Chapter One

Overview of IT and Data Processing

1. What is IT?
Information Technology- is a modern technology which used to aid the capture, processing, storage and retrieval and
communication of information whether in the form of numeral data, text, sound or image.
• It is a technology that facilitates transmission, collection, processing, interpretation and dissemination of information.
• It is a study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems,
particularly computer applications and computer hardware.
• It is a study of information handling and its use in society by means of modern technology; this includes acquisition,
processing, storage and communication of information in any by appropriate means.
2. Components of IT
Information Technology is divided in to three primary components:
I. Computer
II. Communication Network
III. Know-how
I. Computer
A computer is any calculating device or machine, which is electrical, mechanical or electromechanical. But that
doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. The name computer comes from a Latin word computus and
computare., meaning “to recon” or “to compute” and can be applied to abacus or any adding machine as to the modern
computer. However, the term “computer” has come to mean a special electronic device having certain definite characteristics.
Computer, in simple terms, is an electronic machine that can be instructed to accept, process, store and present data
and information. It processes data (raw facts or figures) into useful information that gives meaning to users.
Storage and retrieval – unlike other machines, computer can store data for indefinite period of time and makes the data
available for later use (retrieval).
II. Communications Network
An integral part of IT is the ability to communicate such as send & receive data and information over a communication
network. A communications Network is the connection of station at different location through a medium that enables people
to send and receive data and information. Telephone wires and cables are common media. Data communication is the
transmission of data and information over communication medium.
III. Know- how
Although computers and data communication are very important parts of IT, an equal critical part of IT is the
ability to draw on the power of IT to solve problems to take advantage of the opportunities it create.
Therefore, IT requires or implies know-how, knowing how to do something well. It includes the following:
• Familiarity with the tools of IT.
• The skills needed to use these tools
• Understanding when to use IT to solve problems.

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 3. Function and Application of IT
3.1 Functions of IT
Information Technology using computers has the following functions:
A. Capture
It is often useful to compile detailed records of activities. Data capture is performed when IT users expect
the data to be useful later.
When a book is checked out of the library, the name & ID. No. of the borrower, the title, author
& Call number of the book is captured.
A doctor records the pulse, heart rate, and WBC count of hospital patients.
The voice and data recorders in aircraft cockpits capture the pilot's conversations and record
flight data about the aircraft’s location and performance.
B. Processing
• Is most often associated with computers.
• Entails converting, analyzing, computing and synthesizing all forms of data or information.
• Information/data may come in different forms
✓ text(reports, correspondence)
✓ sound (voice, music)
✓ Images (visual information (Charts, graphs, drawings etc.))
Multimedia systems
• are systems that process multiple types of information simultaneously. Other types of
Processing are
Word processing-Word processing is the creation of text-based documents, including reports,
Newsletter etc.
Image processing-It is converting visual information (graphics, photos, etc.) into a format that
can be managed within a computer system.
• A process called scanning converts a print or film image into a form that a computer can use.
Voice processing-is the processing of spoken information
C. Generation
• Generating information means organizing data & information into a useful form whether as
Text, sound or image.
D. Storage and Retrieval
• Through information storage, computers keep data and information for later use.
• Stored data & information all placed in a storage medium that the computer can read.
• Retrieval entails locating and copying stored data or information for further processing or for
Transmission to another user.

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E. Transmission
• The sending of data or information from one location to another.
• Modern communications networks enable us to send information down the hall or around the
world in an instant.
1.2 Application of IT
The main areas of applications can be listed as follows:
▪ In education
Computers can be used in educational activities to assist both the learner and the teacher. Computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) helps the learning teaching process in schools and colleges.
✓ keeping records of students,
✓ keeping inventories of books in the library, text books, chemicals in the laboratory and safety information,
and other instructional materials,
✓ setting timetables for subjects, and
✓ Delivering lectures using presentation software. .
✓ Distance education, also called distance learning (e-learning).Distance learning is a method of teaching in
which students are not required to be physically present in a school or a university. Written material, videos,
audiotapes, and CD-ROMs are sent to the student. The student sends back answers to exercises and
assignments. Nowadays the Internet can be used for distance learning. Websites can be set up with
information for the learner and e-mail can be used to communicate with a tutor.
▪ Entertainment:
Examples: Games
▪ Commercial or business applications
Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large amounts of
data. Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with large
volumes of data.
✓ Text processing
✓ Accounting and Finance management
✓ Inventory control
✓ Database management
✓ Statistical analysis

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 ▪ Scientific – Engineering and Research Applications
Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design
work, and analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
✓ Space technology
✓ Meteorological observatory systems
✓ Astronomical investigations
✓ Design of machines and
✓ Control of manufacturing process
▪ Electronic Banking and Service:
Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account balances, transfer funds, pay
bills)
▪ Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under the
Control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the
Computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and
Fuel control.
✓ Time Keeping
✓ Reservation of Tickets
▪ Medical and Health Care
✓ To store patient information
✓ To store doctors information
✓ Medicine information
4. Data and Information Processing
Data versus Information
Data are raw facts, unorganized need to be processed and it is random or useless until organized
Data processing is the handling of data and transforming them into information.
E.g.calculating the balance in a check book.
Information processing is a general term for a computer activity that entails processing any
type of information and transforming it into a different type of information
Data processing can be done manually, where brain, paper, and pencil are used. It can be donewith the aid
of electro-mechanical devices such as a calculator. It can also be done electronically using a computer as a tool. In
the rest of this note, data processing is assumed to be done using coimputers.
The objective of data processing is “Getting the right information to the right person at the right time”. Hence,
if the information is to be valuable, a data processing system must meet somecriteria:

