UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

NOTES

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1648 - 1945

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The words 'industrial revolution' -in small letters- usually refer to that complex of technological
innovations which, by substituting machines for human skill and inanimate power for human
and animal force, brings about a shift from handicraft to manufacture and, so doing, gives birth
to a modern economy.
‘Industrial Revolution’ -in capital letters- term denote the first historical instance of the
breakthrough from an agrarian, handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine
manufacture. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the eighteenth century, spread
there from in unequal fashion to the countries of Continental Europe.
The heart of the Industrial Revolution was an interrelated succession of technological changes.
The material advances took place in three areas:
1. There was a substitution of mechanical devices for human skills;
2. Inanimate power-in particular, steam-engine took the place of human and animal
strength;
3. There was a marked improvement in the getting and working of raw materials,
especially in what are now known as the metallurgical and chemical industries.
Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (1760-1840)
In the eighteenth century, a series of inventions transformed the manufacture of cotton in
England and gave rise to a new mode of production -the factory system. During these years,
other branches of industry effected comparable advances, and all these together, mutually
reinforcing one another, made possible further gains on an ever-widening front. The abundance
and variety of these innovations almost defy compilation, but they may be listed under three
principles:
a. the substitution of machines-rapid, regular, precise, tireless-for human skill and
effort;
b. the substitution of inanimate for animate sources of power, in particular, the
introduction of engines for converting heat into work, thereby opening to man a new
and almost unlimited supply of energy;
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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

c. the use of new and far more abundant raw materials, in particular, the substitution
of mineral for vegetable or animal substances.
These improvements constitute the Industrial Revolution or Industrial Revolution 1.0 or First
Industrial Revolution. They yielded an unprecedented increase in man's productivity and, with
it, a substantial rise in income per head. Moreover, this rapid growth was self-sustaining. Where
previously, an enhancement of the conditions of existence, hence of survival, and an increase
in economic opportunity had always been followed by a rise in population that eventually
consumed the gains achieved, now for the first time in history, both the economy and
knowledge were growing fast enough to generate a continuing flow of investment and
technological innovation.
The Industrial Revolution thereby opened a new age of promise.
It also transformed the balance of political power, within nations,
between nations, and between civilizations; revolutionized the
social order; and as much changed man's way of thinking as his
way of doing.

What actually Britain did? In 1760 Britain imported some 2 million pounds of raw cotton to
feed an industry dispersed for the most part through the countryside of Lancashire and existing
in conjunction with the linen manufacture, which supplied it with the tough warp yarn it had
not yet learned to produce. All of its work was done by hand, usually (excluding dyeing and
fmishing) in the homes of the workers, occasionally in the small shops of the master weavers.
A generation later, in 1787, the consumption of raw cotton was up to 22 million pounds;
the cotton manufacture was second only to wool in numbers employed and value of product;
most of the fibre consumed was being cleaned, carded, and spun on machines, some driven by
water in large mills, some by hand in smaller shops or even in cottages.
A half-century later, consumption had increased to 366 million pounds; the cotton
manufacture was the most important in the kingdom in value of product, capital invested, and
numbers employed; almost all of its employees, except for the still large number of hand-loom
weavers, worked in mills under factory discipline.
The price of yarn had fallen to perhaps one twentieth of what it had been, and the
cheapest Hindu labour could not compete in either quality or quantity with Lancashire's mules
and throstles. British cotton goods sold everywhere in the world: exports, a third larger than
home consumption, were worth four times those of woollens and worsteds. The cotton mill

