Name: Branch:

Enrolment No.:

S.No.

Experiment

Page No.

Date performed

Remarks

Part 1
1 2 Protection against electric hazard Basic equipments & measuring instruments

Part 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Kirchoffs laws & Theorems Power measurement in RLC circuits AC Circuit analysis using Phasor diagram Three phase star-delta connection Testing of transformer Study of DC machine Testing of 3F Induction motor

Part 3
10 11 12 13 Characteristic of semiconductor diode Transistor characteristic in common emitter mode Logic Gates using Diodes and Transistors Half Adder and Full Adder

PART
1. Protection against electric ha zard: ways and means

Electricity is the most essential need of our life, without it our operations paralyze both at home and on the job. But use of electricity is associated with electric hazards. To know about the hazards, we need to know how electricity works. 1.1 How Electricity Acts? To handle electricity safely, we must know the way it acts; the hazards it presents and the methods to limit and control them. To understand how electric current acts, we take the example of running of water through a tap. To enable this, there should be water in the reservoir (source) and this reservoir should cause pressure for the water to run through pipeline, into a sink. If the pressure is not enough, a pump is needed to boost the pressure. Electric current flow is analogous to water flow in a pipe. The source of the electricity is the output of a generator. If it generates an electric pressure, called voltage, high enough to permit the flow of electric current through the electric wire (pipeline) to the sink, e lectric load. If the potential is not enough, we boost it using a transformer. In case of water, the source is a reservoir and pressure is created due to the height of the reservoir or, a by using a pump. Due to this pressure, the water is transported through pipes; that ultimately comes out of a tap For . electricity, the source is the power generating station; current travels through electric conductors in the form of wires; and pressure, measured in volts, is provided by a generator. Resistance to the flow of electricity is measured in ohms. It is determined by three factors: the specific conductivity, the dimensions (length and cross-sectional area), and the temperature of the substance under consideration. Metals offer very little resistance to the flow of electric current and are called conductors. Other substances, like bakelite, porcelain, dry wood, offer large resistance that seems to prevent the flow of electric current and are called insulators. Dry wood has a high resistance, but when soaked with water its electrical resistance drops to help electricity conduct. The same is true of human skin. When it is dry, it offers fairly high resistance to electric current; but if it is moist, there is a radical drop in the resistance. Pure water is a poor conductor, but the presence of small amounts of impurities, such as salt and acid make it a ready conductor. Any body working with electricity in the presence of water including the state of perspiration, is very likely to get shock if comes in contact with a live conductor. 1.2 How Shocks Occur? Electricity travels in closed circuits. E lectric shock occurs when the current flows through the body, entering at one point and leaving at another point. Electric shock normally occurs in one of the three ways. Individ uals - while in contact with the ground and comes in contact with a live wire , current passes through the live wire - body-ground. A metallic part of electric tools /machines may become energized due to break in the insulation. If the body of the equipment is earthed, the current takes the low resistance path through earthed wire and thus one is prevented from current flowing through his body and hence getting a shock. The machine operator is protected. 1.3 Severity of the Shock The shock is felt when the current passes through the body of a person. Amount of current is decided by the resistance of the body at that moment. Severity is decided by the amount of the current passing through the body and the duration and the frequency besides the general health of the victim. At higher frequency, the current pass through the outer part (skin). Skin is only burnt. In other cases, from power frequencies to DC, the severity depends upon

whether the Current flows through the heart or, bypasses it. If it bypasses the heart, the current passes through local parts of the body and partially damages them. It is not fatal. Fatality depends upon the amount of current flowing through the heart and the phase of the heart cycle. This process of shock in medical terms, is called ventricular fibrillation. It is not proportional to the amount of current, but is proportional to the duration of current. A severe shock can cause considerably damage to the body than is visible. For example, a person may suffer internal haemorrhages and destruction of tissues, nerves, and muscles. In addition, shock is often only the beginning in a chain of events. The final injury may well be from a fall, cuts, burns, or broken bones.

Effects of Electric Current in the Human Body

Current 1 mA 5 mA Reaction Perception level. Just a faint tingle. Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual can let go. However, strong involuntary reactions to shocks in this range can lead to injuries. Painful shock, muscular control is lost for woman and freezing zone or, let-go for man.

6-25 mA

50-150 mA Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contractions. Individual cannot let go. Death is possible. 1-4.3 A Ventricular fibrillation. (The rhythmic pumping action of the heart ceases.) Muscular contraction and nerve damage occur. Death is most likely. 10A+ Cardiac arrest, severe burns and probable death.

It may be noted that upon receiving electric shock, the parts of body tends to move in their natural direction such as fingers towards the palm. Therefore possible live wire or, expected live metallic housing will be firmly hold if touched by the side of palm. It is very safe to try from the back of the palm because it does not tend to hold the live body because of the natural movements of fingers. DC is more dangerous than AC because the later goes twice through zero in a cycle and tends to flow in relatively outer skirt of the body. 1.4 Burns and Other Injuries

The most common shock-related injury is a burn. Burns suffered in electrical accidents may be of three types: electrical burns, arc burns, and thermal burns. Electrical burn is the result of the electric current flowing through tissues or bone. Tissue damage is caused by the heat generated by the current flow through the body. Electrical burn is one of the most serious injuries one can receive and should be given immediate attention. Arc or flash burns, on the other hand, are the result of high temperatures near the body and are produced by an electric arc or explosion. Finally, thermal contact burns are those normally experienced when the skin comes in contact with hot surfaces of overheated electric conductors, conduits, or other energized equipment. Additionally, clothing may be ignited in an electrical accident and a thermal burn can result. All three types of burns may be produced simultaneously. Electric shock can also cause injuries of an indirect or secondary nature in which involuntary muscle reaction from the electric shock, can cause bruises, bone fractures, and even death resulting from collisions or falls. In some cases, injuries caused by electric shock can be a contributory cause of delayed fatalities. In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers. For example, when a short circuit occurs, hazards are created from the resulting arcs. If high current is involved, these arcs can cause injury or start a fire. Extremely high-energy arcs can damage equipment, causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low-energy arcs can cause viole nt explosions in atmospheres that contain flammable gases, vapours, or combustible dusts. 1.4 Preventing Electrical Hazards Electrical accidents appear to be caused by a combination of three possible factors unsafe equipment and/or installation, workplaces made unsafe by the environment, and unsafe work practices. There are ways of protecting people from the hazards caused by electricity. These include: insulation, guarding, grounding, electrical protective devices, and safe work practices. 1.4(a) Insulation One way to safeguard individuals from electrically energized wires and parts is through insulation. An insulator is a high electrical resistance material. Insulators - such as glass, mica, rubber, and plastic - are put on conductors to prevent shock, fires, and short circuits. Before preparing to work on an electric equipment, it is always a good idea to check the insulation for exposed wires before making a connection to a power source. The insulation of flexible cords, such as extension cords, is particularly vulnerable to damage. The connecting wires should be insulated to prevent people from coming into accidental contact with the current. Also, the insulation should be suitable for the voltage and existing conditions, such as temperature, moisture, oil, gasoline, or corrosive fumes. All these factors must be evaluated before the proper choice of insulation can be made. Conductors and cables are marked by the manufacturer to show the maximum voltage and Gage size for current. 1.4(b) Guarding Live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more must be guarded against accidental contact. Guarding of live parts may be accomplished by:

location in a room, vault, or similar enclosure accessible only to qualified persons; use of permanent, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified persons; location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or platform elevated and arranged to exclude unqualified persons; or elevation of 8 feet (2.44 meters) or more above the floor.