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DATA- Facts concerning people, objects, events or other entities. Data are raw facts which can be manipulated.
Data is required in operation of any organization. Databases store data.
INFORMATION- Data presented in a form suitable for interpretation. Data can be manipulated to produce
information. Information is the summarization of data in presentable form. Data is converted into information by
programs and queries. Data may be stored in files or in databases. Neither one stores information.
Example: If orders and payments are data, then balance due and quantity in hand would be information.

Information is backbone of any organization. It apprizes, and notifies, surprises and stimulates, reduce
uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives, helps to eliminate irrelevant, influence people. It is used to make
appropriate and good decision. Quality information provides good decision making. Quality information is
timely, accurate and reliable.

Data Information

Data is raw, unorganized facts that When data is processed, organized, structured or
need to be processed. Data can be presented in a given context so as to make it
Meaning something simple and seemingly useful, it is called information.
random and useless until it is
organized.

Each student's test score is one The average score of a class or of the entire
Example piece of data. school is information that can be derived from the
given data.

"Data" comes from a singular "Information" is an older word that dates back to
Latin word, datum, which the 1300s and has Old French and Middle English
originally meant "something origins. It has always referred to "the act of
Etymology
given." Its early usage dates back informing, " usually in regard to education,
to the 1600s. Over time "data" has instruction, or other knowledge communication.
become the plural of datum.

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 CHAPTER TWO

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS
2.1 History of Computer

History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This process of counting
large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of
numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of
numeration has been accepted universally. It was the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, and 9). Later you will know how the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But you will
be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and uses binary system of
numeration for processing.
2.1.1 Evolution of computer
Calculating Machines
It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large numbers. The first calculating
device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and Chinese people. The word ABACUS means calculating
board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of
horizontal bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 AD. The
device was known as Napier’s bones.
Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe in 16th century.
Pascal's Adding and Subdirectory Machine

It is the first true mechanical calculator. You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at
the age of 19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine

The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical device that could
both multiply and divide.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do complex
mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he developed a general-purpose calculating
machine called analytical engine. You should know that Charles Babbage is called the father of modern computer.

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Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, she designed instruction routines to be fed into the computer, making her
the first female computer programmer.
Mechanical and Electrical Calculator
In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical
calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by
electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.
Modern Electronic Calculator
The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky. Later it was replaced
with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small. The modern electronic calculator can
compute all kinds of mathematical computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data
permanently. Some calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.
2.2 Generation of Computer
You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today. The
present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last fifty years. This period, during
which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of
Computers.
2.2.1 First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
• Used vacuum tubes or thermionic valve as a circuitry.
• Have small internal memory based on magnetic drums or relays.
• Input device is based on punched card or paper tape.
• Output is displayed on printouts.
• Use machine or low level language.
• Access time measured in milliseconds (thousands of a second 10-3).
• Consists’ about 1,000 circuits per cubic foot.
• Require extreme air conditioning system.
• Designed for both alphabetic and numeric uses. Slow in computations. These computers were large in size
and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and
John Mauchly. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 3050 feet
long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000
watts of electricity.
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed in 1950.
Other Computers of First Generation
EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by M.V. Wilkes at
Cambridge University in 1949.
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UNIVAC-1: Eckert and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer setup.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
➢ The operating speed was quite slow.
➢ Power consumption was very high.
➢ It required large space for installation.
➢ The programming capability was quite low.
2.2.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
• Use transistors as a main circuitry rather than vacuum tubes.
• Use magnetic core or tape as storage device.
• Output was displayed on printout.
• Use assembly language
• Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.
• Consists of about 100,000 circuits per foot.
• Access time measured in microseconds (10-6).
• Smaller and faster than first generation computer
• Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
In this, second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and
input and output units were developed. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed
during this period. Some of the computers of the Second Generation were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used for scientific
purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
2.2.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1970)
• Use integrated circuit (IC) instead of transistors
• Use IC based (magnetic disk) as storage device.
• 10 million circuits per square foot.
• New input/output devices, like the key board and visual display unit/VDU/monitor were developed
• Access time in 100 nanoseconds (100*10-9)
• Cheaper and made commercial production easier.
• Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved programming
languages,
• The size of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period

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 were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC
(Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period.
2.2.4 Fourth Generation Computers (1970s to present)
• It is extension of the 3rd generation computers.
• Introduce very large scale integrated circuit or VLSI technology.
• Widely known for the use of microprocessors
• Circuit density approached 100,000 components per chip and above.
• Access time approached nanoseconds.
• Programming task were simplified
• Virtual operating systems were introduced for multiple use
• Are versatile in nature and are also able to form a network.
• The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation. Due to the development of
microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These
computers are called microcomputer. Further improvement of mass storage and input/output (I/O) devices.
The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth Generation Computer. E.g. IBM system
3090, IBM RISC 6000, HP 9000, IBM PC (1980), Pentium I, Pentium II. etc.