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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

was the symbol of Britain's industrial greatness; the cotton hand, of her greatest social problem-
the rise of an industrial grassroots.
Why did this revolution in the techniques and organization of manufacture occur first in
Britain? A few theoretical considerations may help us to organize the argument. Technological
change is never automatic. It means the displacement of established methods, damage to vested
interests, often serious human dislocations. Under the circumstances, an opportunity for
improvement due to inadequacy of prevailing techniques,
1. a need for improvement created by autonomous increases in factor costs;
2. a degree of superiority such that the new methods pay sufficiently to cover the costs of
the change.
Implicit in the latter is the assumption that, however much the users of older, less efficient
methods may attempt to survive by compressing the costs of the human factors of production,
entrepreneurial or labour, the new techniques are enough of an improvement to enable
progressive producers to outprice them and displace them.
New idea of investment and risk involved? The technological changes that we denote as the
'Industrial Revolution' implied a far more drastic break with the past than anything since the
invention of the wheel. On the entrepreneurial side, they necessitated a sharp redistribution of
investment and a concomitant revision of the concept of risk. Where before, almost all the costs
of manufacture had been variable-raw materials and labour primarily-more and more would
now have to be sunk in fixed plant. The flexibility of the older system had been very
advantageous to the entrepreneur: intime of depression, he was able to halt production at little
cost, resuming work only when and in so far as conditions made advisable. Now he was to be
a prisoner of his investment, a situation that many of the traditional merchant-manufacturers
found very hard, even impossible, to accept.
New kind of Prison and Jailer? For the worker, the transformation was even more
fundamental, for not only his occupational role, but his very way of life was at stake. For many-
though by no means for all-the introduction of machinery implied for the first time a complete
separation from the means of production; the worker became a 'hand'. On almost all, however,
the machine imposed a new discipline. No longer could the spinner tum her wheel and the
weaver throw his shuttle at home, free of supervision, both in their own good time. Now the
work had to be done in a factory, at a pace set by tireless, inanimate equipment, as part of a
large team that had to begin, pause, and stop in unison-all under the close eye of overseers,
enforcing assiduity by moral, pecuniary, occasionally even physical means of compulsion. The
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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

factory was a new kind of prison; the clock a new kind of jailer.
Major Causes of Industrial Revolution
The first main cause was the emergence of capitalism as an economic theory, since it helped
wealthy individuals to start their own businesses. The next major cause was the expansion of
European imperialism around the world. By taking over other areas of the world, European
countries gained access to important resources and created large markets in which they could
sell goods produced in their factories. Finally, the last cause of the Industrial Revolution was
the effects of the Agricultural Revolution. The revolution led to an increase in food production
and helped increase the population on European societies. As a result, this created a large
workforce for use in industrial towns and cities.
Did the Industrial Revolution improve life?
In this way, industrialization improved their standard of living because they were able to move
away from the inner city, where there was a lot of poverty, and into the suburbs. They were
able to move up in society, and overall, everything about their life changed for the better.
Why the Industrial Revolution was bad?
Although there are several positives to the Industrial Revolution there were also many negative
elements, including: poor working conditions, poor living conditions, low wages, child labor,
and pollution. ... As a result, this led to horrible working conditions for the people of the
Industrial Revolution.
As a result of the Industrial Revolution, economies transformed and affected all classes of
people. First, the rich got richer. The rich who owned businesses became even richer. Middle
class factory owners were able to move into the upper class. This allowed the rich to build huge
mansions, collect fine art and erect museums and libraries. This privileged social group had
always enjoyed prosperity, but now they achieved a new realm of luxury and extravagance.
The middle class grew. The growth of the businesses and factories created more jobs. The
middle class assumed the occupations of merchants, shopkeepers and accountants. They were
able to take advantage of affordable amenities like furniture and fine clothing. They were also
able to educate their children as a way of maintaining their social standing. The poor remained
poor. Wages from the factories were low. Working conditions were harsh, filthy and dangerous.
The cities were overcrowded as families seeking jobs swarmed into the cities. Diseases became
common and the children couldn’t afford to go to school.
Main Features of Industrial Revolution

