‘Scanned with CamScannerPrinciples, Th 8. Thi e however, demands a more comprehensive scheme for message adtessing than js SS needed for channel associate signal i. (b) Nonassociated signalling _— speech or information path ———— signalling path Signalling transfer point (STP) © switch system [J Figure 9.28 Modes of operation of CCS. 3. Switching Hierarchy and routing. 1enetworks require some form of inerconnection of switching exchanges to route traffic sifecively and economically. Exchanges are interconnected by groups of wunk lines, usually Jnowa as trunk groups that cary waffic in one direction. Two trunk groups are required ‘beween any two exchanges, Thee basic topologies are adopted for interconvecting exchanges: imesh, star, and bierarchy. Mesh is 2 fully conneced network (see Section 1.1) The number of trunk’ groups in a mesh network is proportional to the square of the exchanges being imerconnected. AS a result, mesh connections are used only when there is heavy traffic among, ‘eachanges, as may happen in a metropolitan area. A star comnecion wiles an intermediate ‘change called a tandem exchange though which all other exchanges conimunicat. A sir Cnfiguraion ts shown ia Figure 973). Star networks are used when the iific levels are Comparatively low. Many stat networks may be interconnected by using an ational tandem ‘xchange, lading 1a two-level star network as shown in Figure 9.7(b). Am orderly consrction of mutievel star networks leads to hicarchical networks. ierarcial network ae capable of handling heavy tafe where require, and atthe same tie se minimal number of trnk groups. A S-level switching hierarchy is recommended by (CCITT 2s sown in Figure 9.7). Ina srcly hearchical network, atic from subscriber Ato subscriber Band vice ves lows trough the highest level of hierarchy, vi. quaternary centres Figure 27(9. A tac route via the highest level of hierarchy is Known a te fal route. bere sa high wafficintersty between any pair of exchanges, dect trunk groups be established between thm as shown by dashed lines in Figure 9.7(c). These rect routes high usage routes. Wherever high usage routes exist, te af fc is primarily routed them, Overflow rai if any is routed along the hierarchical path Scanned with CamScanner(©) CCITT hierarchical structure LA\PA, SATA, QA = lca, primary, secondary omar and ‘quutenicy aes espetively E' exehange TE = tandem exchange Figure 9.7 Telecarmunication werk tpg Scanned with CamScanner‘No over(tow i permite f between subscribers, from the final route, tn Seem ai AS Bs ihe gh nage tc Bat ha se yc halo aa aed nar 9:10. A Neca ioe system of routing leads = {0 simplitied sw Sian ri leds snp eich des Te meats ae commonly used / 1, Righethrou | 2 Onmerchange natty 3. Computer-conralle routing, j In right-trough rout to EiRhtrough routing ihe ocgiaing exchane determines the complete rote (rm SURES se dui No on sa en 9 eh ac Toe abmence of 2 Compe ns prec uence me ge Hoses est tay be mre than en perm te ad a 8 cree ot of OSE, un crane of ey. wn ant wi _ontrendange rong daar ing ow ome be coat a utng or ds of eaponding 1 SNE TO ho tetror conigumiona, Aner sdvenage of sted rong hat Wet exchan so ge Me cen et sin common ante $e on, in ccs. there sepa computerconolled 1 Sim poson,asomber aa ry ut acon moos con be lament Cm ‘ied routing 1 2 ooo in daa networks, A detailed mscussion amps terconrolied rout Sand ed in Secon 10 whe Sealing Wi SPE ewer ses om one Sits a poor fault wlerance ee neork desig shoud mana COMMUNIST ‘Rough may be it eetbiinyantincresed blockage, even he ‘one or sever ar Gras fice, explosion, sabouge and oto ter. ‘otal breakdown of the NewS) vader ealamity. in a hierarchic Should never occur unless u shoal he nodes ofeach rank became fewer 2090 ks at higher levels might seriously Jeonart ad ens. Alternative rutin FNS and Ee vege abe provided fr in Nghe Vel mont tendency Is w reduce te ide a tare redundant nda eves in the hierarchy, and lly it ‘he high Fevel nodes f0 prov! or erative routes, I expected what ie fire rational networks may BE ‘aly Uaree levels of hierarchy. built with, 4, BORSHCT.