REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Trees are large woody perennial vascular plants with one main trunk, which developed

many branches (Cabañeros, 2002). Pipoly (1995) as cited by Dopenio (2008), plant is

categorized as tree if its dbh is equal or greater than 10cm and tree has a more or less definite

crown. Trees do not make up single group but they are distributed throughout several families

(Mound and Brooks, 1995).

The most important ecological function of trees is protecting the land against erosion, the

trunks and branches provide protection from the wind and its roots help solidify the soil in times

of heavy rain. Trees and forest provides habitat, protection, and food for many plant and animal

species. In addition, trees play an important role in global climates and atmosphere regulation.

The leaves of trees absorb carbon dioxide in the air and produce oxygen that is necessary for life

(Thomas, 2008).

Forests are vital to life on Earth. Forests purify air, filter the water, prevent erosion, and

act as an important buffer against climate change. Forests offer a home to much of the world’s

diverse array of plants and animals and provide essential natural resources from timber and food

to medicinal plants. Forests also support the lives of local communities and help them to thrive

(World Wildlife Fund) .

Forest covers about one third of the worlds land surface (Mound and Brooks, 1995).

According to Durst and Enters (2004), Asia Pacific Region accounts for 61% of the world’s

plantation forest.

Philippine forestlands covered 15.85 million hectares of 53% of the total land area of the

country and categorized into classified and unclassified. The classified portion composed of
14.76 million hectares of 93% have been identified as established forest reserves covering 3.27

million hectares, established timber with 10.23 million, national parks, game refuge and bird

sanctuaries and wilderness areas spanning of 0.893 million, military and naval reservations

composed of 0.130 million, civil reservation with 0.166 million. The unclassified forestlands

1.09 million hectares or 7% of entire forestlands (Acosta, 2002).Recently, Fernando et al. (2008)

recognized 12 types of natural primary forest vegetation in the Philippines following the scheme

and nomenclature of Whitmore (1984).

Philippines was one of the many countries largely covered by forest. In the past, the

country was covered with about 90 percent or 27 million ha of lush tropical rainforest

(Chokkalingam et al., 2006). It was in 1521 when the Spaniards colonized the Philippines and as

the spread of commercial crops begun during their regime, deforestation started. In the year

1900, two years after the Spaniards left, the Americans came while still about 70 percent or 21

million of the country’s land is forested until they introduced the first modern logging operations

in 1904 and the Philippines became one of the main exporters of Dipterocarp lumbers in the

world. Continuous deforestation and cutting of trees happened. The least forest cover that the

country has experienced was around 1988 with only 6.5 million ha of forested lands. It increased

by 0.3 million ha by 2010 making the forest cover 23 percent of the land area or 6.8 million ha

(SEPO, 2015). According to FMB_DENR (2016), the forest cover of the country is about 8.205

million ha in 2015. The continuous decrease in the forest cover of the Philippines shall be a

concern and drive to perform studies for conservation and rehabilitation of forests in the country.

The deforestation rate in the Philippines from 1993-2000 is estimated at 100,000 ha

annually (Cruz & Zosa-Feranil, 1998) and 50,000 ha from 2003-2010 (Sibucao et al., 2014).

Prior to Spanish colonization of the Philippines in the 16th century, ca. 90% of land area was
covered with lush forests which was reduced to 70% due to logging during the three centuries of

Spanish colonization. In 1950 after half a century of American and Japanese occupation, forest

cover plummeted to 50% (Bankoff, 2007). Recent published estimates of the remaining forest

cover is as low as 17–18% of the total land area (Moya & Malayang, 2004; Posa & Sodhi, 2006;

Briones, 2007). Aside from logging (whether legal or illegal), other causes of deforestation in the

Philippines are forest fires, “kaingin” farming (slash-and-burn agriculture), and mining

operations.  Volcanic eruptions have also devastated some of the country’s tropical rainforests.

Ditto for typhoons, which have devastated considerable hectares of forest areas (Tasio, 2013).

The Philippines continues to experience an alarming rate of destruction of its important

resources brought about by over exploitation, deforestation, land degradation, climate change,

and pollution (including biological pollution), among others (The Philippine Clearing House

Mechanism). The exploitation of natural resources affects habitat quality by removing resources

that are crucial for species as food, shelter or nesting sites. However, the realization of

fragmentation effects may take decades (Hanski, 2013), particularly if there are still plenty of

habitat in the landscape, habitat patches are large, and a species can tolerate moderate

fragmentation (Rybicki and Hanski, 2013).

Philippines is at the 23rd rank in the world and 6th in Southeast Asia in being diverse

with 5832 endemic species among the total of 7620 documented species in the country. A

number of threatened plant species can be found in the Philippines (Coracero and Malabrigo,

2020). The Philippines has 3,600 identified native trees, 67 percent of which are endemic (de

Jesus, 2021)

Banaag et al., (1979) as cited by Dopenio (2008) stated that there are 3500 native trees

species and 300 introduce species in the Philippines.  

 In Palanan, Philippines a 16-ha plot was studied and there were 78,382 individual trees

recorded. The plot included 323 species, 67 families and 168 genera. Family dipterocarpaceae

dominated the forest with 50 % of total basal area and the most numerous family was Meliaceae

represented by over 7000 trees and more than 10 % of the forest and with 20 species (Co et al.,

2006).