2.2.5 Fifth Generation Computer (future computer)

• Characterized by the use of artificial intelligence and natural language.
• Aimed at narrowing the gap between people and computer.
• To achieve human like qualities of intelligence including the ability to reason.

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Table 2.1 major differences between generations
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 4thgeneration
Circuit element Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSIC/VLSIC
Secondary Storage D Punched card Magnetic Tape Magnetic disk Mass storage device

Programming Machine or low level Assembly language High level e.g. High level
Language BASIC
Operating system Operator control Batch system sophisticated Time sharing
operating systems
-3 -6
Memory Access time milliseconds (10 ) microseconds (10 ) 100 nanoseconds 1 nanoseconds
Approx. date 1940-56 1956-63 1964-70 From 1970 above
Power consumption Very high High Low Low
Characteristics Single purpose, large, Single purpose, General purpose, Very versatile,
expensive, unreliable, smaller, cheaper, smaller, cheaper, cheap, powerful,
hard to use easier to use easier to use small, easy to use
Examples ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 1620, IBM IBM-360, ICL- IBM PC (1980)
UDVAC 1401, CDC 3600 1900, IBM-370,
and VAX-750.

2.3.Types of computers

There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depending on different categories of characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation (processing)
They are classified into three:
1. Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables; they don’t computer directly with
numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer, Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of
pumped fuel into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
They are special purpose computers.
Analog computers have limited accuracy.
2. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate
directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
• Desk & pocket computers
• The general purpose computers
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 3. Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid computer.
A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it into digital
quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function, temperature and
other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an
immediate signal to the nurse’s station. If any abnormal readings are detected.

2.4. Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as special
purpose or general-purpose computers
1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and function are uniquely adapted to a
specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
• The public telephone box
• Traffic control system
• Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
• Pocket calculators
• Counters etc.
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

2. General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or set of
instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the computer one
by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General
purpose computers are more flexible and versatile.

Examples
• Micro computers
• Mini computers
• Super computers etc.

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Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. There is a wide variety of general
purpose digital computers on the market place today, in terms of physical size, price, capacity, and performance.
They are then classified as follows by their capacity and size:
Super computers: - are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer.
They have speed of hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million
characters, and a secondary memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory.
They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range.
They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations.
They are used to process huge amount of data and are commonly used in space technology centers, meteorology
stations, and astronomical observatories, intercontinental communications, airline organizations.
Mainframe computers:- Smaller than in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the super
computers. However they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used in large organizations.
Micro computer
➢ It is the most frequently available computers (pc).
➢ Use microprocessor as its central processing unit.
➢ Are also called personal computers(PC), home computers etc
➢ Differ in size and function
➢ Microcomputers are classified into three. These are palmtops, laptops and desktops.
 Palmtop computers-are the smallest computers that can be held on one hand and have size of pocket
calculator
• It is movable
• Used for limited function, i.e. calculation
 Laptop- Is a smaller version of micros, about the size of briefcase designed for portability;
• Have high capacity and processing speed as desktops.
• It is movable
 Desktops- The most widely used types of computers.

Desktop laptop handheld/palmtop

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Desktop PCs and laptops are similar in power, but laptops are designed to be as small and portable as possible.
Therefore they are slightly more expensive than desktops and have lower quality screens. Handheld PCs are
designed to be small enough to hold in your hand. This is only made possible by reducing their computing power.

Chapter Three
Components of computer systems
Computer is a data processing machine which consists of several integrated components that works together as a
single unit to achieve some objective. The computer system refers to the computer itself and all other components
interconnected to it. A computer system components are classifies into hardware and software which cooperates to
provide full system functions of the computer.

1. Hardware components
The Hardware is the physical (visible and tangible) part of the Computer that you can see and touch. It includes
electronic devices, which have the potential for performing the task of solving problems. It is the general term for
the physical machines or devices that carry out the activities of capturing, processing, storing and communicating
data and information. The computer hardware is divided into the following categories:
A. Input Devices C. Output Devices
B. Central Processing Unit D. Storage Devices& others
CPU

Control Unit
Input Devices Memory (register) Output Devices
ALU

• Keyboard • Monitor
• Mouse • Printer
• Scanner • Speaker
Secondary Storage
• Microphones • Disk drives
Devices
• Disk drives • plotter

Fig. 1 Basic Units of a computer System

A. Input Devices
Input devices are devices through which data or information is entered into the computer. It is
used to convert human readable form to machine-readable form. There are different input
devices like: Keyboard, mouse, Image Scanner, Disk drives, microphone, touch screen, light pen,
magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), bar code reader, camera systems, etc.
 Keyboard: The keyboard is an input device used to enter information into your PC.

