addition ratio
on the strength formation process. Micrographs of samples were used to analyse the deterioration in soil properties caused by
diesel and the stabilization effect of cement. The results showed that different combinations of curing time, diesel and cement
content led to different strength increase processes. For unstabilized contaminated soil, the time needed to finish the
deterioration brought about by diesel in slightly contaminated samples was longer than that in heavily contaminated samples.
For stabilized contaminated soil, the strength formation process in samples with low diesel contents and low cement addition
ratios was faster than that in samples with high diesel contents and low cement addition ratios, and the strength formation
process of samples with high cement addition ratios was slow. A higher strength increase was obtained in slightly contaminated
samples stabilized by cement at a low addition ratio. The amount of fine particles increased in contaminated samples, and the
stabilized contaminated samples had a denser aggregated structure and a higher content of large aggregations compared with the
original sample.
Received 5 November 2016; revised 27 December 2016; accepted 15 March 2017

With rapid economic development, more petroleum is needed in
the industrial and transportation sectors. Nowadays, soil pollution
caused by oil leakage and discharge during its exploitation,
stevedoring, transportation and processing has become problem-
atic and has attracted attention from engineering geologists. Many
researchers have studied the engineering properties of soil
contaminated by petroleum or its composition. Al-Sanad & Ismae
(1997) studied the engineering properties of oil-contaminated sands
and the effect of ageing on their properties. Aiban (1998)
investigated the effect of temperature on the strength, permeability
and compressibility of oil-contaminated sand. Shin & Das (2001)
studied the bearing capacity of unsaturated oil-contaminated sand.
Mashalah et al. (2007) determined the effects of crude oil
contamination on some of the geotechnical properties of clayey
and sandy soils sampled from the southern coastal plain of Iran.
Matteo et al. (2011) conducted experiments to determine the
effects of ethanol–gasoline blends on the consolidation character-
istics of a kaolinitic soil from northwestern Spain. Kermani &
Ebadi (2012) studied the effect of oil contamination on the
geotechnical properties of fine-grained soils taken from an area
subjected to oil pollution. As the research work progressed, the
study of the engineering properties of diesel-contaminated
minerals was developed (Khosravi et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2015).
Other researchers also studied the engineering properties of oil-
contaminated soils (Shah et al. 2003; Singh et al. 2008; Jia et al.
2011; He et al. 2014; Nasehi et al. 2016).
Based on the study of engineering properties of oil-contaminated
soil, research effort has been shifted to remedial methods, technical
difficulties, funding needs and assessment of the restoration time of
polluted soil. Some remedial methods for oil-contaminated land
have been studied and applied in practice. One method involved
converting oil-contaminated soil to a road base material or topping
layers for parking lots and roads after mixing it with stabilization
agents. Other methods included isolation, incineration, biological
methods, absorption methods, soil washing methods and extraction
methods (Al-Sanad et al. 1995). In comparison with costly and
time-consuming treatment methods, the conversion of contami-
nated soil to a road base, surfacing material or a back-fill seems
economical and time-efficient (Kermani & Ebadi 2012). Before a
contaminated soil is used in the above engineering applications, it
should be consolidated. Stabilization of organic or inorganic wastes
can be done by the addition of industrial materials such as fly ash,
lime and Portland cement, or a combination of these, which often
results in a pozzolanic reaction (Hassan et al. 2005). Stabilization
methods for oil-contaminated soil have been investigated by some
researchers: Shah et al. (2003) reported the stabilization of an oil-
contaminated soil using lime, fly ash and cement, independently
and then as admixtures in different combinations. Tuncan et al.
(2000) pointed out that petroleum-contaminated soil stabilized with
5% cement, 10% fly ash and 20% lime showed the best strength
among those samples tested. Hassan et al. (2005) used ordinary
Portland cement as a stabilizer to reinforce a contaminated soil from
the petroleum asset area in Fahud (northern Oman). Li et al. (2015)
reported the feasibility of using fly ash and lime to stabilize oil-
contaminated soil. Studies have also been carried out on the
stabilization of oil-polluted soil using cement, lime and fly ash
(Morgan & Novoa 1984; Nicholson & Tsugawa 1997; McKinley
et al. 2001; Shah et al. 2003).
Although numerous studies of the consolidation of oil-
contaminated soil have been made, the strength formation in
stabilized soil over time, the influence of oil content and the mutual
influence between additives and oil have hardly been discussed. In
fact, natural soil may be polluted to different extents, resulting in
different influences on the strength development and effectiveness
of additive stabilization. Therefore further study of the strength
development of stabilized oil-contaminated soil with different levels
of contamination and additive doses may be of value, to determine
the most effective stabilization time, minimum additive dose and the
maximum oil contamination level for soil stabilized by certain
amounts of additives.