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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic,
and cultural. The technological changes included the following:
(1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel,
(2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal,
the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine,
(3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy,
(4) a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased
division of labour and specialization of function,
(5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam
locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and
(6) the increasing application of science to industry.
These technological changes made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources
and the mass production of manufactured goods.
Major Inventions of the Industrial Revolution
1. Spinning and weaving; ingenious machines made possible the mass production of
high-quality cotton and woolen thread and yarn
2. Steam Engine; its application in manufacturing and as a power source in ships and
railway locomotives, the steam engine increased the productive capacity of factories
and led to the great expansion of national and international transportation networks in
the 19th century. Steamboats, steam locomotive are the uses of steam engine.
Effects of Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution brought about sweeping changes in economic and social
organization. These changes included a wider distribution of wealth and increased international
trade. Managerial hierarchies also developed to oversee the division of labor. By the late 1700s
many people could no longer earn their living in the countryside. Increasingly, people moved
from farms and villages into bigger towns and cities to find work in factories. Cities grew
larger, but they were often dirty, crowded, and unhealthy.
Machines greatly increased production. This meant that products were cheaper to make and
also cheaper to buy. Many factory owners became rich. Although the machines made work
easier in some ways, factory work created many problems for the laborers. Factory employees
did not earn much, and the work was often dangerous. Many worked 14 to 16 hours per day
six days per week. Men, women, and even small children worked in factories.

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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1870-1914)

The second Industrial Revolution lasted from the mid-19th century until the early 20th century
and took place in Britain, continental Europe, North America, and Japan. Later in the 20th
century, the second Industrial Revolution spread to other parts of the world. The Second
Industrial Revolution witnessed the expansion of electricity, petroleum and steel.
In the period from 1870 to 1890, there was an economy and productivity boom in the
industrialized countries. As a consequence, living conditions improved significantly and the
prices of goods fell dramatically.
Economic Depression (1873-1890)
The panic started with a problem in Europe, when the stock market crashed. Investors began
to sell off the investments they had in American projects, particularly railroads. Back in those
days, railroads were a new invention, and companies had been borrowing money to get the
cash they needed to build new lines.
The causes of depression included, among other proposed factors, defects in the banking
system, place of credit in agriculture, the use of child labor, the negative effects of corporate
monopoly, a lack of public confidence in the future of business activity.
Exacerbating the problems with international investments, wheat prices crashed. In particular,
the opening of numerous mines in the western United States led to an oversupply of silver,
leading to significant debate as to how much of the silver should be coined into money.

The second Industrial Revolution is usually dated between 1870 and 1914, although a
number of its characteristic events can be dated to the 1850s. While the First Industrial
Revolution centered on textile manufacturing and the innovation of the steam engine, the
Second Industrial Revolution focused instead on steel production, the automobile and advances
in electricity. Discoveries in the field of electricity improved communication technologies. In
1866, the first underwater telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean was successfully installed,
and ten years later, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. In the late 1800’s American
Thomas Edison produced an amazing array of inventions. Among them were the phonograph
and the incandescent light bulb.
In 1886, German scientist Gottlieb Daimler devised an internal combustion engine that was
fuelled by gasoline and could power a small vehicle. His invention was one of the biggest
advances in transportation technology since the development of the steam engine. Daimler
would use his engine to create one of the first automobiles. An improvement in production
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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

was the introduction of the assembly line by Henry Ford in 1914. On an assembly line, the
complex job of assembling many parts into a finished product was broken down into a series
of small tasks. It sped up production and reduced costs as each worker was only required to
install one or two parts at their position on the assembly line. Ford would use the assembly line
to speed up the production of automobiles in his factory in Highland Park, Michigan.

What was the Second Industrial Revolution invention?

