MODULE 2

PROBLEM SOLVING

Introduction

Everyone must have felt at least once in his or her life how wonderful it would be if we
could solve a problem at hand preferably without much difficulty or even with some difficulties.
Unfortunately, the problem solving is an art at this point and there are no universal approaches
one can take to solving problems. Basically, one must explore possible avenues to a solution one
by one until one comes across a right path to a solution. Thus, generally speaking, there is
guessing and hence an element of luck involved in problem solving. However, in general, as one
gains experience in solving problems, one develops one's own techniques and strategies, though
they are often intangible. Thus, the guessing is not an arbitrary guessing but an educated one.
In this module we are going to learn a framework for problem solving and get a glimpse of
strategies that are often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya.

After the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. identify two types of reasoning;
2. use inductive reasoning to make conjectures;
3. find a counterexample to disprove a conjecture;
4. explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning;
5. use deductive reasoning to prove a conjecture;
6. state the four steps in the basic problem-solving procedure;
7. solve problems using a diagram;
8. solve problems using trial and error;
9. solve problems involving money; and
10. solve problems using calculation.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 TIME FRAME: 6 hours

CHECK-UP TEST

Answer numbers 9 - 10 on page 39 (Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our

World. New York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.)

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 LESSON PROPER
I. Reasoning

Reasoning is the process of logical thinking.

Two Types of Reasoning:
a. Inductive Reasoning (Induction)
b. Deductive Reasoning (Deduction)

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a general conclusion based
on the observation of specific examples.
It involves…
 Looking for patterns
 Making a conjecture (an educated guess)

Example: Using Inductive Reasoning to Find a Pattern

A game show contestant is given the following string of numbers:
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, __, __, __.

She’ll win $1,500 if she can continue the pattern and fill in the three blanks. Use inductive reasoning
to find a correct answer.
SOLUTION
To find patterns in strings of numbers, it’s often helpful to think about operations that can turn a
number into the next one. In this case, we can use addition to find a regular pattern.

1, → +1 → 2, → +2 → 4, → +1 → 5, → +2 → 7, → +1 → 8, → +2 → 10, → +1 → 11, → +2 →
13, __, __, __.

The pattern seems to be to add 1, then add 2, then add 1, then add 2, etc. So, a reasonable conjecture
for the next three numbers is 14, 16, and 17.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Using Inductive Reasoning to Find a Pattern
Make a reasonable conjecture for the next figure in the sequence.

Solution:

In the first four figures, the flat part goes from facing up to right, down, then left. There’s also a solid
circle in each figure. The sequence then repeats with an open circle in each figure, so in the next one,
the flat part should face left and have an open circle:

Example: Using Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

a. When two odd numbers are added, will the result always be an even number? Use inductive reasoning to
determine your answer.

b. How many pairs of numbers would you need to try in order to be CERTAIN that your conjecture is true?
SOLUTION

a. First, let’s try several specific examples of adding two odd numbers:

3 + 7 = 10

5 + 9 = 14

19 + 9 = 28

25 + 5 = 30

1 + 27 = 28

21 + 33 = 54

Since all the answers are even, it seems reasonable to conclude that the sum of two odd numbers will be an even number.

b. A very important point about inductive reasoning: you can try specific examples all day and always get an even sum,
but that can never guarantee that it will ALWAYS happen. For that, we’re going to need deductive reasoning.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Using Inductive Reasoning to Test a Conjecture

Use inductive reasoning to decide if the following conjecture is likely to be true:

Any four-digit number is divisible by 11 if the difference between the sum of the first and third
digits and the sum of the second and fourth digits is divisible by 11.
SOLUTION
Let’s make up a few examples:
1,738:
Sum of the first and third digits: 1 + 3 = 4
Sum of the second and fourth digits: 7 + 8 = 15
The difference is 15 - 4 = 11 and 11 is divisible by 11.
If the conjecture is true, 1,738 should be divisible by 11.
To check: 1,738 ÷ 11 = 158 (with no remainder).
Conjecture true for this example!
9,273:
9 + 7 = 16, 2 + 3 = 5, 16 - 5 = 11, and 11 is divisible by 11.
If the conjecture is true, 9,273 should be divisible by 11.
To check: 9,273 ÷ 11 = 843 (with no remainder).
Conjecture true for this example!
7,161:
7 + 6 = 13, 1 + 1 = 2, 13 - 2 = 11, and 11 is divisible by 11.
7,161 ÷ 11 = 651 (with no remainder).
Conjecture true for this example!
While we can’t be positive based on three examples, inductive reasoning indicates that the
conjecture is likely to be true.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

COUNTEREXAMPLE
A counterexample is one specific example that proves the conjecture false.
To find a counterexample…
 You must start with a number(s) or object(s) that matches the premise of the conjecture.
 Pick this (them) in a way that will give you an incorrect response.