— Cory 5, Data transmission in DSTL 6.1 Organization for Standardization) ~ OST. - DCN copy. Scanned with CamScannerNumericals: EXAMPLE 62 Coloulse the maximum access time tha canbe permed fr the data and ‘concol memories fa 2 TS svtch witha single input and single ape runs multiplexing 2500 Skane Al, nme there a the cli ae npn wih at Single Te Unsnaneitch, Solaion Applying £q (617), we hive 125x10° (C2 2500 = 5000 units “Tes exec is nanbocking andl supports fll avail. AB equivalent singe tage space insia switch uses a marx of 2500 * 2500. Hence, the ces of such a switch i 6.25 million unis. 6.25x10° Cost advantage of the time seth = 5000 EX** E65 Calculate tie access time of the memory modules in parallei-in’serial-out time “-** switch using 64 input and 64 output streams with each stream multiplexing 32 channels. Solution Substituting the values in Eq, (6.21) and assuming overlapped operation, we have 125 = 32 * 65 * try ie 125 32 x 65 = 0.06 is Scanned with CamScannerData Transmission in PSTN analog, voice . interfaces. NS data rates ae nan ee tu PAX, and MANS wound PST is Wy limited toa maxims of Gt Kops. Tesresral aa ‘etorks however, supput data ates of 1.544 oF 2.088 MOP 10" 10" SONET fo eDoT Fo MAN z | % LAN gu SBDN 4 10"! 2, | epanx | Pst a LAN | MAN al 10” oa 1 jo100 «(1000 10,000 Distance (km) —> Figure 10:2. Geographical coverage and speeds of data netwcrhs ‘Transmission of digital date ‘signals over PSTN networks demands that the digital signals be ‘converted to analog form atthe transiting end and vice versa atthe receiving end. A modulator anslates the data pulses into voice band analog signals at the transmitting end. At the receiving, wat the analog signals ate demodulated 10 recover the digital information. A combined Snodulatorfdemodulator unit is called a modem. ‘initially, modems were used to connect terminals, located in remote places, to 2 cent computer. Later, computerto-computer communication was established using modens = STs. A data communication scheme using modems and a PSTN is shown in Fi + Uigital interface of a modem Is connected to the computer and the ere ote telephone network In addtion to data exchange, the vp analog interface to the Oo the digital interface permits control signals to Scanned with CamScannerTelecommunication Switching MODULE 1 1. Different types of signaling tones: ; ing and releasing @ ‘A number of signalling functions are in .d in establishing, aie oat exsinae telephone conversation. These functions are performed by an operé Od by a eis In automatic switching systems, the verbal signalling of the operat tor i a ee tie of distinctive tones. Five subscriber related signalling functions are Pe i aoe operator: 1. Respond to the calling subscriber to obtain the identification of the called party- 3, Ring the bell of the called il is beit lished. 2. Inform the calling subscriber that the call is being estal e U party, 4 Inform the calling subscriber if the called party is busy. 5. Inform the calling subscriber if the called party line js unobtainable for some reason. led by sending a dial tone to the cal 1 dy to accept dialled digits from the subscriber. The caring the dial tone; otherwise, initial dial pulses ‘he call landing on a wrong number. olve Function 1 above is fulfil ling subscriber. This tone indicates that the exchange is rea subscriber should start dialling only after h ‘may be missed by the exchange, which may rest When the called party line i obtained, the exchange control equipment sends out the ringing current tothe telephone set of the called party. This ringing current has the familiar double- ring pattern. Simultancously, the control equipment sends out a ringing tone to the calling subscriber. + whenever the called subscriber line is engaged or the avitching resources including circuit groups are not available to put through the call. No distinction is usually made between these two conditions. The tone, however, is referred to as congestion tone if it is sent out on account of lack of switching resources or circuits. It is a bursty, single frequency, quick period tone in the range 400-450 Hz with silence period in between the bursts. The tone burst duration plus silence duration have a value in the range 330-1100 ms. The number unobtainable tone which is @ continuous 400 Hz signal. This tone may be sent tothe calling subscriber due oa variety of reasons such a the called party line is out of order or disconnected, and an error in dialling leading to the selection of a spare line. A busy tone is sent to the calling subscribe: The routing tone or calLin-progress tone is when a subscriber call is routed through a numberof different types of exchanges, one hears different callin-progress tones as the call progresses through different exchanges. There are many other audible tones such as special information tone, waming tone and ‘payphone recognition tone which have been standardised. f a Scanned with CamScannerVI 33 or 50 or 400 Hz continuous (a) Dial