© 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions.
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200 H. Chen et al.
In this study, stabilized diesel-contaminated soil with different
diesel contents and cement addition ratios were prepared through
mixing and use of a static compaction method. Then the unconfined
compression strength of samples cured for different times was
determined, to analyse the strength development from the
perspectives of curing time, level of contamination and cement
content. Finally, the microstructure of representative samples was
obtained, and was used to illustrate the mechanical properties of
contaminated and stabilized soils.
Materials and sample preparation
Materials
There are three oilfields in NE China, with a total crude oil pipeline
length of 3399.6 km. One of the pipelines, the Qingfu line, passes
through six cities of Jilin Province (Songyuan, Nongan, Changchun,
Gongzhuling, Lishu and Siping), and another pipeline, from
Changchun to Jilin City, which is 164 km long, runs within Jilin
Province. Although there has been no large-scale oil spillage
accident in recent years, the presence of oil pipelines and gas stations
is a latent danger to the soil, so it is worth studying the influence of
oil contamination on soil engineering properties and the treatment
and utilization of contaminated soil along the pipeline route.
The soil samples used in the study were collected from Culture
Square, Changchun, Jilin Province, China (Fig. 1), and were not
contaminated in their natural condition. Tables 1–3 show the test
results of soil grain-size distribution, physical properties and
mineral composition analyses. The data indicate that silt and clay
are the main particle fractions, the plastic index of the soil is 18.0
and, based on the Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM
2011a), the soil is classified as CL. Primary minerals account for the
majority of the soil’s mineral composition.
A diesel oil ‘-10#’ supplied by the China Petrochemical
Corporation (Sinopec Group) was used as the organic contaminant.
When an oil spillage occurs, the extent of its infiltration over an area
depends on its viscosity. The more viscous the oil is, the less it
permeates into the soil. The diesel used in this study is a lightweight
grade, with a viscosity much lower than that of crude oil, so it has a
more powerful contamination potential. Its density is 0.840 g cm−3,
its freezing point is 20°C and its kinematic viscosity at 20°C is 3.0 –
8.0 mm2 s−1.
Ordinary Portland cement was used as the stabilizer and its
chemical composition was determined by the test centre of Jilin
University. The result is shown in Table 4.
Sample preparation
During sample preparation, the soil was oven-dried at 105°C for
24 h, and crushed using a rubber pestle and an agate mortar to form
a homogeneous base mix. The mix was later sieved to remove any
uncrushed aggregates. The granulometric composition of the sieved
sample was determined, and showed a close agreement with that
found in situ. Then, diesel was directly mixed with the dry soil to
prepare the man-made contaminated soil sample, owing to its good
fluidity (Khosravi et al. 2013). The mixing ratio of oil to dry soil by
mass was set to 0, 4, 8, 12 and 16% (Khamehchiyan et al. 2007;
Singh et al. 2008), and corresponding soil specimens were
designated as D0, D4, D8, D12 and D16, to simulate the different
levels of contamination. Subsequently, the soil and diesel mixture
was placed in a closed container at room temperature for 7 days to
reach equilibrium (Meegoda & Ratnaweera 1995). Finally, cement
was thoroughly mixed with the polluted soil to obtain a uniform
colour as outlined by the Portland Cement Association (1992). Its
content was controlled at 0, 3, 5, 8 and 10% of the mass of dry soil
(Shah et al. 2003; Hassan et al. 2005), to study the stabilization
effect of different cement contents on contaminated soil with
different levels of contamination, and the corresponding soil
specimens were designated as C0, C3, C5, C8 and C10. Therefore
the combination of sample numbers, such as D4C8, indicates a
specimen that contains 4% diesel, stabilized by 8% cement.
The material, as prepared above, was transferred to a compaction
mould and a compaction test was conducted according to ASTM
D-698 (ASTM 2011b), to determine the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content of the samples. Samples for further
unconfined compression tests (UCT) and SEM examination were
prepared in the mould using static compaction at the determined
maximum density and optimum moisture content and cured for 7,
14 and 28 days in sealed plastic bags to prevent loss of moisture.
Test results and analysis
Unconfined compression test
According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (2000),
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is one of the important
indices used to evaluate the efficiency of a given stabilization
method. Based on the requirements of construction on contaminated
sites, each country has put forward a corresponding standard to
control the safety of construction. ASTM D-4609 (ASTM 2011c)
states that an increase in unconfined compressive strength of
345 kPa or more must be achieved for a treatment to be considered
effective, whereas standards in France and the Netherlands suggest
that it should be 1 MPa (Hills & Pollard 1997).
The UCT was conducted on the cured samples after different
curing periods, and the results are shown in Table 5. Then the
stabilization effect of cement on diesel-contaminated soil was
analysed with respect to curing time, diesel contamination and
cement content.
Influence of curing time on the UCS
According to the results in Table 5, the histogram of UCS versus the
diesel content of samples at different curing ages for each cement
Fig. 1. Location of the sample area.
 Stabilization of diesel-contaminated soil by cement 201