Entrances to rooms and other guarded locations containing exposed parts must be marked with conspicuous warning signs forbidding unqualified persons to enter. Indoor electric wiring more than 600 volts and that is open to unqualified persons must be made with

metal-enclosed equipment or enclosed in a vault or area controlled by a lock. In addition, equipment must be marked with appropriate caution signs. 1.4(c) Grounding Grounding is another method to protect from electric shock; however, it is normally a secondary protective measure. The term "ground" refers to a conductive body, usually the earth, and means a conductive connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to earth or the ground plane. By "grounding" a tool or electrical system, a low -resistance path to the earth is intentionally created. When effectively grounded, this path should offer sufficiently low resistance and has sufficient current carrying capacity to prevent the build-up of voltages that may result in a personnel hazard. This does not guarantee that no shock, no injuries, or death. It will, however, substantially reduce the possibility of such accidents - especially when used in combination with other safety measures.. A "service or system ground" is provided in the wiring system by running an extra wire called earth wire. This point is available at all the distribution points. One end of this wire is earthed through an earth-pit at the service station of the building. Next, body of machines and tools is connected to one end of the wire, the other end of which gets connected to the earth point available on distribution points, thus providing earth to the body of each and every equipment/machine/tool powered. This additional ground safeguards the operator in the event that a malfunction causing the metal frame of the electrical equipment to come accidentally in contact with live wire due to loss of insulation because of any reason. The resulting heavy surge of current will then activate the circuit protection devices to open the circuit. 1.4(d) Circuit Protection Devices Circuit protection devices are designed to automatically limit or shut off the flow of electricity in the event of a ground-fault, overload, or short circuit in the wiring system. Fuses, circuit breakers, and ground-fault circuit interrupters are three well-known examples of such devices. Fuses and circuit-breakers are over-current devices that are placed in circuits to monitor the amount of current that the circuit will carry. They automatically open or break the circuit when the amount of current flow becomes excessive and therefore unsafe. Fuses are designed to melt when over rated current flows through them. Circuit breakers, on the other hand, are designed to trip open the circuit by electro-mechanical means. Fuses and circuit breakers are intended primarily for the protection of conductors and equipment. They prevent over-heating of wires and components that might otherwise create hazards for operators and the system. Special type of circuit breakers also open the circuit under certain hazardous ground-fault conditions. 1.4(e) Safe Work Practices Personnel working with electric equipment need to practice safe-working. These include: de-energizing electric equipment before inspecting or making repairs, using electric tools that are in good repair, using good judgment when working near energized lines, and using appropriate protective equipment of such as wearing of insulated hand gloves and shoes, use of insulating mating, use insulated tools like pliers and screwdrivers. Use of live line indicators etc. Availability of first aid boxes, shock treatment facilities, active protective gears, When have to touch a live body to see whether it is live, use back of the palm. Bypass heart by touching palm of your non-active hand to thigh of the same side.

2. Sources, equipments and measuring instruments

2.1 Sources In order to conduct experimental investigation in the laboratory, it is necessary to have electrical power sources. These are practical voltage sources. (a) 3-phase, 4-wire AC Source: The power through local substation is fed to the laboratory and made available on different panels. It is characterized by four terminals R, Y, B and N. It is an alternating voltage source of frequency 50 Hz. Line to neutral rms voltage is 240 V and line to line voltage is 400 V are standard . When neutral is not provided, it can supply line to line voltage only. (b) Single Phase AC Source: The voltage between neutral and any of the three phases is single phase source. Standard is 240 V, 50 Hz. It is characterized by two terminals. 2.2 Autotransformer It is used in the laboratories to get 0 to 120% of input voltage from a standard supply of given frequency. For 240V, 50 Hz supply, it can provide a voltage in the range 0-270 V, 50 Hz. A

continuously variable autotransformer (also known as variac) has only one winding of enamelled wire on a toroid shaped core. The winding has three electrical terminals. Common terminal, it is common to input and output, Input: terminal tapped at about 80% of the winding and a variable output, tapped through a wiper. The wiper moves on the winding to give nearly continuously variable voltage output. The part of the enamelled winding on which wiper moves is erased of its insulation for suitable tapped voltage output. The size of the winding wire decides the current carrying capacity of the equipment. The alternative to above is tapped transformer. Input and common terminals are defined as above. But in place of continuously variable output, it has many fixed output terminals at pre-specified % voltages. . A failure of the insulation on turns of the windings of an autotransformer can result in its catastrophic. In this case, autotransformer body becomes live. Besides above, a very important precaution while using the auto transformer is in the use of common terminal. It must be used as one of the input voltage point and preferably, neutral. Three 1- auto-transformer connected such that single shafts simultaneously taps the voltages at each 1- auto-transformer is called 3- auto transformer. 2.3 Voltmeter A voltmeter (VM) is an instrument used for measuring the voltage between two points in an electric circuit. A pointer moves across a scale to display voltage; digital voltmeters (DVM) displays numbers. It uses uses analogue to digital converter. The voltmeter should draw negligible current (say 1%), that does not affect the current through the element across which it is connected. A voltmeter is made of a moving coil galvanometer and an appropriate resistance is connected in its series. A 100 A full scale deflection (FSD) galvanometer requires 1 M resistance to read 100 V (FSD). Such voltmeter can be used to measure voltage across an element that carries a current 100 times in excess of 100 A for 1 % error. The sensitivity of this voltmeter is ohms/volt which in above case is 10 K/volt or, 1/100A. It is always denoted on the graduated panel of the voltmeter. You studied the construction of a moving coil galvanometer in your schools. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. When an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and compresses a small spring. For moving coil galvanometer, the angular rotation is proportional to the current through the coil. The accuracy of measurement is called the class. This voltmeter is suitable only for DC or, AC converted in DC measurements. For more sensitivity optical pointer galvanometer is used. This is highly under damped and take long time to settle the reading. Selection of voltmeter depends upon circuit parameters across which the voltage is to be measured. Care should be taken to ensure that selected voltmeter is of suitable range and suitable sensitivity . There are voltmeters, like moving iron voltmeters, who can read AC voltage directly. They can read AC as well DC. Their sensitivity is low. They are preferred as general purpose supply voltage meters. For more accuracy, ac rms value based electronic voltmeters are preferred.

2.4 Ammeter Electric current is measured in amperes (A). An ampere meter, generally termed as ammeter or AM, is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Smaller values of current are measured using a milli-AM (mAM) or a micro-AM (AM). The voltage drop across the terminals of the AM should be as low as possible, so that it does not affect the actual current. This requires the resistance of the ammeter to be very low towards zero.

Moving iron ammeter (MI AM) uses an iron-piece which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents. Shunt in an ammeter is used to increase its range. Since the electro-dynamic ammeter with or without shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit. Current can also be measured by using a high resistance VM across a known resistance connected in series with the load. A suitable Electronic VM is usually preferred. Selection of ammeter for a particular use depends upon circuit parameters. Care should be taken to ensure that selected ammeter is of suitable range for measurement of current and voltage across the ammeter is negligible compared to the voltage across the link in which the current is measured. Never connect an ammeter across the supply point.