Remember: One counterexample is enough to show that a conjecture is false. But one positive
example is never enough to show that a conjecture is true.

Example:
Example: Finding
Making aand
Counterexample
Testing a Conjecture
Find a counterexample
Use inductive reasoningthat provesa the
to make conjecture
conjecture below
about is false. of sections a circle is divided
the number
into when a A
Conjecture: given number
number of points
is divisible byon3 ifthethecircle are connected
last two by chords.
digits are divisible by 3.
(A chord is a line connecting two points on a circle.)
SOLUTION
Then pick
We’ll test the conjecture
a few numberswith one further
at random whoseexample.
last two digits are divisible by 3, then divide the
original
SOLUTION number by 3, and see if there’s a remainder.
1,527:
We’ll draw several circles, connect the points with chords, and then count the sections.
Last two digits, 27, divisible by 3;
1,527 ÷ 3 = 509
11,745:
Last two digits, 45, divisible by 3;
11,745 ÷ 3 = 3,915
AtPoint(s)
this point, you might 1start to suspect
2 that the conjecture
3 is 4true, but you5 shouldn’t! 6
We’ve only checked two1cases, and there
Sections 2 are infinitely
4 many 8possibilities.
16 ?
1,136:
Last two digits, 36, divisible by 3
Looking at the pattern in the number of sections, we see that a logical guess for the next number
is 32. In fact, the number 2
appears to be 2 raised to the power of 1 less than the number of points.
1,136 ÷ 3 = 378
This will be our conjecture.3
This counterexample
So how shows
many sections that thewith
are created conjecture is false.
6 points?

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a conclusion based on
previously accepted general statements.
It’s based on overall rules, NOT specific examples.

Cont:
Example: Using Deductive Reasoning to Prove
Number: 43 a Conjecture
Considerbythe
Multiply 2:following problem: 2 × 43 = 86
Think
Add 6: of any number. Multiply that number 86
by +2,6then
= 92add 6, and divide the result by 2. Next
subtract the original number.
Divide by 2: 92 ÷ 2 = 46
What is the result?
Subtract the original number: 46 - 43 = 3
a. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture for the answer.
Result: 3
b. Use deductive reasoning to prove your conjecture.
SOLUTION
a. Inductive reasoning will be helpful in forming a conjecture. Let’s begin by picking a few
specific numbers randomly, and performing the described operations to see what the
result looks like.
Number: 12
Multiply by 2: 2 × 12 = 24
Add 6: 24 + 6 = 30
Divide by 2: 30 ÷ 2 = 15
Subtract the original number: 15 - 12 = 3
Result: 3

Number: 5
Multiply by 2: 2 × 5 = 10
Add 6: 10 + 6 = 16
Divide by 2: 16 ÷ 2 = 8
Subtract the original number: 8-5=3
Result: 3

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 At this point, you may be tempted to conclude that the result is always 3. But this is just a
conjecture: we’ve tried only three of infinitely many possible numbers! As usual when using
inductive reasoning, we can’t be completely sure that our conjecture is always true. But at this
point, it seems like it would at least be worth the effort to see if we can prove that our conjecture
is true.

a. The problem with the inductive approach is that we can’t check every possible number.
Instead, we’ll choose an arbitrary number and call it a. Think of that as standing for “any
old number.” If we can show that the result is 3 in this case, that will tell us that this is
the result for every number. Remember, we’ll be doing the exact same operations, just on
an arbitrary number a.

Number: a

Multiply by 2: 2a

Add 6: 2a + 6

Divide by 2:

2a + 6 2a 6
= + = a+3
2 2 2

Subtract the original number: a+3-a=3

Now we know for sure that the result will always be 3, and our conjecture is proved.

Example: Using Deductive Reasoning to Prove a Conjecture

Consider the following problem:
Pick a number:
Add 50:
Multiply by 2:
Subtract the original number:
Result:
a. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture for the answer.
b. Use deductive
NATURE reasoning to prove your conjecture.
OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2
SOLUTION
Cont:
A reasonable conjecture is that the final answer is 100 more than the original number.
But this doesn’t
Example: Using prove the conjecture,
Inductive as we’ve
and Deductive tried only two of infinitely many possibilities.
Reasoning

Thea.lastNow we’llwe
six times try played
using deduction. Remember,
our archrival we’ll
in football, be doing
we won, so I the
knowexact same
we’re operations,
going just on
to win on
Saturday.an arbitrary number a.
Original
Did I use inductive number: reasoning? a
or deductive
Add 50: a + 50

SOLUTION Multiply by 2: 2(a + 50) = 2a + 100

Subtract the original number: 2a + 100 - a
Inductive Reasoning
Result:
This conclusion is based on six specific occurrences,anot
+ 100
a general rule that we know to be true. (No
team wins everywas
Our conjecture game!)
right: the final answer is always 100 more than the original number.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example:
Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

The syllabus states that any final average between 80% and 90% will result in a B. If I get a 78%
on my final, my overall average will be 80.1%, so I’ll get a B.
Did I use inductive or deductive reasoning?