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 The keys on the keyboard can be divided into 5 sections.
o Alphanumeric (Character Keys): These keys work just like a conventional type writer
which consists of letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9), Enter key, Spacebar, Backspace, Shift,
Caps lock, etc.
o Function Keys: labeled from F1 to F12.
o Numeric Keys: Let you enter numerical data more easily when you are working on
numbers. To use this section of the keyboard, make sure that the Num Lock key is ON.
o Navigation (Cursor movement Keys): These keys are used to navigate through your
document. The keys are: Arrow keys, Home, End, Page up, Page down, etc.
o Computer (Special) keys: They perform different tasks when used alone or in
conjunction with other keys. Some of these keys are: Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen, Scroll Lock,
Pause, Delete, and Insert.
 Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that is used to move the insertion pointer around
the screen. It has two buttons left (primary) button and right button. Through which you
can operate different operations. Such operations are:
• point: indicate the item
• click: press and release the primary key
• right click: press and release on right key
• double-click: press twice on left key
• drag: press the left key and move
 Scanner: which is an input device used to input data into a computer. It converts the
data from hard copy to soft copy. Once the data is transferred to the computer, through
the scanner, it can be modified, or combined with other information.
 Disk drives: Are data read/write devices used to input data into the computer. E.g.
floppy drive, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD drive.
 Microphones: It captures sounds and translates into digital signals for the computer.
 Touch screen: it is touch sensitive transparent panel covering the screen.
 Light pen: that utilizes the light sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.
 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): allows the computer to recognize
characters printed using magnetic ink. Example of this device is card reader in the bank.

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  Bar code reader: is a photoelectric scanner that read the bar codes, or vertical zebra
striped marks, printed on product containers.
 camera systems: used to input images and sounds in to the computer e.g. digital camera
B. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
It is the most costly and main component of the computer. It may be a single chip or a series of
chips that performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the operation of the other
elements of the system. CPU follows the instruction of the software to manipulate data into
information. It executes program instructions and performs the computer’s processing activities.
The CPU is called brain of computer and also called the microprocessor.
The CPU mostly performs the two major functions.
1. Performing arithmetic and logical operations and
2. Controlling every activity of the computer like:
a. Controlling internal and external devices
b. Controlling memory usage for storing data and instructions.
c. Controlling sequence of instructions
Purpose of CPU

• Fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory

• Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine what action is required
• Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of data from memory or an
I/O module.
• Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical operation on data.
• Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module.
The CPU has three major components which connected by cables called bus to communicate
each other:
Control Memory
unit (register)

ALU Figure 4.1. The components of CPU

The Control Unit: Controls every activity of the computer. The control unit ensures that

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 according to the stored instructions, the right operation is done on the right data at the right
time.
• All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control unit
receives.
• Fetches and store data and instruction from memory to register and vice versa.
• Receives an instruction, decodes/interprets and passes it to the ALU for execute.
• Determines the next instruction to execute.
• Tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out the program’s instructions.
• Directs the movement of electronic signals between:
 Main memory and the ALU
 Main memory and the I/O devices
The Arithmetic or Logic Unit (ALU): Contains the electronic circuitry that performs the
arithmetic operations and logical operations, that underline all computing capabilities and
controls the speed of those operations.
• Arithmetic unit performs actual computing and calculations based on fundamental
mathematical operations: like (+, -, *, /)
• Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether the information is greater than,
less than or equal to the other information by using Logical operations like (>, <, <=, >=,
=).
The memory (register): The CPU needs a small internal memory called registers used to
store intermediary results from the operation of ALU.
- To temporarily store some data
- To remember the location of the last instruction
- To store instruction and data temporarily while execution
in other words,
- This storage has very fast access time low storing capacity.
C. Output Devices
The output devices enable the user to see the information on the computer. It converts the results
of a process, which is only in machine understandable to a human understandable form. Included
in the output devices are:

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 I. Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitor:Sometimes also called screen, displays the output
of the processing activity for the user on a television-like screen. VDU can be either Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Video displays differ in:
• Size:
• Resolution:
• Colors:
 Monochrome: means one color, generally white on black background or
vice versa.
 Color Monitors: Many monitors display color-combining shades of red,
green, and blue (RGB).
II. Printer: Printers are most widely used output devices. It produces hard copy materials that
are paper output. Different types of printers are in use today. In general, there are two
major categories of printers. Namely:
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact printers.
➢ Impact Printers: in impact printing, the paper and the character being printed
come in contact with one another. That is, striking an inked ribbon with pins
forms characters. Examples of Impact Printers are: Dot Matrix, Line and
Character printers.
➢ Non-Impact Printers: are printers that do not bring the paper and the print
material into physical contact. The characters of the print material are
produced on the paper through a heat, chemical, or spraying process. Laser
and Ink-Jet Printers are the most frequently used kinds of Non-Impact
printers.
III. Disk drives: since they are also used to record a result of a process on magnetic disks, they
are also considered as output device.
IV. Modem: links two or more computers by translating digital signals into analog signals so
that data can be transmitted via telecommunications. Modem can be either internal or
external modem. Internal modem is a hardware fitted into an expansion slot in the system
unit. External modem sits outside your system and connects to serial port.
V. Plotters: specialized output device designed to produce high quality graphics in a variety