2.5 Wattmeter Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter (WM). This instrument is generally based on electro-dynamic principle. It consists of a pair of fixed coils of wire of thick gauge of few turns that carries load current and known as current coils. Movable coil known as the potential coil. The potential coil consists of many turns of fine wire. It has high resistance. The current coil (stationary coil) of the wattmeter is connected in series with the load and the potential coil (movable coil) is connected across the load. When line current flows through the cur rent coil of a WM, a field is set up around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and is in phase with it. The potential coil of the wattmeter generally has a resistor connected in series with it. It is used for calibration also. As a result, current in the potential circuit is proportional and in phase with line voltage. The actuating force of a wattmeter comes from the magnetic field of its current coil and the magnetic field of its potential coil. The torque produced is the vector product of these fields. The either coil can be damaged if the exceeds their rated capacity. Unlike in ammeter and voltmeter, where the meter reading itself describes the over-load status, the reading of the wattmeter does not tell the user that the coils are carrying over current and hence are overheated. This meter reading depends upon the power factor of the load circuit as well as voltage V and current I; thus W=V*I*PF where the value of PF ranges from 0 to 1 depending on load. Thus if a wattmeter reads 230 w for V=230 and PF = 0.4, the load current I = 2.5 A. Thus, a low power-factor circuit will give a very low reading on the wattmeter even when the current coils are loaded to the maximum safe limit. Wattmeters are available in dual or more range for voltage as well as for current, for example 200/400 V, 5/10 A. Multi range for voltage can be obtained by adding external resistance or, tapping the pressure coil at different points. However to have a dual range for the current, the main current coil is split into two sub coils, each with a current rating half that of the main current coil. These two sub coils are connected in series to get one range for the current say 5A for a wattmeter of 5/10 A. To obtain another range, these sub coils are connected in parallel. Shunt can also be used. Electronic wattmeter is also in use. Here samples of instant voltage and instant currents are multiplied, averaged and this averaged output is read on a digital voltmeter.

Students are advised to read about the power factor meter and Reactive Volt ampere meter.

Change over of current range 2.6 Multimeter A multimeter is an measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multimeters (MM), analog multimeters and digital multimeters . A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to an acceptable degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems. Most multimeter read AC in terms of their form factor and depends on the shape of the waveform. One should be extremely cautious while selecting the range and the quantity so that probes are plugged into right terminals. There is yet another device, called multiteste r or, tong tester used to measure AC currents, AC voltages and continuity in power circuits. It can measure current flowing in circuit without breaking a circuit. It uses a current transformer to do this. Some tong tester, based on hall effect principle, can measure AC and DC.

2.7 Symbols Moving Iron Type Instrument PMMC Type Instrument Use Vertical -- mount vertical Use Horizontal mount horizontal Search for more symbols.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indor e Experiment No. 1

Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others: Grade: A B C D F Signature:
Cross the grade.

1. Aim: To learn about the electric hazard. 2. Objectives: a. To learn why and when you get shock. b. To learn biological effect of electrical current on the body. c. To learn the most common ways the individuals get injured while using electricity. d. To learn how to avoid getting electric shock and methods to cure if shocked. 3. Problem Statement: To understand: a. That one gets a shock only if the electric current flows through his body. b. The severity of injury depends on the duration and the amount of the current flowing through the body. c. About the different precautions to avoid shock. d. Importance of grounding/earthing and guarding and safety tools/charts. e. How to act in case one gets the shock. 4. Answer the following Questions: a. What do you understand by the term live surface? b. What do you mean by the term electric shock? c. Why do you get a shock by touching a surface live at 220V? d. Why the severity is more when you are perspired and touch the live surface? e. Whether shock is a function of voltage or, current? f. When the shock is fatal? g. Write the maximum value of the current when you begin to feel a shock? h. Write the value of the minimum value of the current beyond which the shock can be severe/fatal.

i. j. l.

What happens when the current is in excess of 10 mA but does not pass through heart? How can you bypass the heart? If no equipment is available, how do you check whether a body is live?

k. What equipment you generally use to check whether the body in question is live? m. What is the current through a electric line tester? n. What is ventricular fibrillation? o. When can an equipment body be electrically live? p. What happens when you work on an electrically insulated mate? q. Why birds dont get died when they sit on live wire? r. What will happen if you hang yourself to 11000 V line without touching any thing? s. What happens when you touch a live surface using electrically insulated gloves? t. A surface is connected to a ground wire. It becomes live in due course of use. What happens now?

u. How does the ground wire prevent the build-up of voltage on the surface? v. You see a set of bare electric wires crossing a road over head. The electricity board uses a flat mesh below such over head lines. Why? w. Why earthing is the secondary measure against shock? x. What are the primary measures? y. What measures will you take as a first aid measures in case some body receives an electric shock? z. Wha t should be the resistance of a earthing?

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore Experiment No. 2

Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others: Grade: A B C D F Signature:
Cross the grade.

1. Aim: To learn about basic equipments and measuring instruments 2. Objectives: a. To learn about AC and DC supply systems. b. To learn about working and construction of autotransformer. c. To learn about various measuring instruments available in the laboratory. d. To select suitable measuring instrument for an experiment. 3. Problem Statement: a. To distinguish between DC and AC supply systems. b. To learn about a 3- 3W, 3- 4W, and 1- 2W AC supplies available in the laboratory. c. To learn that an autotransformer works as a variable 1- voltage source. d. Learn to select and use instruments for measurement of voltage and current. e. Learn to use wattmeter for measuring power. f. To use of digital multimeter to voltage, current and ohms, to know its limitations. g. To know about the tong tester, current transformer, phase meter, frequency meter etc. 4. Answer the following questions: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. Define a 1- 2W, 50 Hz 230 V AC supply. Define a 3- 3W, 50 Hz, 400 V AC supply. Define a 3- 4W, 50 Hz, 400 V AC supply. Define a 230V DC supply. Define the use of 3rd wire in 1- 3W, 50 Hz, 230 V AC supplies. Where this 3rd wire gets connected. Why a transformer is used. What is a single phase auto transformer? How it is different from a transformer. Why it is called variac. For 230V, 50 Hz input, what is the general output of a variac? What is the property of the core of a variac? How the output is taken from the winding of an autotransformer?

n. o. p. q. r. s. t. u. v. w. x. y. z. aa. bb. cc. dd. ee. ff. gg. hh. ii. jj. kk. ll.

mm. nn.

oo.

If you have to simultaneously change the voltages in more phases, how do you do? What decides the current rating of a variac? Why a moving coil VM can not read AC voltages? If a load of 46 is connected across a voltage of 230 V DC find out the current rating of the galvanometer to read with an accuracy = 99%. Calculate the resistance to be connected in series with above galvanometer to read 250 V DC. Assume the resistance of the galvanometer is 1 . In a galvanometer, why the pointer moves proportional to current flowing in it. What will happen if a moving coil VM is connected across an AC source? What will you do to read AC voltage? What is the meaning of sensitivity of a VM? What is the function of fixed coil in a WM? Why, like AM, the fixed coil carries the load current? What is the function of moving coil in a WM? Why, like VM, it is connected across the load? Why the WM reads the power dissipated in the load? Why this dissipated power is different from the product of VM and AM readings. Do you face such type of difference in circuits using DC? How the torque generated in WM is different from that in a galvanometer. We have a 50 mA galvanometer having 1 coil resistance. We want it to read 5 A. Workout the value of shunt. How will measure this resistance in the given shunt. If the wattmeter is designed to read 1000 W at 250 V for a pf of load between 0.2 to 1, what currents can flow through the current coil when load pf are 0.2, 0.5 and 1. What is a current transformer. How can it measure current without inserting an ammeter? Can it measure ac and dc currents? Can you use hall effect probe to measure AC as well as DC current. According to the Ohms law, the resistance (R ) is the ratio of voltage (V) and current (I). If ratio does not remain constant for different sets of values of (I-V), whether the Ohms Law is applicable here ? How can the value of the resistance change due to change in the current passing through the resistance? Some resistance material such as Tungsten and Carbon are the function of current, make the mathematical model for such resistance and discuss whether the specific resistance of these materials is a function of temperature/current. How the lamps made of these material withstand a temperature of 1910++C.