SOLUTION
Deductive Reasoning!
Although we’re talking about a specific person’s grade, the conclusion that I’ll get a B is based on
a general rule: all scores in the 80’s earn a B.

Exercise: Use Inductive Reasoning to find a pattern

• 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 29 _____
• 10 20 11 18 12 16 13 14 14 12 15 ____
• 100 99 97 94 90 85 79 ___

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 Example:
1. Find a counterexample to show that each statement is false
• The sum of any three odd numbers is even.
• When an odd number is squared and divided by 2, the result will be a whole number.
2. Use I.R. to make a conjecture about a rule that relates the number you selected to
the final answer.
Pick a number:
Double it
Subtract 20 from the answer
Divide by 2
Subtract the original number
Result
3.

II. Problem Solving

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Procedure

Step 1 Understand the problem.

Read the problem slowly, jotting down the key ideas

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

Draw a diagram, find a formula, look for patterns

Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem.

Solve the problem, follow the numbers, and create an equation

Step 4 Check your answer.

Does your answer make sense?

Did you solve for the requested unknown?

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Solving a Problem Using a Diagram

A gardener is asked to plant eight tomato plants that are 18 inches tall in a straight line
with 2 feet between each plant.

a) How much space is needed between the first plant and the last one?
b) Can you devise a formula to find the length needed for ANY number of
plants?

SOLUTION

a) Be careful—what seems like an obvious solution is not always correct! You ight be
tempted to just multiply 8 by 2, but instead we’ll use Polya’s method.

Step 1 Understand the problem.

In this case, the key information given is that there will be eight plants in a line, with 2
feet between each. We’re asked to find the total distance from the first to the last.
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

This sounds like a situation where drawing a diagram would help, so

we’ll start there.

Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem. The diagram would look like this:

Now we can use the picture to add up the distances: 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

+ 2 + 2 = 14 feet
Step 4 Check the answer.
There are eight plants, but only seven spaces of 2 feet between them. So 7
x 2 = 14 feet is right.

b) Our drawing was designed to solve a specific problem, but we can actually use it for
the more general case.

It shows us that for 8 plants, there were 7 two-foot gaps in between.

We can deduce that for n plants, there would be n - 1 gaps, so the total length would
be 2(n - 1) feet.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Solving a Perimeter Problem
A campus group is setting up a rectangular area for a tailgate bash. They have 100 feet
between two roads to use as width and 440 feet of fence to use. What length will use up
the total amount of fence and enclose the biggest space?

SOLUTION

Step 1 Understand the problem.

We’re asked to consider a rectangular area, so there will be four sides. We’re told that the
width is 100 feet and that the four sides add up to 440 feet. (That is, the perimeter is 440
feet.) We’re asked to find the length.

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

This is another classic example of a problem where a diagram will be useful. This should
help us to figure out all the dimensions.
Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem. Our diagram looks
like this:

(Since the area is rectangular, the opposite sides have the same length. The width
between the roads is 100 feet)

Of the 440 feet of fence, 200 feet is accounted for in our diagram.
That leaves 440 - 200 = 240 feet to be divided among the remaining two sides. So 240
divided by 2 (sides) = 120.
Each has length 120 feet.

Step 4 Check the answer.

If there are two sides with width 100 feet and two others with length 120 feet, the
perimeter is…

100 + 100 + 120 + 120 = 440 feet.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Solving a Problem Using Trial and Error
As part of your duties as the new hire at a job, you’re put in charge of buying 12 door prizes for
an end-of-year staff meeting. You’ve got $110 to spend, and the boss is thinking that insulated
drink cups and smartphone stands would make nice gifts. If a mug costs $11 and a stand costs $8,
how many of each should you buy? (The corporate world is kind of funny about budgeting: it’s
considered a good thing to spend as much of a budgeted amount as you can. Seriously.)

SOLUTION
Step 1 Understand the problem.
The key information: total of 12 items purchased, $110 dollars to spend, $11 for each cup, and $8
for each stand. We’re asked to find how many cups and how many stands will result in a cost of $110.