Major Technological Advances of the Second Industrial Revolution. 1870s. Automatic signals,
air brakes, and knuckle couplers on the railroads; the Bessemer and then the open-hearth
process in the steel mills; the telephone, electric light, and typewriter.
The fountain pen, the mass-produced pencil and the steam-driven rotary printing press also
appeared during the Second Industrial Revolution. Transportation became a whole lot easier!
The internal combustion engine, which powers cars today, was invented during the Second
Industrial Revolution.
The main causes of the second industrial revolution were due to: natural resources, abundant
labor supply, strong government policy, new sources of power, railroads and American
inventors and inventions.
The rapid advancement of mass production and transportation made life a lot faster. The rapid
advancement of mass production and transportation made life a lot faster. Technology has
changed the world in many ways, but perhaps no period introduced more changes than the
Second Industrial Revolution.
The second Industrial Revolution transformed European society because it had a huge impact
on consumer society in general, and by many terms, it was considered a huge step towards the
modern consumer culture. This was due to an influx in available jobs and more money
circulating on the European market.
As an event, the Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative impacts for society.
Although there are several positives to the Industrial Revolution there were also many negative
elements, including: poor working conditions, poor living conditions, low wages, child labor,
and pollution. Workers jobs became more repetitive as they repeated the same step over and
over, became bored, injuries increased, and work was tiring.
The most important result of the second industrial revolution depleting natural resources.

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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Great Depression
Worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until about 1939. It was the
longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialized Western world,
sparking fundamental changes in economic institutions, macroeconomic policy, and economic
theory. Although it originated in the United States, the Great Depression caused drastic declines
in output, severe unemployment, and acute deflation in almost every country of the world. Its
social and cultural effects were no less staggering, especially in the United States, where the
Great Depression represented the harshest adversity faced by Americans since the Civil War.

The initial decline in U.S. output in the summer of 1929 is widely believed to have stemmed
from tight U.S. monetary policy aimed at limiting stock market speculation. The 1920s had
been a prosperous decade, but not an exceptional boom period; prices had remained nearly
constant throughout the decade, and there had been mild recessions in both 1924 and 1927.
The one obvious area of excess was the stock market. Stock prices had risen more than fourfold
from the low in 1921 to the peak in 1929.

By their nature, banking panics are largely irrational, inexplicable events, but some of the
factors contributing to the problem can be explained. Economic historians believe that
substantial increases in farm debt in the 1920s, together with U.S. policies that had encouraged
small, undiversified banks, created an environment in which such panics could ignite and
spread. The heavy farm debt stemmed in part from the high prices of agricultural goods during
World War I, which had spurred extensive borrowing by American farmers wishing to increase
production by investing in land and machinery. The decline in farm commodity prices
following the war made it difficult for farmers to keep up with their loan payments.

THIRD INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The rapid decline in transaction costs brought on by The Third Industrial Revolution are
leading to the democratization of information, energy, manufacturing, marketing, and logistics,
and the ushering in of a new era of distributed capitalism that is likely to change the very way
we think of commercial life.
The Third Industrial Revolution, or Digital Revolution, began in the late 1900s and is
characterized by the spread of automation and digitization through the use of electronics and
computers, the invention of the Internet, and the discovery of nuclear energy. The third
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 UNIVERSITY OF CHAKWAL
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

revolution brought forth the rise of electronics, telecommunications and, of course, computers.
The third industrial revolution opened the doors to space expeditions, research, and
biotechnology through the new technologies.
The Third Industrial Revolution is based upon 5 Pillars:
1. Shifting to Renewable Energy
2. Converting Buildings into Power Plants
3. Hydrogen and Other Energy Storage Technology
4. Smart Grid Technology
5. Plug in, Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell based Transportation
The rapid decline in transaction costs brought on by The Third Industrial Revolution are
leading to the democratization of information, energy, manufacturing, marketing, and logistics,
and the ushering in of a new era of distributed capitalism that is likely to change the very way
we think of commercial life.
Beginning in the 1950s, the third industrial revolution brought semiconductors, mainframe
computing, personal computing, and the Internet—the digital revolution. Major characteristics
are Shifting to Renewable Energy. Converting Buildings into Power Plants. Hydrogen and
Other Energy Storage Technology. Smart Grid Technology.

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