5. Report a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Write the uses of autotransformer in the laboratory. Choose an autotransformer for a given application. Justify that an ideal VM should have infinite resistance. Justify that an ideal AM should have zero resistance. Write about the markings on an electric meter. What are the quantities one can measure by a general purpose MM? What are the precautions you must observe while using a multimeter. Write the specifications of VM and AM available in the laboratory. Justify that in a WM, the current coil should use wires of zero resistance and pressure coils, infinite resistance. j. In a WM why the current coil is stationery while the pressure coil is moving. k. Write the effect of power factor on the current coil of a WM and coil of an AM.

PART

3. Application of Simple network laws and theorems to solve simple Circuits

Universal laws of Conservation of Energy were interpreted for electrical circuits by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1845 by putting forth the two laws; Current law and voltage law as below. These laws turned out to be the back bone of electrical circuits. Besides, a thorough practice of Thevenin and Norton theorems are essential for analyzing electrical and electronics circuits. These are applicable when it is desired to determine the current through or voltage across any one element in a network without solving network equations rigorously. 3.1 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) This law dictates that the vector sum of currents entering in node turns out to be zero.

It applies to junctions or nodes of an electric circuit where current has several possible paths to travel. Fig. 1 shows that I1 is the only current flowing into the node. However, there are three paths for current to leave the node, and these current are represented by I2 , I 3 , and I4. So, I1=I2+I3+I4 Bringing everything to the left side of the above equation, we get I1-I2-I3-I4 = 0 In a complicated network, it is not always possible to know the direction of the currents in advance. It is initially assumed. Mathematical Solution yields the direction.

Fig. 1 Kirchoffs current law 3.2 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) This Law states that in a closed circuit, the vector sum of the voltages in the path totals to zero.

Fig. 2 Kirchhoffs voltage law Self assessment_1: a. Write the equivalent statement of Kirchhoff laws in mechanical system. b. How KCL and KVL are related to law of conservation of energy? c. At a node, if we take all the currents flowing out of it, how is the net vector sum of currents =0 d. Write the essential property of the network required to current flow. e. What is the difference between a node and a jun ction? f.Does sum of the potential differences depend on the route taken by the current? 3.3 Thevenins theorem It states that across any two terminal network having linear elements and a number of voltage & current sources, can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with an impedance. The value of the voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the network, and the impedance is the one seen between the terminals with all e nergy sources replaced by their internal impedances For DC, the word impedance can be replaced by resistance. The instant theorem permits us to simply calculations of a complicated network across desired terminal-pair by dividing it in two or more parts at the terminal pair. Each part can be dealt independent of other. After simplification, each part can be represented by a voltage source and impedance in its series. The whole network then can be assembled across the terminal pair for further calculations. The rule is: a. Select a pair of terminals and break the circuit in two or more parts. Try source transformation. b. For each part: find out the open circuit voltage at the pair of terminals. c. Find out the output impedance to be connected in series with the open circuit voltage source by either of the methods below. 1. Replace each source by its internal impedance. Workout the impedance seen at the terminal pairs. 2. Short circuit the output and workout the short circuit current. The ratio of open circuit voltage and short circuit current yields the desired impedance. d. Replace the circuit by the Open Circuit voltage in series with impedance pairs and solve.

Rth

+ Vth -

Fig. 3 Thevenins Equivalent Circuit

In

Rn

Fig. 4 Nortons Equivalent Circuit The rule is: a. Select a pair of terminals and break the circuit in two or more parts. Apply source transformation. b. For each part: find out the short circuit current at the pair of terminals. c. Find out the output admittance to be connected in parallel with the short circuit current source by either of the methods below. 1. Replace each source by its internal impedance. Workout the admittance seen at the terminal pairs. 2. Short circuit the output and workout the short circuit current. The ratio of short circuit current and open circuit voltage yields the desired admittance. d. Replace the circuit by the short circuit current source in parallel with the admittance pairs and solve. Thevenin's Theorem is also useful in analyzing circuits where load resistor in the circuit is subject to change, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine voltage across it and current through it. In short, if open circuit voltage OCV and short circuit current SCI are known, output admittance is found out as a ratio of SCI and OCV and output impedance at the ratio of OCV and SCI. The Thevenin equivalent is the open circuit voltage source in series with the impedance as calculated in above while the Norton e quivalent is the short circuit current source in parallel with the admittance. Self assessment_2: a. Whether each part of the circuit can be represented by an ideal voltage source in series with the impedance is the Thevenin theorem. b. Whether that part of the circuit can also be represented by an ideal current source in parallel with the admittance is as the Norton theorem.

c. Is Thevenin voltage source ideal? d. Whether the impedance should consist of linear elements? e. What should be the internal impedance of an ideal voltage source? f. What should be the internal admittance of an ideal current source? g. How can you transform a Thevenin equivalent into a Norton equivalent? 3.4 Superposition theorem It states that "In any network made of linear elements and having two or more sources, the response (voltage across or, current through) any element is the phasor sum of the responses caused by individual sources acting alone while the other sources are replaced by the respective source impedance. The theorem fails if any of the element is non linear, that is its voltage current characteristic is not linear. Such elements are varistors, inductors with iron-saturation, diodes, transistors operating in non-linear one etc. Self assessment_3: a. Define linearity in terms of homogeneity & additivity. b. How the presence of homogeneity satisfies the linearity. c. What do you expect the response, if one of the elements in the network is not linear? d. What do you understand by bilinear element? e. Whether the bilinear elements are always linear? f. Whether bilinearity is needed to be satisfied in superposition? g. In the combination of two non linear elements is linear, whether we can treat such pair of elements as linear. h. If a network has only one source, how will you check the linearity? i. Whether verification of Ohms Law require the use of linear element. j. If a graph plotted between voltage and current is linear, specify the properties of the element. k. Should we keep the frequency fixed while trying the superposition? 3.5 Millman's Theorem In Millman's Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel network of branches, each branch containing a resistor or series battery/resistor combination. Millman's Theorem is applicable only to those circuits which can be re-drawn accordingly. Consider following example

E1

E2

Fig. 5 Sample circuit for millmans theorem

Same circuit can be re -drawn for the sake of applying Millman's Theorem:

E1

E2

Fig. 6 Sample circuit redrawn for applying millmans theorem By considering the supply voltage within each branch and the resistance within each branch, Millman's Theorem will tell us the voltage across all branches. Millmans theorem can be applied to any circuit drawn as a set of parallel-connected branches, each branch with its own voltage source and series resistance.
E1 0 E2 + + R R2 R3 Millmans theorem equation: Voltage across all branches = 1 1 1 1 + + R1 R2 R3