tone O4s O2s O4s petit —t 400 or 133 Fiz tone (b) Ringing tone 400 Hz (©) Busy tone 400 Hz continuous (a) Number unobtainable tone acess et 25 s—ok yo 05s a 400 or 800 Hz Oss (e) Call-in-progtess tone Figure 2.4 Typical basic signalling tones in automatic exchanges. ‘Scanned with CamScannerThe basic i idea of crossba Macias a se br switching rovidea mati of = mse of contacts with only n+ oe a Ist let oe ft aes of This form of switching Is aso eee ee switching contacts are arranged in an ay-plane, A resentation of a crosspoint switching matrix is shown In Figure 36. Electromagnets M2" M3" ~ Ae Wires Be g : 3 & ce ze a gure 3.6 3 3crossbar switching. zontal and vertical wires shown by sold lines. 4 set of vertical and om connected to these wires. The contact points (rr Pts ‘each pait ‘There is an array of hor wcietporizomtal and a corresponding bank of vertical conact horizontal contact points consisting of 2 bank of three or Scanned with CamScannerich and remains Separated oo ed (and electrically insulate" bors in tum ae atch 4g Mot 7 Points. A contact point pair acts as a crosspoint swt i use. The contact poinis are mechanically mount horzona and verti bars shown as dashed lines The ¢lectromagnets, fised, the When an electromagnet, sayin the haan dees i pepe deed slightly rotates in such a way that the contact palit ofan decrumogpe noe contact points It do pot actully make any COOL TE onnact points atthe iter ing direction Mo nt a ing ba es C8 of the Ronee Topens because he cae POS move towards each other. As ay hed at the ‘ jised, a contact is establlis! crosspoint cocample,ifetectromagnets Mz and Mg are ene a ner is come co te seober te es ‘ay sn aworkine af the crossbar switching, let us consider 8 i toi 32. s—apraay eT aE[ AF B—ay me] aC pp| BE] BF cay ap eel YE) = Dl payp Be, DP DE) PF f—ay— me] acl EDL FE] OF P 7 : FA FB FC FD FE FF A B c DE F Outlets Figure3.7 66 crossbar mat for 6 subscriber connections. “The schematic diagram shows six subscribers with the horizontal bars representing the inlets and the vera! bas the outlets. Now consider the establishment of the following connections in Sequence: Ato C and B to E, Fist he horizontal bar A is energised, Then the verical bar Cis negised, The crosspoint AC Is latched and the conversation between A and C can now proceed Suppose we row energise the horizontal bar of B to establish the connection B-E, the crosspoint ‘BC may ach and B will be brought into the circuit of A-C. This is prevented by introducing an ‘energising sequence for latching the crosspalnts. A crosspoint latches only if the horizontal bar is ‘energised first and then the vertical bar. (The sequence may well be that the vertical bar is energised first and then the horizontal bar.) Hence the crasspoint BC will aot latch even though the vertical bar C is energised asthe proper sequence is not maintained. In order to establish the connection -E, the vical bar E needs to be energised after the horizontal bar is energie. In this case the crosspoint AE may latch as the horizontal bar A has already been energised for establishing the connection A-C. This should also be avoided and is done by de-energising the ee ar A after the crosspoint is latched and making a suitable arrangement ‘such that the {ach muianed eve though the enrisatio inte iol erection withdrawn. The ‘rospn remans lached as lng the vertical i E remains energised Ashe horizontal bar eorecieed: —— after the crosspoint AC is latched, the erasspoint AE does not latch vertical bar Eis energised. or establishing a cea ais beranegst 1 Ths the stepwise proc establishing a connection a Sid 9 Sergi horizontal bar Step I: energise vertical bar Step 3: lergise vertical bar ‘or Step 2: energise horizontal bar : de-energise horizontal bar Step 3: de-energise vertical bar Scanned with CamScanner34 CROSS! BAR SWITCH CONFIGURATIONS tn 8 von we crate ose conto er ey Stacie ae aoa ed = Ning eet fo subucrbert Scie et eects sn cs ier w 3 CES eer ee arg S25 2 — 6 os 1808 em 3 un me OF 4 0.0000 16384 05 C = cost uni wm cae N= number of sbectberss coma EUF = equipment utilisation factor: capacity ‘= number of switching elements; SC = ‘switching Providing N® cros Se ee se otf tw gage og cig ae arte it ec isn sul Js. found to reduce the mumber of switc agiven of srtueinrsy casters sonoma 1, Wot any enema agent tint 2, Reducing the manber of cosas. 