Table 1. Grain-size distribution of original soil sample Table 4. Chemical composition of cement

Particle size (mm) >0.25 0.25 – 0.075 0.075 – 0.005 <0.005 Chemical
Content (%) 0.2 1.7 77.7 20.4 composition SiO2 CaO Na2O Al2O3 K2O Fe2O3 MgO SO3
Content (%) 20.47 65.10 0.13 4.23 0.48 4.68 0.98 1.82
Table 2. Physical properties of original sample

Air dry moisture Specific Plastic limit Liquid limit Plastic

content (%) density (%) (%) index (%) Table 5. UCS of samples (kPa)

4.9 2.65 21.9 39.9 18.0 Cement Diesel Curing time

content content
7 days 14 days 28 days

Table 3. Mineral composition of original sample C0 D0 182 185 182

D4 191 179 142
Alkali D8 132 100 100
Mineral Quartz feldspar Plagioclase Amphibole Illite Chlorite D12 89 83 84
Abbreviation Q fs Pl Am I Ch D16 74 66 57
Content (%) 57 11 16 1 8 7 C3 D0 347 358 387
D4 340 348 370
D8 295 313 358
addition ratio can be plotted as shown in Figure 2, and used to D12 171 250 280
analyse the change in UCS with curing time at different diesel and D16 151 225 250
cement contents. C5 D0 431 450 489
D4 422 431 472
Without cement addition, Figure 2 show that there nearly is no
D8 351 383 450
change caused by curing time in the uncontaminated samples. For
D12 307 335 338
soils containing diesel, the UCS decreases with increased curing
D16 225 291 312
time, which resulted from the deterioration of the soil properties. At
C8 D0 534 1008 1217
a diesel content of 4%, the influence of diesel on the soil properties D4 514 775 892
changed in a step-by-step manner. Because the amount of diesel is D8 489 697 775
limited, there is not enough diesel to react with all soil particles at D12 350 342 463
the beginning, but in time, soil particles and contaminant react more D16 300 308 333
extensively, causing a gradual decrease in the UCS. At a diesel C10 D0 858 1358 1457
content of 8%, the strength reduction caused by diesel decreased to D4 794 933 1358
near zero after a curing time of 14 days, so there was practically no D8 668 816 1242
change in the UCS of samples cured for 14 and 28 days. When the D12 650 742 1192
diesel content exceeds 8%, the amount of diesel in the soil is large D16 579 716 933
enough to degrade the soil properties rapidly, so the decrease in
UCS is not obviously changed by increased curing time.
When the soil was stabilized by cement, the UCS of samples with cement ratio, the diesel content cannot exert any notable influence
different diesel contents increased with increased curing time, on sample strength development, and a slow strength increase
which is an opposite trend compared with that of the unreinforced resulted from the high ratio of cement, which needed a long time to
samples. In time, the hydration reaction of cement, ion exchange, react and stabilize the soil.
aggregation and hardening reactions caused by the addition of
cement to the soil developed sufficiently, and the amount of cement
Influence of cement content and diesel content on the UCS
products further increased, causing the aggregation of soil particles
and filling of the pores, so the UCS increased with curing time. The UCS versus cement content data for samples with different
Additionally, the deterioration of soil properties caused by diesel, levels of contamination, at different curing ages, is shown in
the inhibition of cement hydration by diesel, and the stabilization Figure 3, which is based on the data in Table 5.
effect of cement were simultaneous, leading to different rates of Figure 3 shows that, when the curing time and cement addition
strength development in samples with different diesel and cement ratio is a constant, the curve for the sample with a high diesel
contents under the mutually restraining condition of several content lay below the curve for the sample with a low diesel
reactions. For example, at a cement addition ratio of 3% and a content, which implied that with the increase in level of
diesel content of less than 8%, there was no obvious difference contamination, the strength showed a decreasing tendency, and
between the UCS values of samples cured for 7 and 28 days; indicated the influence of diesel on the stabilization effect of the
namely, the strength increase produced by cement basically finished cement. The only special case is that of the sample without cement
at 7 days. When the diesel content was greater than 8%, there still and cured for 7 days; the UCS of the sample with 4% diesel content
was a larger increase in the sample strength, indicating that the is higher than that of an uncontaminated sample (see Fig. 3a). The
higher diesel content may influence the stabilization effect of reason for this is that, without the addition of cement, only the
cement and prolong its consolidation time. That is to say, at a cement interaction between soil particles and diesel occurred in the soil.
dose of 3%, when the diesel content was also low, stabilization When the diesel content was low and the curing time was short, the
produced by the cement played a key role, and when the diesel deterioration in soil properties remained incomplete and, in
content was high, the inhibition to cement stabilization caused by contrast, the thin film of diesel shared with adjoining clay particles
the diesel was significant, so the consolidation was slow. At a acted as a viscous interface and made the soil retain its structure
cement dose of 10%, there was an obvious increase in the UCS of (Jia et al. 2011), causing a slight increase in UCS. Then, in time,
samples cured for 28 days compared with 7 days regardless of the the soil particles and contaminant reacted more sufficiently,