4. AC circuits and analysis of active, reactive and apparent powers

4.1 Case of Resistive Load Lamps and heaters are resistive elements. When electric current flows through the element, power is consumed in them. They are called resistive/active load. When an instantaneous (instt) voltage v Volts is impressed across this resistance load of R (ohms), an instt current i Amperes flows through it, resulting in instt power loss (or, drop). It is mathematically defined as product of v and i. Since i= v/R (Ohms Law), p = vi = i2R = v2 /R watt. --------------------------(1) [instt values of power, voltage and current are represented by small letters p, v and i] Moreover R is called real quantity because the impressed waveform of the voltage (cause) and resulting waveform of the current (effect) are replica with a scale factor of R. In literature it is narrated as voltage across the load and current through it are in phase or, simply as voltage and current are in phase. Alternatively, the phase difference between the voltage waveform and current waveform with resistive load is essentially zero. Self assement_1. a. Define the term instantaneous power. b. What is understood by the term voltage is impressed across the load and current flows through it? c. How do you interpret the term R, the resistance, is a real quantity? d. Why this real quantity makes the current and voltage waveforms replica. e. Interpret the term, voltage and current are in phase. f. Define the RMS value of the voltage and work out the average power. g. What do we mean when we say that the iron is 600W at 230V or a room heater is 2000 W at 230 V? The simplest example of a resistance is incandescent light bulb. The incandescent light bulb is a source of electric light that works on heat-driven light emissions. An electric current

passes through a filament, heating it until it produces light. The enclosing glass bulb is nitrogen filled that prevents the oxidation of the filament of the lamp which emits light at about 1910C to 2400C. Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads at 50 Hz. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal. The actual resistance of the filament is temperature-dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the operating hot-filament resistance. The volt-ampere plot of the filament is not a straight line implying that the resistance of the filament is non-linear. When the current is increased through the filament its temperature increases. This leads to increased vibration of the atoms in the filament in turn leading to more collisions with electrons or the resistance increases. The non linearity of the instant curve in due to the heat build up in the filament. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Glass bulb Inert gas Tungsten filament Contact wire (goes to foot) Contact wire (goes to base) Support wires Glass mount/support Base contact wire Screw threads Insulation Electrical foot contact

The electrical resistance of a conductor at any temperature may be calculated by the following equation: RT = Rr + Rr aT - Rr a Tr RT = Rr [1 + a (T - T r)] Where, RT = Resistance of conductor at temperature T Rr = Resistance of conductor at reference temperature Tr a = Temperature coefficient of resistance at reference temperature Tr Simplify this equation by means of factoring. Self assessment_1 a. b. c. d. e. Write ohms law. Why filaments temperature rises? What happen due to temperature rise of filament? What is p.f. of a light bulb? One electric appliance with a voltage of 120V, while another operates with 230V. Based on this information alone, is it correct to say that second appliance uses more power as compared to first one? Give your reasoning. Two light bulbs are designed to work on 230V and are rated at 60W and 100W. Which has the greater filament resistance? Why? Two wires of same length are made from materials having different resistivity. Is it possible for each wire to have same resistance? Explain.

f. g.

4.2 Case of Inductive load

Inductive load in electrical engineering is common and is represented as series combination of a resistive element and an inductive element. Choke of a fluorescence tube light, any electric motor and transformer etc. are the examples of inductive loads. When an instt current i flows through this load, the instt voltage across the inductor load is represented as vector sum of voltages vr across the resistive part and the voltage vl across the inductor. The instt voltage vr across the resistance is iR volts. The instt voltage induced across the inductive load is Ldi/dt. The negative sign associated with the later indicates that induced voltage opposes the current causing it. Thus the voltage drop in the direction of current flow is vl= L di/dt. It tends to reduce the current causing it. The instt voltage drop across the inductive load is vind_load = Ri + L di/dt volt. Because of the differentiation, the instt voltage across the inductor is waveform dependent. Letting instt current as i = Ipsin( t), where Ip is the peak current value and is the frequency of repetition of the sinusoidal wave in rad/sec, the instantaneous voltage drop becomes vind_load = Ip[Rsin(t) + L cos(t)] = Ip Z sin(t+) where Z= R2+(L) 2; =tan-1 L/Z=cos -1R/Z -------- (1)
5 4 3 2 magnitude-1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 x=4 sin(wt) y=3 cos(wt) x+y

-1

2 3 angle in radians/sec

Fig. 01: plot of x=4 sin (t), y=3cos(t) and (x+y) It is not easy to interpret the data from above graphs. We therefore devise a simple method. To do this, we rewrite eqn (1) as: vind_load = Ip [Rsin( t) + L sin(t + /2)] ----------------------------------------(2) From above it is easy to see that at any instant, the instt voltage across the inductive part is phase shifted by /2 rad/sec in counter clock wise direction wrt voltage drop across the resistive part. This phase shifted voltage is termed as leading the voltage across the resistive part (or, inductive voltage is phase advanced) by /2. Since the voltage across the resistance part and the current through it are in phase and because the same current flows through the inductor, the voltage induced in the inductor is said to lead the current flowing through it. Thus the voltage across the inductive load is the sum of the two voltages added using complex algebra. Hence, vind_load = Ip [Rsin( t) + j L sin( t)] or, vind_load = Ip sin(t) [R+ j L ] ----------------------------------------------------(3) Since the wave shape is known to be sinusoidal, I p sin( t) can be replaced by its RMS values and since = 2f is fixed because the power frequency f = 50 Hz in India, we can subsequently write them by simple expression: Vind_load = I (R + j L) = I (R + jXl ) (cartian format) = I (Zl ) (polar format) ---------------------------------------(4)

Where (R+jXl)= Zl ; x1= L; Zl = R 2+(L) 2; =cos -1 (R/Z) = tan-1(L/R). Equation (4) is derived from eqn (1). Th later is simple to interpret and apply. It is e extensively used in Electrical Engineering and can be graphically illustrated by a phasor diagram shown in Fig.2.

Z=R+ jL Va=ZI Apparent Power VA j L=zsin Vl = jLI Reactive Power VAsin

I R =Zcos Vr =RI Active power VA cos Fig. 2: Phasor diagram of the load impedance, voltages across the load and trivector powers Drawing figure 2 in scale can be used for graphical calculations. Self assessment_2: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Why the voltage across the inductance is waveform dependent. Discuss the crisis if the waveform is square. How does the harmonic (sinusoida l or, cosine) wave takes care of such crisis? Name the rule that specifies that voltage induced across an inductance opposes the current flowing through it. What do you understand by the expression voltage across inductor leads the voltage across resistor by /2. Whether the above statement is true only for the sinusoidal current? What do you understand by specifying V ind_load in complex algebra format? How it saves from the complexity of calculations. Calculate the instt powers for inductive load. Calculate the average powers for the inductive load. Correlate the phasor diagram for impedance with that of voltages across various resistive & reactive parts of the load and tri-vector powers. What are the requirements on excitation to construct a phasor diagram?