3. Designing blocking configurations. and N2 represent’ ‘the number d and three in the other—we With eight frequencies, ixed from a set of .e dual tone mbinations is now limited to N1 x N2, where NL four in one ban With seven frequencies— .e push buttons in Figure 3.3. nations. Since two frequencies are Tm one scheme by the nam The number of valid co of frequencies in each band. have 12 distinct signals as represented BY th have 16 possible combi four in each band, we seven or eight frequencies, Tu-T refers to the touch t multifrequency (DTMF) signalling 3. Side Tone Coupling in Telephon m the other party are suit where 2 small level of side tone and the full speech signal fror ceiver. The impedance 2b is chosen to be more or less equal to the impedance it to the right of section ‘AN’. Consequently, with proper side tone coupling the the microphone Mdivides more or less equally in the two windings pand hese two windings are in the opposite direction, onlya small ind er circuit providing the side tone. When 2 sif direction in both windings p and Q inducing 2 [ares A circ coupled to the re seen by the circu speech signal from since the signalsint! appears in the receiv’ entity, it travels in the same receiver circuit. Scanned with CamScannerA & ~~ = ' Bxehanger _ “ciecult with sidle 100e coupling. it. La Avctephone : eteph ith impulsing cireui is Jong with impul ; casbe + Rowrt Dis Te ea he telephone set, the following points hav= the tel 7 » dial pulsing mechanism In introducing dial Pt “ccumeod a ak of the subscriber loop, there is likelihoo 1. Since the pulses are of sparking inside the telep prodvce by make and ee hone set may be damaged if the ind the bell circuits of the telep! 2. The transmitter, receiver a dialling pulses are passed through them. 3, The dialling habits of the users var independent of user action. ; aa clephione uses the following for implementing pulse dialling: y widely and hence all timing aspects should be A rotary dial t 1. Finger plate and spring Shaft 2. Gear and pinion wheel 3. Pawl and ratchet mechanism 4, Impulsing cam and suppressor cam or a trigger mechanism 5. Impulsing contact 6. Centrifugal governor and worm gear Transmitter 7. Receiver and bell by-pass circuits. A rotary dial telephone is classified either as cam type or trigger type, depending on whether a cam mechanism or a trigger mechanism is used for operating the impulsing contact. The general operating principle of both the types is the same. ‘When the dial is in the rest position, the impulsing contacts are kept away from the impulsing cam by the suppressor cam. When the dial is displaced from its rest position, it is said to be in off-normal position. In this position, the impulsing contacts come near the impulsing cam. The rotation of the finger plate causes the rotation of the main shaft. The pawl slips over the ratchet during clockwise rotation. The ratchet, gear wheel, pinion wheel and the governor are all stationary during the clockwise movement of the dial. When the dial returns, the pawl ‘engages and rotates the ratchet. The gear wheel, pinion wheel and the governor all rotate. The Scanned with CamScanneree helps maintain a uniform speed of rotation. ‘The impulsing cam which i to apinion shaft, row breaks and makes the impulsing conints hn ura omteat oe Gee eee ie aes he el pulsing 4 which in turn causes the pulses, Peeve ve impulsing en is auc thatthe break ancl make periods are in a en the dial is about to reach the rest positions the supprewsor cam moves pee contacts away from the impulsing eam. This action provides the required erdigit gap timing independent of the pause that may occur elec two successive digits due to human dialling habit, The suppressor cam My algo be designed such that the interdigit pause is provided prior to the Nommeneement of the first pulse of a digit, The tigger dial is an improvement over the cam dial. ‘The trigger mechanism is so arranged that the trigger is sprung away from the impulse contacts during the clockwise motion of the dial, thus Pret ting pulsing at this stage. The ‘al return motion of the dial and trigger is sprung back to the operative position during the thereafter operates the pulse contacts. The time ‘required to bring back the trigger to operative position provides the interdigit gap which is about 240 ms. Gay Finger plate arrangement Ms feo. Zw iputaing mechanin am ‘aw = sear sheet yulsing circuit phone with imp - the de loop between Ce ee The impulsing contact (CO), rrent flow through the °, ee cries Wi ated by the cam OF a =~ Wien opted hs Scanned with CamScanner OGB, during pulsing. The switch BP1 provides a local RC loop with ICO for quenching the spark circuit is broken, In the absence of