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 of colors. It used for creating large hard copy items, such as maps, architectural drawings,
3D illustrations items typically too large for regular printers
VI. Speaker: this is a device specially used to provide audio output.
D. Storage Devices
Storage device is used to store data or information internally or externally. Storage device can
classify into primary (main memory) and secondary storage device.
Primary (main memory): It is a means of storage that is found within the computer itself
and that is why it is called internal memory or primary memory.
 Have low capacity
 High speed and
Primary memory includes RAM and ROM.
RAM: is a random access memory (can be accessed randomly without regard to any other
memory location. It is working area of the computer.
 It is volatile it holds data as long as there is current flow.
 It allows read/write
 Holds data temporarily.
 Expensive
ROM: Stands for read only memory. Once programmed, it can only be read from it.
 It is nonvolatile: unlike RAM, the contents cannot be changed or lost when
electric current is turned off. It stores data permanently.
 It is read only memory: we cannot write or change the contents of ROM.
Secondary storage device: it also called Secondary memories or Mass Storage devices. It
used for mass storage of programs and data files. Because of the primary storage doesn’t
store user’s data permanently, their high price and limited capacity, the need to have other
type of storage to hold large amount of data for a longer period of time in a less expensive
and yet accessible manner is evident.
 Have the capability to store large amount of data for a longer period of time.
 It is reading a writing device.
 Inexpensive compared to primary storage.
There are two types of secondary storage: Magnetic Storage and Optical storage.
A. Magnetic Storage: Is storage devices made up of Iron Oxide particles mixed with a

18
 binding agent. They use magnetic technology to read and write data and information
from and to the surface of storage area. The most common types of secondary storage
are: Magnetic tape and Magnetic disk
I. Magnetic Tape: is the earliest form of secondary storage. Data can be stored on
and retrieved from tape sequentially. Magnetic tape is not so widely used for file
processing, but still plays an important part in the file back up for security
purposes.
II. Magnetic disk: are flexible plastic or metal (rigid aluminum) disks of easily
magnet able materials. There are two types of magnetic disks on which we can
store and retrieve randomly.
➢ Hard disk: is a high capacity magnetic disk, which is fixed in the main unit of the
computer. Hard disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which
contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. It
enables very fast accessibility of data and can store much more amount of data (40
MB to GB) in capacity.
➢ Floppy disk: is also called diskette. It is removable and has less capacity
compared to the hard disk. The content of a floppy disk can be erased and re-used
a number of times.
Two characteristics describe floppy disks: Size and Capacity. Size refers to the physical
dimension of the disk and Capacity refers to the amount of information the disk can hold.
B. Optical Storage: It uses the principle of light (laser beam), rather than magnetism to
store information. Optical disks have huge capacity. They are two types of common
optical disk:
1. CD (compact disk)
• CD_R(CD recordable)
• CD_RW(CD rewritable)
• CD_ROM(CD read only memory)
2. DVD (digital versatile disk)
• DVD-ROM • DVD-RAM
• DVD+R
• DVD+RW

19
Other computer components
 Mother board: is also known as system board (main board) that is the heart of the
computer. It is a large green circuit board that holds: RAM, ROM, CPU and so on.
 Expansion Slots: are also called expansion buses which allow the user to add additional
capabilities like network interface card, TV card, Sound card, internal modem, etc.
 Power Supply: It delivers electrical power to the computer system. The computer
components work with +5V, and + 12V. The power supply steps down the voltage to the
required value and changes AC to DC.
 Ribbon buses (Cables): are used to connect the different components, and transfer data.
 Ports: A port is the interface through which the microprocessor in the system unit can
communicate with an option such as a monitor or a printer. There are two common
types of ports:
• Serial Ports: Allow data to send and receive serially (a bit at a time) over a
single wire.
• Parallel ports: Data come in parallel over eight parallel wires.
 CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal oxide Semiconductor): It holds (retains) the
configuration or information of the computer.

2. Software components

20
The hardware alone cannot perform any particular calculation or data manipulation without
being instructed exactly what to do and how to do it. That is, software is a series of instructions
that tell the hardware what to do and how to do it. Software (Program) makes the interface
between the user and the electronic components of the computer. It facilitates communication
between a human being and a machine (the computer). Computer software is divided into two
broad categories:
A. Systems Software
B. Application Software

Application Systems Software Hardware

User

A. Systems Software software

Systems software consists of all the programs, languages and documentations supplied by the
manufacturer. These programs allow the user to communicate with the computer and write or
develop its own programs. This software makes the machine easier to use, and makes an efficient
use of the resources of the hardware possible. Systems software provides the interface between
the hardware and the users. Interface is the means by which a person interacts with a computer.
Systems software includes: operating system, system support software, and systems development
software.
➢ Operating System: is a master control program, permanently stored on the primary
memory that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services such as
display, print, copy a data file, list all files in a directory, execute a particular program.
▪ It manages the hardware for the most efficient use of computer resources
▪ Provide an interface between a user and an application program and the hardware.
Examples of an operating system are: MS-DOS, MS-Windows, and UNIX.
➢ System Support software:
▪ It provides system utilities and other operating services.
▪ It is a border line between application software and system software.
▪ Operating services consist of programs that provide performance statistics for the
operational staff and security monitors to protect the data and the system.
➢ System Development Software: includes the computer or programming language
translators that are used to convert written programs to machine language for execution.