Problem: To find out the inductance and resistance of a choke using (a) three voltage measurement method, (b) using wattmeter measurement method. Note: A non-electronic inductor is realized by winding electrically conducting insulated wire on a former with/without magnetic core. Hence these inductors are represented by a resistance in series with an inductance. 4.3 Three Voltage measurement Method

An external resistance of R is connected in series with the inductor of value L Henry obtained by winding turns of conducing wire of resistance r . It is shown in Fig. 3. At any instant, vector sum of voltages is: Voltage applied (v a) = voltage across resistance (v R) + voltage across the inductor (v L). v a =v R+v L here since same current i flows in all the components, vR= iR and v L= ir+ Ldi/dt. i.e. v a = iR + ir + Ldi/dt = i(R+r) + Ldi/dt Letting i= I psin(t), and taking RMS values of voltages as Va, V R and V L and RMS value of current i as I,. Va = VR + V L = I(R)+ (r + jL)I. = [(R+r) + jL ] I. --------------------------------------------(5)

i=IpSin(wt)

vR R r vL = ir+ Ldi/dt L

va

Fig 3: An external resistance R connected in series with an inductor. Supply voltage is Va, Voltage across external resistance is v R and that across the inductor is v L. The phasor diagram of the above equation is drawn as:

Quadrature
P
Z=(R+r) + jL Va =V R+VL =Z I Apparent Power VA zL =r+jL VL=(r+j L)I Inductor phasor

xL = jL Reactive voltage =(j L)I

I R VR=IZcos() = I(R+r) Zcos() = R+r = R+z L cos() Power consumed in (R +r)

I(R+r)

Inphase

voltage drop in the resistance of the choke inductor=Ir

Fig. 4: Phasor diagram of the eqn.5. where

 = cos-1 (VR2 + V a2 VL2)/2V RV a = (R2+Z 2 - Z L2)/2RZ = cos-1 (VR2 + V L2 - V a2)/2V RVL = (R2+ Z L2 -Z 2)/2RZL The values of these angles can also be found out by working out the geometry of Fig. 4. is called the power factor angle of the circuit and is related to quality-factor of the choke. (about this more will be discussed while studying the phenomena of resonance). (a) A voltage Va is applied across a series connected external resistance R and the given choke. Voltage across each element is measured and denoted as V R and V L. (b) A phasor diagram like Fig. 4 is drawn. Height of the projection from point P on X-axis measures IX L while the width (base) equals I(R+r). Since V R is known, I r can be measured and calculated from the phasor diagram. (c) Knowing the value of I, the resistance R in ; XL and r are calculated. Thereby calculate XL = ZL sin( ) and r = ZLcos(). For exact values , calculate by formulae. (d) Tungsten or carbon element lamp is generally used in place of R as they are readily available. Their resistance is current dependent. The resistance for a given current I is calculated by measuring voltage VR across the lamp. (e) The frequency f, if not given, can be measured by an oscilloscope/ frequency meter. Work out the procedure using . Self Assessment_3:
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n.

Workout the relationship between the angles and . Study the statement, if R is unknown, measurement of I is necessary. Justify that for the known value of R; r and X L can be found out without knowing current. What should be the range of R for proper calculation of r and XL. Calculate active power, reactive power and apparent power. Calculate the voltage across the resistances (R, r) and the pure inductor. Ensure that both, and , depend on parameters of the related circuit elements. These angles are also related to correlation coefficient. Compare the ratio of various powers, various voltages and (R+r), XL and Z. Relate and with active, reactive and apparent powers. Tungsten lamps are used in homes. Where does the carbon lamps used? Why the resistances of these lamps are current dependent? Are the resistances of tungsten and carbon lamps linear ? Whether and vary with frequency f.

4.4 Wattmeter method Wattmeter is a laboratory equipment and is costly. It measures the power in a circuit that follows the connection to wattmeter. It has four terminals, two for current coil and two for voltage coil. Current coil is connected in series with the current flowing in the given circuit and voltage coil is connected across the points between which the power is to be measured. It is assumed that voltage across the current coil is zero and no cur rent flows in the voltage coil. From the Fig. 4, we know that the three power vectors are correlated to each other by the following equation: (Active Power)2 + (reactive power)2 = (apparent Power)2

and = cos -1(active power/apparent power) To measure the r and XL of the choke coil, we need to know active power and either of or, apparent power or, reactive power through the choke. Apparent power is the product of the current through the circuit and voltage across it, is simple to calculate. This requires a.c. ammeter and a.c. voltmeter. The Ammeter is connected in series with the current coil of the wattmeter and the voltmeter is connected in parallel with the voltage coil of the watt meter. It is expected that voltage across the ampere meter is zero and no current flows through the voltage meter. Input supply voltage (voltage force, or voltage) is varied. Readings in the ampere meter, voltmeter and wattmeter are taken for each voltage force applied. Unlike the three voltage measurement method, no external resistance is necessary. Of course, to know inductance, the value of the frequency is required.

6. Three phase system

Electrical Systems with more than one phase are called polyphase systems. An n phase system contains n number of AC voltage sources of the same frequency with (ideal) phase angle of 2/n radians between adjacent phases. These systems have distinct economic and operational advantages over a single phase system. The most widely used polyphase system is three phase system having n=3 and angle between different phases is 120. The supply system is invariably symmetrical. However load need not be. The 3 load is symmetrical if the load voltages are equal in magnitude and the adjacent phases are displaced at 120. In a balanced 3 system, the various currents are also equal in magnitude and adjacent phases displaced by 120 with each other. There are several reasons why three-phase power is superior to single-phase power: 1. The horsepower rating of three-phase motors and the KVA (kilo -volt-amp) rating of three-phase transformers is about 150% greater than single-phase motors or transformers with a similar frame size. 2. The power delivered by a single-phase system pulsates. The power falls to zero three times during each cycle. The power delivered by a three -phase circuit also pulsates, but it never falls to zero. In a three-phase system, the power delivered to the load is the same at any instant. This produces superior operating characteristics for three -phase motors. 3. In a balanced three-phase system, the conductors need to be only about 75% the size of conductors for a single-phase two-wire system of the same KVA rating. This helps offset the cost of supplying the third conductor required by three -phase systems. Self assessment_1 h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s. Discuss the difference between single phase and three phase supply. Find number of phases for n=6. Workout the ideal angle between neighboring phases. Comment why a generating system is always symmetrical. Comment that unbalanced 3 system is unbalanced at load side only. If the current of each phase lags by equal angle, it is a balanced system. The neutral current in a 3 4W balanced system is always zero. The neutral voltage in a 3 4W balanced system is always zero. Discuss the advantages associated with poly phase systems. Write the mathematical expressions for three balanced voltage sources. When one of the voltages has the peak value at an instant, what are the corresponding values of the other two voltages? Write positive & negative phase sequence.

6.1 Star connected load If the similar polarity ends of the three windings are connected together, the result is known as the star connection. The common connecting point N is known as the star point or neutral point. The three conductors leading away from the voltage sources toward a load are typically called lines , while the windings themselves are typically called phases. In a Yconnected system, there may or may not be a neutral wire attached at the junction point in the middle, although it certainly helps if one element of a three-phase load becomes open circuit. When we measure voltage and current in three-phase systems, we need to be specific as to where we're measuring. Line voltage refers to the amount of voltage measured between any two line conductors in a balanced three-phase system. Phase voltage refers to the voltage measured across any one component (source winding or load impedance) in a balanced threephase source or load. The terms line current and phase current follow the same logic: the former referring to current through any one line conductor, and the latter to current through any one component.