BP1, the sparking voltage 's in the telephone set. Once the and the impulsing that is produced when the may adversely affect the other circuit: , BPI and BP2 are open, developed across ICO Scanned with CamScanner2.4. STEP-BY-STEP SWITCHING — ted using neler oF two-man step -step sw em may be conse " —— orn cecinckora te Renny tee wiper cat of te wn ne ta ple They maya be mae ve Hh pe mec ee Semana iar ment een fords ie cat sane am ve Dy many COMES aed a may ye rer fal pales reine 2 ei 1 afc SEIN dior {et ete a sep-y-ep mann respon 1 he dal dt ce ne “sep swachng eae eho ost fe MES Cone ci aa Sones tmencmnia iar Slenallng The evact signaling tones are sent out othe subscriber by the swing emery (elecos) at the appropriate stages of switching, Thus, 9 step-by-step switching system fr SN ae ee aapsvthing syrah hee mo" PST OF SES 2 shen ig — 27 Tocall subscriber Group selector} Final stage : selector Switching network | Connector part part Figure27 Configuration of a step-by-step switching system. ‘The line equipment part also known as the preselector staf subscriber lines on the one side and the switching resources ol ‘other. The main purpose of the preselector stage is to est subserbers who go off-hook andthe switching resources inthe group selector sage. Presleces axe -ualet or oulet unlselectors or twoomotion selectors. One preselecor is used ger SEimecton. The design of the peselector stage is discussed later in this secdon. The geome selector stage which con ge, interfaces withthe incoming f the group selector stage on the tablish a connection between the Sroup selector. and so on. The number of 5 the size of the exchange. ‘The connector part or the ‘urgoing subscriber lines and comprises one set of ‘selectors. Each outlet of a ubstages depends upon final selector stage, interfaces with the ‘wo-motion selectors known as final Scanned with CamScannerlifts his ha Ind Set, a preset rou selec ‘elector associated with hi na i or, One is Incoming li At thien eerie Dat etween the nah CONNECTION Is established, the preslecior uma 10 the siete reste ana the fst mean nel the first group selector until it is released, Ree dialling pulses tremenn or. The first group selector is naw \ OF cuts off tty ‘S fram the subscriber. When the " died ots Che does wees es as io num! . wiper asst cf oa a ber of pulses in the first pele a oe of the selector steps vertically as many steps as the responding tothe digit dialed Arye ation called numerical election as the selcoe Second pulee train the wiper ae et he eof the Fst pulse tran and before the tar ofthe Contact to wich a free en e In the horizontal plane In the auto stepping mode until a resource selection, as the ae selvctor is connected Is found. We term this action as ieee picks a free switching resource from the next stage using the resource selection is may be recalled that the interdigit gap is around 240 ms and the seeders completed within this period. Thereafter, the first group selector just ae Keen uadanaepy group selector, Each group selector substage functions 2 ‘ St group selector substage by processing one digit of the numbes dialled by the subscriber and finding a selector in the : a h subsequent stage. In other words, each ‘group selector performs one numerical and one resource selection operation and thereafter acts as aa en path. The last substage of the group selector stage selects a final selector in the T part. The finai setector performs two nunicrical selections by processing the last two digits of the dialled number. It first steps vertically according to the last but one digit and steps horizontally according to the last digit, thereby reaching one of its outlets. Since the final selector responds to digits in the vertical as well as horizontal directions, it is sometimes referred to as numerical selector. The outlet of the final selector reached by the switching process described so far is connected to the outgoing line of the called subscriber. If the called subscriber is free, as sensed from a signal at the corresponding bank comtact, the final selector sends out a ringing current to the called subscriber, and a ringing tone to the calling subscriber. When the called subscriber lifts his handset, the ringing current and tone are cut aff and a switched electrical path is established between the calling and the called subscriber. Ar the same time, call metering circuits are enabled by the control circuits associated with the final selectors. Ifthe called subscriber is busy, the final selector sends out a busy tone to the