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 Programming Language
Programming language is the means of communication between a human being and a computer.
The levels of programming language are discussed in terms of generation of languages.
Accordingly, there are four levels of computer programming languages:
I. Machine Language: is the first generation of programming language that was available in
the earliest days of computer.
▪ It is the only programming language that the computer can understand.
▪ Machine language is the lowest level language which works in the form of 0s & 1s.
II. Assembly Language: Is the second-generation language. Use mnemonics in place of 1s and
0s to represent the operation codes. Mnemonics is an alphabetical abbreviation used as a
memory aid. It uses assembler to translate assembly language to machine language.
III. High-level Languages: Is the third generation language. The instructions are called
statements. Statements closely resemble human languages. The translator of this language
Compilers and Interpreters used as a translator of high-level to machine language. E.g.
FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C++, Visual C++, etc.
IV. Fourth Generation Languages: allow users to create programs with much less effort than is
required by high-level languages. They are more English-like than high-level languages.
Examples are database query languages, report generators, and application generators.
B. Applications Software
It consists of programs or instructions to perform specific task or job or information processing
activities. There is a number of application software. Some of such application softwaresare:
- Word Processing: Allow creating documents like letters, reports, handouts, office memos,
magazines, newspapers, etc. Examples MS-Word, Word Star, and Word Perfect.
- Spreadsheets: is a table of rows and columns to perform calculations and other related
activities on a numerical data. Examples are MS-Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro.
- Database Management system (DBMS): are used to systematically handle, organize, or
store data and latter get the stored data in a much flexible way. Examples: MS-Access
Fox Pro.
- Desktop Publishing Programs: are used to create (publish) professional newsletters and
reports using the PC that sits on your desktop. Examples: Page Maker, Ventura.

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- Computer Aided Design (CAD): is used by engineers and designers to draw an object.
Example: Auto CAD
- Computer Games: Example Chess, Solitaire, Dave, etc.

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 Chapter Four
Computer Networks and Internet
4.1 Introduction to Networking
What Is a Network?
• A system in which a number of independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals.
• A computer network refers to the system of two or more interconnected computers by a
media that allows them to share data, device, peripherals, and remote computer databases.
• Sharing is the purpose of computer networking. The ability to share information
efficiently is what gives computer networking its power and its appeal.
• A computer that is not connected to other computers is called a standalone system.
4.1.1 Why Computer Networks are needed?
With the availability and power of today's personal computers, you might ask why networks are
needed. Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these goals
in three primary ways:
1. Sharing information (or data)
2. Sharing hardware and software
3. Centralizing administration and support
More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:
• Documents (memos, spreadsheets, • Live audio and video broadcasts.
invoices, and so on). • Printers.
• E-mail messages. • Fax machines.
• Word-processing software. • Modems.
• Project-tracking software. • CD-ROM drives and other
• Illustrations, photographs, videos, removable drives.
and audio files. • Hard drives.

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1. Sharing Information (or Data)
The ability to share information quickly and inexpensively has proven to be one of the most
popular uses of networking technology.
By making information available for sharing, networks can reduce the need for paper
communication, increase efficiency, and make nearly any type of data available simultaneously
to every user who needs it.
2. Sharing Hardware and Software
Computer networks can be used to share printers, plotters, and other peripherals. Networks can
be used to share and standardize applications, such as word processors, spreadsheets, inventory
databases, and so on, to ensure that everyone on the network is using the same applications and
the same versions of those applications.
3. Centralizing Administration and Support
Networking computers can simplify and support tasks as well. It is far more efficient for
technical personnel to support one version of one operating system or application and to set up
all computers in the same manner than to support many individual and unique systems and
setups. And also used to centralized control.
4.1.2 Network components and functions
• Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
• Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
• Media—the wires/air that make the connections.
• Resources—any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available
for use by members of the network.
4.1.3 Types of Networks
Depending on their geographical coverage, size and function of computer networks are mostly
classified into three groups.
1. Local area network (LAN):
• It is the smallest form of a network and the basic building block of any computer network.
• It is limited by geography that covers within a mile-perhaps one office, one building, or a
college campus.
• A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex
(hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).

25
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN):
• Is a communication network covering a geographical area such as the size of a city.
3. Wide area network (WAN):
• On the other hand, has no geographical limitation.
• It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world.
• A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the
Internet.
4.1.4 Network Configuration
• Networks are classified into two principal groups based on how they share information:
peer-to-peer networks and server-based networks.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily visible cabling system.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
• There are 10 users or fewer.
• Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
• Security is not an issue/less security.
• Limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Server-Based Networks
• In server-based network works an environment with more than 10 users.
• In a server-based network, one or more computers act as servers and provide the
resources to the network. The other computers are the clients and use the resources
provided by the server.
• Centrally located for network control; requires at least one knowledgeable administrator
• Extensive and consistent resource and user security
• Limited only by server and network hardware

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4.1.5 Network Topology
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables,
and other components on the network.
A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's logical topology is the way it carries
signals on the wire. Logical topology refers the flow of information. That means it determine
how computers communicate on the network.
Topology mostly classify into four basic topologies. They are:
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Mesh

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1. Bus topology:
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a
single straight line called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of the
computers in the network in a single line. Computers on a bus topology network communicate by
addressing data to a particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic
signals. Collision will occur, When two computer send data simultaneously.
Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on
the network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original
signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data. Because only one computer at
a time can send data on a bus network,
Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep
bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals.
Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data.