Referring to the diagram we can see that the r.m.s. voltage induced in the R-L phase is VR and the associa ted current in the phase is IR . Similarly VY, IY and VB, IB are associated with Y & B phases respectively. The magnitude of individual voltage induced in each phase is known as the phase voltage V P and the individual current in each phase is known as the phase current IP. In a balanced, three phase system, the three voltages and the three currents have equal magnitudes individually. The phasor diagram for the voltages of the star connected system is shown in fig. Since the start points of the R and Y phases is determined from the relation. VRY = V R -VY or VRY = VR +(-VY ) The magnitude of the resulting voltage VR Y is known as the line to line voltage (or simply line voltage) VL. Magnitude of VL = 2 x NX = 2 x VR cos 300 = 2 x VP cos 300 = 2 x VP x v3 / 2 = v3 V P (VP = Phase voltage) We can, therefore, generalize that in a star connected system, Line Voltage = v3 phase voltage. V L = v3 VPH Since the magnitude of the current leaving the phase winding is equal to the magnitude of the current in the line, then in a star connected system, Line current = Phase current IL = IP 6.2 Delta connected load In delta (or mesh) connection, the three windings of the generator are connected such that the end of one winding is connected to the start of the next winding in the manner as shown in figure. One distinct advantage of a ? -connected system is its lack of a neutral wire. With a Yconnected system, a neutral wire was needed in case one of the phase loads were to fail open (or be turned off), in order to keep the phase voltages at the load from changing. This is not necessary (or even possible) in a ? -connected circuit. With each load phase element directly connected across a respective source phase winding, the phase voltage will be constant regardless of open failures in the load elements.

Sinc e voltage VP developed in each winding of the generator is connected between a pair of lines, therefore, in a delta connected system, Line voltage, V L = phase voltage, VP It can also be shown that with a balanced load, IL = v3 phase voltage, IP Three single phase loads can also be interconnected in the same way in star or delta connection. Line & phase voltage and current relation in star or delta connected load system remains same as discussed above. Total power in a three phase load is calculated as under: P = 3 x power in each phase = 3 * VP * IP * cosF (where cos F is the power factor in each phase) or, P = 3 * (VL/v3) * IL cos F ( in star connection, V P = VL/v3 & IP = IL ) = v3 V L I L cos F Also P = 3 * V L* (IL/v3) cos F ( in delta connection, V P = VL & IP = IL/v3) = v3 V L IL cos F Thus, Expression for the calculation of power in star & delta connected systems comes out to be the same. Self assessment_2: (a) Why the brightness of the bulb is more in case of delta connection? (b) What happen if instead of two bulbs in series only one bulb is used? (c) Give relation between line and phase parameters in star & delta connection.

7. Transformer
The two coils of turns N and N2 are wound together on a former. This former is made of 1 electrically insulating material made of an insulating material like Bakelite, prespan/leathroid paper etc. We call the winding having N1 turns as primary and with N turns as secondary. If we impress a 2 harmonical wave of A volts, EMF across the primary winding, a harmonical wave of (N2 A/N1) volts is ideally induced in the secondary winding. Depends upon the polarity (direction) of the winding, the two voltages are in-phase or, in phase-opposition. The absolute (apparent) power transfer depends on the % flux created by the primary is linked (coupled) with the secondary. This is dictated by the magnetic (core) material and the method of winding. Self assessment_1: a. What so you understand by harmonic wave? b. Using Lenzs law, interpret what will happen if the wave is not harmonic? c. How the induced secondary voltage is related to turns ratio of the transformer?

d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

If all the flux created by the primary winding is linked with the secondary voltage, what is the current in secondary winding? What is role of core material in improving the absolute (apparent) power transfer capacity? What should be the configuration of the core material? What are the preferred core materials? How the method of w inding affects the performance? (to be delayed) What do you understand by in phase voltages? When are the two voltages in a transformer in phase? Whether the voltage induced in the secondary winding is independent of the core material? Whether the current drawn in the secondary winding is independent of the core material?

Use of 4% silicon cold rolled grain oriented (CRGO) 0.6 mm thick carbon free steel stamping provides the minimum core loss specified in literature as watts/kg. It also permits the maximum flux to be linked with the secondary windings at supply frequency of 50/60 Hz. The grain orientation provides the low reluctance path for the magnetic flux in the direction of the grains. Cold rolling and % of silicon decides the % of magnetizing current and core losses. Core loss is the sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses of the magnetic material. Hysteresis loss is calculated using the standard BH curve of the magnetic (Core) material worked out at very slow rate. Hysteresis loss is the energy consumed per cycle in moving the dipoles (micro-magnets) of the magnetic material. Eddy (I2R) current losses represent the power consumed in the resistance R of the core material because of the current I setup in the magnetic material due to induction in the magnetic material. Laminating the magnetic material and insulated it by varnish, now called stamping, the R is increased and eddy current and hence eddy current losses are reduced. Both the losses appear as a heat in the magnetic material and can also be calculated by its temperature rise. The windings are carried out on former(s) and the magnetic material is inserted in the core of the bobbin to reduce the air gap between the winding the magnetic material to minimum. This in turn reduces any leakage (waste) of flux. Self assessment_2 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. How is grain orientation defined? Can it be seen on the stamping? Is the hysteresis loss reduced by lamination? How is the eddy current loss reduced by lamination? Why the hysteresis and eddy current losses appear as temperature rise of the magnetic material? Why varnishing of lamination is needed to reduce the eddy current losses? What is the effect of maximum flux density on the hysteresis loss? How the use of bobbin reduce the leakage of the flux. What is the effect of non-linearity on the induced voltage in secondary? Which of the losses is frequency dependent?

It is the only electrical equipment we use to match the requirement of voltage, current or, impedance of the load side. It also provides the electrical isolation between input and output. To use it effectively, it is important to study, understand and evaluate its operating characteristics. This knowledge enables an engineer to design, troubleshoot and maintain a transformer. Transformer is a device which transfers nearly 100 % KVA from primary to secondary side(s). However voltage and current levels change in proportion to turns ratio N 2/N1. Frequency however remains unchanged. The power efficiency of a transformer is slightly less than one due to the losses incurred in it. Similarly, the output voltage on load drops due to voltage drop in leakage inductances and the series resistances of primary and secondary is called as voltage regulation. The Voltage regulation & Efficiency can be found by direct loading in trans former of small ratings ( <1 KVA) but in transformer of several KVA, loading is not practical due to (a) losses taking place in testing and (b) arranging the load itself. We resort to calculations using equivalent circuit of the transformer. Self assessment_3: a. Discuss faradays law of electromagnetic induction. b. Define step-up and step-down transformers in terms of turns ratio, voltage ratio and current ratio. c. Why it is not feasible to perform load test on transformers of high power ratings? d. Give three applications of transformer. e. Discuss the difference between ideal and practical transformer. f.Why transformer is called constant flux device?

7.1 Open Circuit (OC) Test

The Hysteresis losses solely depend upon the operating flux density of the magnetic materi l. It a can be seen to be related to operating voltages of the transformer. A transformer excited with rated voltage, from either winding, generate the operating flux density in the core. If the other losses and drops are negligible compared to the hysteresis losses, this method is taken to measure the hysteresis losses only. Hence in OC test, we select the secondary windings of a step down transformer and excite it with 110 V. This voltage is easily available. The other winding is kept open or, unconnected. Input current (Io), voltage (V o) and Power (P o) are measured to calculate the magnetic reactance (Xo) and magnetic loss component by equivalent Resistance (R o) as seen from the secondary side when the primary is OC. The approximate OC equivalent circuit s shown below. The effect of leakage inductance and the loss in i copper winding at the primary side is, hence neglected.