calling subscriber. At any stage of switching, if there is no free selector at the next stage, a busy cone is returned to the calling subscriber. We now discuss the design of the preselector stage. As mentioned earlier, the Prescetor stage is constructed using, 10-outlet or 24-outlet uniselectors or twoemotion selectors and Is configured in either of the wo configurations. @ Selector hunter configuration ‘Line finder configuration Jectors, represent (wo Selector hunters and line finders, generally referred to = Coan rman oe fundamental ways in which a eee gains fe 7 co a a itchi mm. Selector hunter conti to erk om the event ae eee ee The line finder configuration on the polling principle. Vy triggered princi Scanned with CamScanneruniselectors are used a: i SS ee shown in Fi " ine finder schemes aré illustrated in the trunking di cae Re 2.8(a) and Figure 2.8(b), respectively. “<—_ In selector hunter approach (shown in Figure 2.8(4)), there is one dedicated selector hi uni i i jor hunter & uniselecror) for each subscriber and because of this, the scheme is sometimes called subscriber 5 for erae. As the name implies, a selector hunter searches and seizes a selector from the switching matrix part, When a subsciber lifts his hand set, the interrupter mechanism in his selector hunter gets activated and the wiper steps until a free first group selector is found at the outlet. The status of the first group selector, free or busy, is known by a signal in one of the bank contacts of the selector hunter. Once a free first selector is sensed, the interrupter is disabled and the first selector is marked ‘busy’. Thereafter, the selector hunter simply provides an electrical path. It is possible that nvo selector hunters Land on the same free first selector simultaneously and attempt to seize it. This is resolved by a suitable seizu In the line finder approach (depicted in Figure 2.8(b)), each first group selector in the switching matrix part. The outlets of the uniselector or the two- motion selector, swhichever is used as the line finder, are connected ¢o the incoming subscriber fines. As the name implies, .d finds the line of a subscriber who has gone off-hook and connects him to its eselector stage has a start circuit and an allotter switch. re circuit there is one dedicated line finder for a line finder searches ani first selector. The pr Scanned with CamScannerc witching 6. arison between Automat and Manu . Co Manual system ‘Access Where as Manual operator has drect accoss via the =r through several ranks of Much Higher, na te opartor ‘may hear wrongly and again connect wrongly. sent gies scopn is | To cardce te orzo ll Fie sartcn gon 2 Icughon the day and night po ithe operaicr wishes, he can | The conversation cannot be over hearthe conversation. "| overheard without inoducing ditional creuts fn a Manual exchange it takes | The Auto exchange more time to completa the establishes @ connection much establishment of a call, when | taster. it handies a larger al the card circuits are number of calls per minute in engaged. the busy hour, A Manual exchange switch | An Auto exchange Ie much board is less costly. costlier. a A Manual exchange is simpler | An Auto exchange Is costlier (0 maintain and requires fess. | to maintal i (echaan and laintain as It requires more! skilled statt, maintenance. 7. Carbon Granules Transducer, Scanned with CamScannerThe resistance decreases when the carbon granules are closely packed and increases when they are loosely packed. One side of the chamber cover is flexible and is mechanically attached to a diaphragm. When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it vibrates, causing, the carbon granules to compress or expand, thus changing the resistivity offered by the granules. If a voltage is applied to the microphone, the current in the circuit varies according to the vibrations of the diaphragm. The theory of the carbon microphone indicates that the microphone functions like an amplitude modulator. When the sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, the instantaneous resistance of the microphone is given by Ri = Ro — Rsin(wt) where Ro = quiescent resistance of the microphone when there is no speech signal R = maximum variation in resistance offered by the carbon granules, R < Ro Ri = instantaneous resistance. The negative sign indicates that when the carbon granules are compressed, the resistance decreases and vice versa. The instantaneous current of the microphone is given by I= Io[1+msin(wt)] where m= R/Ro. Scanned with CamScanner