Figure 4.1 bus topology

2. Star topology:
In the star topology, each computer are connected to a centralized component called a hub.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network.

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The star topology offers the advantage of centralized resources and management. This topology
requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the
entire network goes down. If one computer or the cable that connects it to the hub—fails only the
failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data.

Figure 4.2 star topology

3. Ring topology:

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends and no collisions. Since only one terminals can send data at a given time.

The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which can
act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. The failure of one
computer can have an impact on the entire network.

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series
of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is
passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The data
passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the address on the
data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has
been received.

29
 Figure 4.3 ring topology
4. Mesh topology:
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling.
This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails,
another will take over the traffic. These networks are expensive to install because they use a lot
of cabling.

Figure 4.4 mesh topology

These four topologies can be combined in a variety of more complex hybrid topologies.

30
 Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies.
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization.
Table 4.1Topology Advantages and Disadvantages
Topology Advantages
Bus -Use of cable is economical.
-System is simple and reliable.
- Easy to extend.
Ring -System provides equal access for all computers.
-Performance is even despite many users.
-computers act as repeaters
Star -Modifying and adding new computers is easy.
-Centralized monitoring and management.
-Failure of one computer does not affect the rest.
Mesh -System provides increased redundancy and
reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting.
-Failure of one computer or one cable does not
affect the rest of the network.
Disadvantages
-Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
-Problems are difficult to isolate.
-Cable break can affect many users.
-limits on cable length & computers
-Failure of one computer can impact the rest.
-Problems are hard to isolate.
-the more terminals, the network becomes slower.
-Security may be less(as data has to travel through
other computers)
-Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
-If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
-uses more cable
- expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling
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4.2The internet
The internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN, consisting of tens of thousands of
businesses, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual users and using a
variety of different network architectures.
The Internet is defined as “a loosely-organized international collaboration of autonomous,
interconnected networks.”
➢ Loosely-organized: No single organization has authority over the Internet. Anyone can
upload any kind of content or software and no one controls that. No one guarantees the
accuracy of the information that you find on the Internet.
➢ International: More than 100 countries are represented on the Internet.
➢ Collaboration: Many organizations cooperate to provide the services and support needed
to sustain it. For example, much of the software that drives the Internet is open-source
software developed collaboratively by programmers throughout the world, who
constantly work to improve the code.
➢ Autonomous: Organizations that join the Internet are free to make their own decisions
about how they configure and operate their networks.
➢ Interconnected: There are standard protocols to enable different networks communicate
with each other. Without the interconnection provided by TCP/IP protocol, the Internet
would not exist.
➢ Networks: The Internet is “network of networks”, i.e. most of individual users who are on
the Internet don’t access the Internet directly. Instead they access the Internet indirectly
through another network, like LAN or dial up or broadband network provided by an
Internet Services Provider (ISP). Otherwise, the Internet would be completely
unmanageable if it consisted of 171 million individual users, all interconnected.
The Internet is composed of several distinct types of networks: Government agencies, military
sites, educational institutions, businesses, ISPs, commercial online services etc.
Every site on the internet has address, just like people have PO Box number at their local post
office. On the internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locaters). URLs are
written as a number of words separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com. The word after
the final dot (e.g.com) is the domain of the address. The domain indicates the category of the
web site.

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TheWorldWideWeb:-The World Wide Web (www) is a way of browsing the information on
the internet in a pleasant, easy to understand. Text can be mixed with graphics, video and audio
to provide multimedia (many different media) internet content.

33
 Chapter Five
Computer Hazard and Security
5.1 Computer Hazard
Computers and the information they contain are often considered confidential systems because
their use is typically restricted to a limited number of users. This confidentiality can be
compromised in a variety of ways. Factually, these data or information inside the computer may
be affected by different hazards. For example, people who spread computer viruses and worms
can harm computers and computer data. So taking care of the data and information in the
computer and the computer itself is very essential, this idea tends to security.
What is computer virus?
- Computer virus is a self- replicating (copying) computer program that interferes with
computer's HW or OS & duplicates itself without the user's knowledge. It may damage
corrupt, or destroy data or degrade system performance. Once the infected program is
executed, the computer viruses like biological viruses destabilize the normal flags of
the OS.
- Like any other computer program a virus must be executed to function, that is, it must
be loaded from the computer’s memory and the virus's instructions must then Identify
each letter or number, symbol etc. in the form of two states/digital signals, either a
HIGH voltage state “ON/TRUE”, or a LOW voltage state “OFF/FALSE”.