Polizon (2006), conducted a study on the tree inventory in Mt. Hamiguitan range, the

study revealed 223 species of trees belonging to 71 families of this number, 79 were endemic, 4

rare, 6 depleted, 3 endangered and 101 economicaly important species.

In Mt. Palawpaw, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon 20 species of trees which belongs to 19

genera and 12 families were observed. The determination of status revealed that 9 were endemic,

2 indeterminate, 1 depleted and 1 economically important species. The trees species with the

highest Species Importance Value (SIV) was Ficus Balete (Acacio, 2006).

Tree diversity in Sitio Dicasalarin, Barangay Zabali, Baler, Aurora, which is part of the

Sierra Madre Mountain Range was conducted by Coracero (2018). A total of three transects with

nine quadrats each were surveyed wherein the species present were listed together with their

diameter at breast height (DBH). The study revealed a total of 2239 individuals from 139

morpho species, 87 genera and 46 families in the study site. The study area considered highly

important having 48 Philippine Endemic species, 35 new species distribution record in Aurora

province, 5 new species distribution record in Luzon, and 29 threatened species.

Species richness of trees in disturbed habitats within a protected area of Mt. Apo was

conducted by Zapanta, et al., (2019). Study revealed a total of 139 tree species including a single

gymnosperm was identified within the study sites. Of the species identified, the dominant

families included Moraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae,

Arecaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, and Verbenaceae. Nineteen species were considered endemic

including the Mindanao endemic, Lindera apoensis. Within this number, 47% are considered

threatened on their range and four species viz. Parashorea malaanonan, Shorea contorta,

and  Shorea negrosensis are Critically Endangered with decreasing population records. 

Tree survey in the range of Mt. Tago was conducted in 2018–2019 using thirty-nine 20 x

20 m sampling plots and six one-kilometer transect lines. A total of 1,032 tree individuals from

54 families, 85 genera and 121 species were documented. The study revealed four tropical forest

habitat types namely: lower montane rainforest, upper montane rainforest, mossy-pygmy and

forest over ultramafic rocks. These forest habitats also differed in species composition, elevation,

substrate, dominance and structure in terms of height and diameter at breast height. The highest

diversity index was observed in the mid-elevation and decreasing toward the peak. The diversity

pattern herein is attributed to elevation, forest degradation due to anthropogenic activities and

nature of habitat. The most abundant families were the Myrtaceae (23%), Podocarpaceae

(12.8%) and Fagaceae (12.6%). At the family level the most dominant taxa included the

Moraceae (8.7%), Rubiaceae (6.5%) and Myrtaceae (5.8%). Highest importance value index

(IVI) in all forest types fell within the range of IVI’s for tropical forests. Assessment of

conservation and ecological status revealed that 11 species (8%) are threatened, 28 (22%) Least

Concern (LC) and 16 (12%) are Philippine endemics (Coritico et. al., 2020).

Madulid (1994) pointed out that 3,800 plants are endemic to the country with species

endemism estimated to be between 30 and 40 percent as of the year 1994. The degree of

endemism in the country is lower compared to Hawaii with about 90 %, New Caledonia with

about 79 %, New Zealand with some 82 % (Schemer, 1994), and Taiwan with 25 – 40 %

estimates (Peng et. al., 1994). Madulid (1996) stated that most of the endemic species and genera
of plant are confined to primary forest rather than in lowland, grassland and other distributed

areas.

Endemism in Mt. Musuan Bukidnon is quite high which about 24%. Trees dominated the

area with 6,354 individuals and the assessment on plant diversity revealed the presence of 524

species 353 genera and 135 families (Amoroso et al., 2002).

A new tree endemic to the Philippines was discovered by Professor Edwino Fernando

and Dr. Peter Wilson. The new endemic tree species Tristaniopsis flexuosa belong to family

Myrtaceae, is a small tree reaching up to three meters tall and has relatively small leaves, with a

smooth grey bark, which flakes to reveal red-brown under-bark. It can be found particularly at

Mount Redondo (CNN, 2021).

Mt Kilakiron is situated at an elevation of 2,329 meters above sea level. It is part of the

Mt. Kalatungan Range that is the second largest mountain range in Bukidnon. It is known to be

the boundary between the Municipality of Pangantucan and Valencia City, in the Province of

Bukidnon. Mt. Kilakiron has an area approximately of 37,550.27 hectares with its maximum

elevation of 2,324 meters above sea level. It has the coordinates of latitude: 8° 00’ - 8° 60’ and a

longitude of between 124° 35’ and 124° 60. The study area is surrounded with diverse flora and

fauna species along with its numerous rivers and waterfalls, lakes, caves and rock formations that

gives habitat to the different organisms (Naïve, 2017). A survey of bracket fungi was conducted

in Mt. Kilakioron, Bukidnon, Philippines.  40 total species belonging to 17 genera and 5 family

was collected and assessed. 12 individuals of Trametes versicolor were observe which favors

dwellings with low temperature and high altitude are. Additionally, study revealed that most

types of bracket fungi initiate in the site are decomposers and saprophytic in nature which

contributes a lot in the process of putrefaction. The species of bracket fungi in Mt. Kilakiron
clearly shows abundant and provides a large contribution to the ecosystem having high Shannon

diversity index (Cababan, et al., 2021).