diesel content, which implied that under conditions involving a high causing a decrease in the UCS.
202
Fig. 2. Histogram of UCS v. diesel content of samples at different curing ages under each cement addition ratio: (a) sample C0; (b) sample C3; (c) sample
C5; (d) sample C8; (e) sample C10.
When the curing time and diesel content were constant, there was
an increasing trend in the strength of samples with increasing
cement addition ratio, indicating an improvement in the benefit of
added cement on the diesel-contaminated soil. Because the curing
time for standard cement specimens is 28 days, the data at 28 days
curing time are discussed here. Figure 3c shows that, when the
cement addition ratio was no larger than 5%, with an increasing
cement addition ratio, there was no obvious increase in the UCS of
samples with different levels of contamination, owing to the amount
of cement being smaller. When the cement addition ratio reached
8%, the strength evolution procedure varied with the diesel content:
when the level of contamination was low (diesel content no higher
than 8%), there was an obvious increase in UCS, indicating that, for
H. Chen et al.
slightly polluted samples stabilized by 8% cement addition ratio, the
amount of cement added to the soil can effectively offset the
deterioration in the soil properties and the influence on cement
hydration caused by diesel, so a substantial increase in strength was
observed; for heavily polluted samples (diesel content higher than
8%), the degree of strength gain was reduced, which was caused by
the extra amount of diesel in the soil playing an effective inhibitory
role in the cement consolidation procedure. The mechanism of
cement stabilization was based on its hydration, ion exchange with
soil particles, aggregation, a hardening reaction, carbonation, and so
on. Soil grains were further aggregated under the comprehensive
influence of the aforementioned actions, and contaminated
materials were enclosed in a narrow space to form solid aggregates.
 Stabilization of diesel-contaminated soil by cement
Fig. 3. UCS v. cement content of samples with different levels of contamination at different curing ages: (a) 7 days; (b) 14 days; (c) 28 days.
Furthermore, the gel product of cement hydration filled the pores,
which reduced the porosity and increased the density. When there
was more diesel in the soil and the amount of cement was limited,
the above actions would be impeded at some stage by the existence
of extra diesel, and the stabilization effect was weakened (Al-Rawas
et al. 2005). Only when cement addition ratio reached 10% was
there enough cement to offset the action of diesel and stabilize the
soil, so obvious increases in strength occurred in heavily polluted
samples.
Although the stabilization effect of the cement was restrained by
the diesel, the data showed that, after being stabilized by 10%
cement addition, the UCS of a sample with 16% diesel content was
933 kPa, which exceeded the remedial standards of the USA. The
test results implied the feasibility of using cement to improve diesel-
contaminated soil, especially when the soil was slightly polluted,
a better effect would be achieved, so this method can be applied to
the reuse of contaminated soil. Additionally, because different
engineering works have different strength requirements, and the
contaminated resource, soil properties and soil contamination
degree are different, the optimum cement addition ratio should be
determined through laboratory testing, in advance, and according to
site situation, and the strength and time requirements.
Scanning electronic microscope (SEM) test
SEM testing was conducted on samples D0C0, D8C0 and D8C8 to
analyse the deterioration in soil properties caused by diesel and the
203
stabilization of contaminated soil produced by cement. The
micrographs are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 showed that sample D0C0 mainly displayed an
aggregated structure that was formed by clay mineral particle
coagulation owing to the connection between absorbed water films.
Large grains and aggregates formed by cemented fine particles
formed most of the structure, and mesopores were the main pore
type found in the sample. For sample D8C0, more fine particles
could be found compared with the uncontaminated sample, which
formed a dispersed, or flocculated, structure. When soil was
polluted by diesel, the organic or inorganic colloid compounds, free
oxide colloids and soluble salts that connected fine soil particles
could be dissolved by diesel, leading to a reduction in the
connectivity between soil grains (Mitchell & Soga 2005). Larger
grains were broken into smaller ones, resulting in an increased
amount of fine particles. Additionally, the hydrophobic and non-
polar diesel compounds formed a coating surrounding the newly
formed individual fine particles, preventing the formation of a
connection between particles and the polar water, which stopped the
aggregation of fine particles. Therefore the independent fine
particles formed a dispersed or flocculated structure, and filled the
larger pores, causing small pores to become the main pore type in
the contaminated sample. Sample D8C8 also presented an
aggregated structure. The difference of structure between samples
D0C0 and D8C8 was that D8C8 had a denser structure and a lower
content of fine particles. With the addition of cement, fine particles
in D8C0 were aggregated into larger structural units by the series of
204 H. Chen et al.

Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrographs of samples: (a) sample D0C0; (b) sample D8C0; (c) sample D8C8.

hydration products, which differed from D0C0 where aggregation
was formed by absorbed water. Because the hydration products had
a stronger cohesion compared with absorbed water, an increase in
strength could be obtained in stabilized soil on a macro-scale. On
the other hand, no crystallized cement products were found in
sample D8C8, which may be caused by the inhibitory effect of the
diesel on the cement stabilization process. The hydration of cement
could not proceed sufficiently, leading to a low degree of
crystallization of the cement hydration products, so the increase in
macro-strength of cement-stabilized soil mainly arose from the
amorphous products of cement hydration.
Conclusions and suggestions
The purpose of this study was to determine cement stabilization
effects on diesel-contaminated soil. Contaminated samples with
five diesel contents were stabilized by five cement addition ratios,
and UCT and SEM tests were conducted on the samples. Based on
the analysis of the influence of curing time, diesel content and
cement addition ratio on the strength development process of
stabilized soil and the scanning electron micrographs of some
samples, the following conclusions and suggestions could be
drawn.
 Stabilization of diesel-contaminated soil by cement
(1) Without the addition of cement, the sample strength decreased
with increasing curing time. Different deterioration processes
occurred in samples with different levels of contamination: for
samples with a low diesel content, there was a long period of
deterioration in the soil properties; for samples with high
diesel contents, the deterioration process finished within a
shorter curing time, and there was no obvious change in
sample strength during later stages.
(2) After being stabilized by cement, the soil strength increased
with curing time. For samples with low diesel contents and
low cement addition ratios, the cement stabilization mainly
dominated the strength formation process, and the main
component of the strength could be formed early in the
curing period. For samples with high diesel contents and
low cement addition ratios, diesel would influence the
stabilization process, and the increase in strength appeared
more slowly. For samples with a high cement content, the
strength formation process was mainly influenced by the
cement, and it was a slow process.
(3) When the cement addition ratio was fixed, the strength of the
samples showed a decreasing tendency with increasing diesel
content. When the diesel content was fixed, the strength of
the samples showed an increasing tendency with increasing
cement addition ratio. With the increase in cement addition
ratio, different strength evolution processes occurred in
samples with different levels of contamination: a higher
strength increase could be obtained in slightly contaminated
samples stabilized with low cement addition ratios.
(4) After being contaminated by diesel, the fine particle content
increased. Compared with the original samples, the stabilized
contaminated samples had a denser, more aggregated,
structure with more large aggregations, which evinced the
beneficial effect of cement on diesel-contaminated soil.
(5) Diesel-contaminated soil can be reused after being
stabilized by cement. For practical engineering projects,
prior laboratory testing should be conducted to determine
the optimum cement addition ratio based on time, strength
requirements and the prevailing site conditions.
Funding
The authors appreciate the financial support from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 41472242).
Scientific editing by Jamie Standing; Nicola Harries
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