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

I can easily figure out the total cost if I have a specific number of each item, so let’s try a
combination at random and see if that helps. If you buy one cup and 11 stands, the cost is 1 × $11 + 11 × $8
= $99. This isn’t right, but now we have a strategy.

Cups Stands Total Cost

1 11 $99

Step 3 Carry out the plan.

Let’s just keep trying combinations until we find the right one.

Cups Stands Total Cost

1 11 $99

2 10 $102

3 9 $105

4 8 $108

5 7 $111

At this point we can stop. Since the cups cost more, as we keep adding more of them the cost will keep
going up, and we’re already past our $110 target. The last row is out because that costs more than what we
budgeted, so the best we can do is to buy 4 insulated cups and 8 smartphone stands at a cost of $108. Then
you can use the leftover $2 for some Reese’s cups because they’re awesome.

Step 4 Check your answer.

One of the nice things about using trial and error is that the strategy basically IS checking your answer.
We already know we found the best choice.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 Example: Solving a Problem Involving Salary
So you’ve graduated from college and you’re ready for that first real job. In fact, you have
two offers! One pays an hourly wage of $19.20 per hour, with a 40-hour work week. You work
for 50 weeks and get 2 weeks’ paid vacation. The second offer is a salaried position, offering
$41,000 per year. Which job will pay more?
SOLUTION

Step 1 Understand the problem.

The important information is…

• The hourly job pays $19.20 per hour for 40 hours each week
• You will be paid for 52 weeks per year.
• We are asked to decide if that will work out to be more or less than
$41,000 per year.

(The fact that you get 2 weeks’ paid vacation is irrelevant to the problem.)

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

We can use multiplication to figure out how much you would be paid each week and then
multiply by 52 to get the yearly amount. Then we can compare to the salaried position.

Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem.

Multiply the hourly wage by 40 hours;

$19.20 x 40 = $768

This shows that the weekly earnings will be $768.

Now we multiply by 52 weeks:
$768 x 52 = $39,936
This gives an annual income of $39,936.
The salaried position, at $41,000 per year, pays more.

Step 4 Check the answer.

We can figure out the hourly wage of the job that pays $41,000 per year. We divide by 52 to
get a weekly salary of $788.46. Then we divide by 40 to get an hourly wage of $19.71.
Again, this job pays more.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

Example: Solving a Problem Using Calculation
Nutritionists often say that you need to burn 3,500 calories while exercising to shed one
pound of excess body fat. A general rule of thumb on exercise is that an average-sized
person can burn about 100 calories while walking a mile at a fairly brisk pace. How many
miles per day would an average person have to walk in order to shed a pound of body fat
in a week?

SOLUTION

Step 1 Understand the problem.

• A person needs to burn 3,500 calories in 7 days to lose 1 pound

• A person burns 100 calories per 1 mile
• The problem asks how many miles per day the person has to walk to lose 1 pound
in 1 week.

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

We’ll calculate how many calories need to be burned each day, then divide by 100 to see
how many miles need to be walked.

Step 3 Carry out the plan.

Since 3,500 calories need to be burned in 7 days, divide to find out how many need to be
burned per day.

3,500 ÷ 7 = 500

Then divide 500 by 100 to get 5 miles. An average person would need to walk 5 miles
per day to lose one pound of body fat in a week.

Step 4 Check the answer.

First, 5 miles per day times 100 calories is 500 calories per day. Multiply that by 7 days,
and we get the 3,500 calories we need.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 Example: Recognizing a Problem with No Solution
The grade in Marlene’s history class will be determined completely by three tests, each
worth 100 points. She scored 78 and 84 on the first two tests, but still hopes to get an A,
which would require an average of 92. What’s the minimum score she can get on the
third test and receive an A in the class?

SOLUTION

Step 1 Understand the problem.

We’re given two test scores of 78 and 84, and asked about the average for three tests.
Specifically, we want it to be at least 92.

Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.

We’ll start by seeing what the average would be if Marlene scores 100 on the last test, then
decide how much lower she can go and still have an average of at least 92.

Step 4 Check the answer.

In this case, we already checked our answer as part of the plan, so we know there’s no
solution to the problem.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 Exercises:

Answer numbers 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 on page 35 (Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World.
New York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.)

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2

 ASSIGNMENT
Answer numbers 15 - 18 on page 39 (Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World. New York. NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.)

References

Nocon, R. (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. Quezon City: C & E Publishing,
Inc.

Sirug, W. (2014). Business Mathematics, rev. ed. Manila: Mindshapers Co.

Sobecki, D. (2019). Math in Our World. New York. NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

End of Module 2

NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING – Module 2