Types of Computer Viruses

There are different types of viruses. Some of these are:-
1. Data File Viruses 4. Multi-partite viruses
2. Bootstrap-sector viruses 5. Script viruses
3. Parasitic or file viruses
1. Data File Viruses
Viruses infect programs that contain powerful macro language (programming language that let
the user create new features & utilities). These files are called data file viruses or macro viruses.
This virus spread infected files, which allows use of macro Languages
2. Boot Sector Viruses

34
These viruses infect the boot sector of a hard disk or floppy. They reside on the boot sector &
replace either the program that store information about the disk's contents or the program that
start the computer. An attempt to boot from a diskette infected with active in memory. These
types of viruses will place a copy of itself on to master boot record;
3. Parasitic or file viruses
These viruses infect executable files or programs in the computer. These files are often identified
by the extension .exe in the name of the computer file. File viruses leave the contents of the host
program unchanged but attach to the host in such a way that the virus code is run first. These
viruses can be either direct-action or resident. A direct-action virus selects one or more programs
to infect each time it is executed. A resident virus hides in the computer's memory and infects a
particular program when that program is executed.
4. Multi-partite viruses
These viruses combine the abilities of the parasitic and the bootstrap-sector viruses, and so are
able to infect either files or boot sectors. These types of viruses can spread if a computer user
boots from an infected diskette or accesses infected files.
5. Script viruses
These viruses are written in script programming languages, such as VBScript (Visual Basic
Script) and JavaScript. These script languages can be seen as a special kind of macro language
and are even more powerful because most are closely related to the operating system
environment. The "ILOVEYOU" virus, which appeared in 2000 and infected an estimated 1 in 5
personal computers, is a famous example of a script virus.

5.2. Computer Security

Computer security is a technical developed to protect single computers and Network- Lined
computer system from accidental or intentional harm including destruction of computer hue &
sue. One of the causes of disaster on a computer system is computer virus. There are different
types of security methods. Some of which are as follows:-
I. Disaster Recovery Plans: It is Periodical testing and upgrading of the contents of the
computer. It helps to safe guard documents from sudden damage.
II. Application Safeguards: Protecting the computer itself and the document within the
system from internal and external damage.

35
 III. Intrusion Selection Systems: it is a Security software called intrusion detection systems
may be used in computers to detect unusual and suspicious activity and, in some cases,
stop a variety of harmful actions by authorized or unauthorized persons. Abuse and
misuse of sensitive system and application programs and data such as password,
inventory, financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by these systems
IV. Firewalls: Software placed between the networked computers and protects the networked
computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all information passing through
the network to ensure its appropriateness.
V. Passwords: are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make
use of specified computers, software, or information.
VI. Backup: Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and
communication capabilities are important basic safeguards because the data can then be
restored if it was altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident.
VII. Encryption: a process ofconverting messages or data into a form that cannot be read
without decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes
from the Greek word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”

VIII. Anti-viral Tactics

A. Preparation and Prevention
B. Virus Detection
C. Containment and Recovery

36
 SU Introduction to IT

Samara university
Faculty of Engineering &Technology
Department of Information technology
Course Tile: Introduction to Information technology Course Code: ITec1011
Credits hrs: 3 Course ECTS: 5
Instructor name: Ashenafi A...
Office location: CBE Building, Room 109
e-mail: Ashenafi019@gmail.com
Target Group: 1styear Law department

Course Description
An overview of computers; Development of Computers; Input Devices; Output Devices; Central
Processing Unit; System Software; Application Software; Number System; Impact of IT Locally
and Globally; Virtual Self and Society; Ethics; Information Security and Computer Crime; Data
Processing, introductory concepts of Computer Networks and the Internet ; Microsoft Windows;
Microsoft Office – MS Word, MS Excel and MS Power Point.
Course Objective
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
• Explain the major concepts , function and principles of computer

• Explain historical development of computers with their characteristics

• Explain the computer system

• Describe data representation techniques and computer arithmetic

• Define computer networking , its components and applications

• Make use of the basic MS office applications

• Describe basic concepts in Internet.z

. Page 37
 SU Introduction to IT
Chapter One Chapter Five
1. Introduction 5. Fundamentals of the internet
1.1. Overview of IT and Data Processing 6.1. Introduction
1.2. Applications ofIT 6.2. History of the internet
Chapter Two 6.3. Services of internet – E-mail, FTP,
2. Development of computers Telnet, WWW
2.1. History of computers Methodology
2.2. Generations of computers ✓ Lecture, Laboratory, Reading Assignment,
2.3. Types of computers Class discussion
2.4. Classification by purpose of application Assessment
Chapter Three ✓ Continuous Assessment 60%
3. Components of computer systems
3.1. Hardware components • Test
3.1.1. Input devices
3.1.2. Central Processing Unit • Individual Assignment
3.1.3.Output devices • Group Assignment
3.1.4. Storage devices& others
3.2. Software components • Quizzes
3.2.1. System software
3.2.2. Application software • Attendance
Chapter Four
4. Data communicating and networking concepts ✓ Final exam 40%
4.1. Network topologies Reference materials
4.2. Transmission protocols 1. Williams and Sawyer, Using Information
4.3. Transmission media Technology.
4.4. Network access methods
4.5. Transmission modes 2. DidaMidekso, Introduction to Computer
4.6. Types of network Science.
5.7. Ways to network computers
3. Mergia, Complete Guide to Information
Technology.
4. Laudon and et. al., Inforamtion Technology:
Concepts and Issues.
5. Corbitt, Information Technology and its
Application.
Morley and Parker, Understanding Computers:
Today and Tomorrow.

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