Fig. 01 (a) Phasor diagram and (b) approximate equivalent circuit of OC test.

7.2 Short Circuit (SC) Test

The SC Test is carried out at very low flux densities. At low flux densities, the core losses are negligible compared to the copper losses in the windings. The secondary winding is short circuited to circulate 100-120% of its rated value by impressing 5 to 10% of rated voltage at primary (HV) side. The values of HV side current (I sc), Voltage (Vsc ) and power (Psc ) are measured. The SC secondary current is also measured using a current transformer and an ammeter. The power (P sc) is the combined copper Loss (I12R 01) of primary and s econdary winding and the core loss at the reduced voltage. The later should be negligible. Under this assumption, the combined resistance and reactance values of both the windings (R01 + jX 01) can are calculated. It is generally divided equally on primary and secondary side on PU basis. Over all equivalent circuit is shown below. From here voltage regulation and efficiencies at various loads can be calculated. Self assessment_4: a. Write the necessary assumption to conduct an OC test. b. Why generally open circuit test is performed on LV side? c. Write the necessary assumption to conduct an SC test. d. Why generally short circuit test is performed on HV side? e. Why transformer draws current when its secondary is open? f. Iron losses remain constant irrespective of load current. Why? g. How the leakage flux is represented in equivalent circuit? h. Why iron losses are neglected in short circuit test? i. Why copper losses are neglected in open circuit test? j. No load current consists of _______________________. k. Efficiency is defined as ___________________________.

Fig. 02 Overall equivalent circuit referred to LV side and SC test parameters referred to HV side.

7.3 Turns Ratio

According to EMF Equations, the RMS value of EMF induced in primary winding. E1 = 4.44 Fmax f N1 ..(1) According to EMF Equations, the RMS value of EMF induced in secondary winding. E2 = 4.44 Fmax f N2 (2) Now dividing Equation (1) by (2) E1/E2 = N 1/N 2 This ratio of E1 & E2 called transformation ratio its symbol is K. K = E1/E2 = N1/N 2 =I2/I1 = V1/V2 Where: E1 = Induced Voltage in Primary Winding. E2 = Induced Voltage in Secondary Winding. N 1 = No of turns of Primary Winding. N 2 = No. of turns of Secondary Winding. I1 = Load Current of Primary Winding. I2 = Load current of Secondary winding. V1 = Primary Voltage. V2 = Secondary Voltage. f = supply frequency. F max = maximum value of flux; Flux density in CRGO stampings is designed @ 1.3-1.5 wb/m 2. Current density in the copper of primary and secondary windings is normally designed at @ 2.2-2.8 A/mm 2 Self assessment_5: a. Determine relation between turns ratios of primary and secondary for a step up transformer. b. What are the factors considered for selection of conductor used for winding? c. On what factor the insulation on conductor depends? d. What is the value of VA ratio in transformer? e. What happens if the designed flux density is more? f. What happens if the designed current density is more?

7.4 Polarity
An understanding of polarity is essential to correctly construct three-phase transformer banks and to properly parallel single or three-phase transformers with existing electrical systems. Knowledge of polarity is also required to connect potential and current transformers to power metering devices and protective relays. The basic theory of additive and subtractive polarity is the underlying principle used in step voltage regulators where the series winding of an autotransformer is connected to either buck or boost the applied line voltage. Transformer Polarity refers to the relative direction of the induced voltages between the high voltage terminals and the low voltage terminals. During the AC half-cycle when the applied voltage (or current in the case of a current trans -former) is from H1 to H2 the secondary induced

voltage direction will be from X1 to X2. In practice, Polarity refers to the way the leads are brought out of the transformer.

Self assessment_6: a. Why it is required to perform polarity test? b. Why it is required to connect transformers in parallel? c. Discuss dot convention. d. What do you understand by additive and subtractive polarity?

7.5 Load Test

With the help of OC & SC test approximate equivalent circuit can be drawn. To verify the results of these tests or to get the more accurate results Load test can be performed. In the load test transformer is loaded on different loads. Under these loadings conditions various quantities are measured and calculated. These can be compared with the results obtained by OC & SC test.

7.6 Three phase transformer

For the application in three phase circuits either one three phase transformer or three single phase transformers can be used. When three phase transformer is used then in case of any maintenance or repair work whole unit has to be shutdown and it may be required to have a standby unit of same rating. While if three single phase transformers are used to form one three phase transformer then for the event of maintenance or failure, one unit of single phase transformer can be kept in standby. To form a three phase transformer using three single phase transformer their primary and secondary windings are connected in different three phase connections star and delta. Accordingly we may have following type of connections(i) Star Star (ii) Delta Delta (iii) Star Delta (iv) Delta - Star

8. DC Machine
From Constructional view point; there is no basic difference between a DC generator and a DC motor. DC machines are classified according the method of excitation or supply of the field winding. a. Separately excited machines: the field winding (excitation) receives its supply from a separate source. b. Self excited machine s: the field winding is excited from the machine itself. The self excited machines are classified further depending on the method of connection to the armature winding 1. Shunt connected: Shunt motors use high-resistance field windings connected in parallel with the armature. Varying the field resistance changes the motor speed. Shunt motors are prone to armature reaction, a distortion and weakening of the flux generated by the poles that result in commutation problems evidenced by sparking at the brushes.

Installing additional poles, called interpoles, on the stator between the main poles wired in series with the armature reduces armature reaction. 2. Series connected: Series motors connect the field windings in series with the armature. Series motors lack good speed regulation, but are well-suited for high-torque loads like power tools and automobile starters because of their high torque production and compact size. 3. Compound connected: two field windings are used. One is connected in shunt across the armature while the second is in series with the armature. The compound machine is classified further into cumulative and differential machine depending on whether the fields are additive or subtractive respectively. Further classifications of the compound machine are: 1. Long shunt: The shunt field is across both the armature and series field. 2. Short Shunt: The shunt field is across the armature only followed by the series field. Following f igure shows a Chart of the classification of the DC machines.

Classification of DC machines The greatest advantage of DC motors is speed control. Since speed is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux produced by the poles, adjusting the armature voltage and/or the field current will change the rotor speed. Adjustable frequency drives can provide precise speed control for AC motors, but they do so at the expense of power quality, as the solid-state switching devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic spectrum. The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality. Power supply, initial cost, and maintenance requirements are the negatives associated with DC motors. Rectification must be provided for any DC motors supplied from the grid. It can also cause power quality problems. The construction of a DC motor is considerably more complicated and expensive than that of an AC motor, primarily due to the commutator, brushes, and armature windings. An induction motor requires no commutator or brushes, and most use cast squirrel-cage rotor bars instead of true windings. Maintenance of the brush/commutator assembly is significant compared to that of induction motor designs. In spite of the drawbacks, DC motors are in wide use, particularly in niche applications like cars and small appliances.

Self assessment_1: a. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of DC motor? b. Why shunt winding has high resistance? c. Why series winding has low resistance? d. Give three applications of DC motor.

8.1 DC Machine construction A typical DC generator or motor consists of an armature core, an air gap, poles, and a yoke which form the magnetic circuit; an armature winding, a field winding, brushes and a commutator which form the electric circuit; and a frame, end bells, bearings, brush supports and a shaft which provide the mechanical support.

Construction of DC machine 1. Armature Core : The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel laminations stamped from sheet steel with a blanking die. Slots are punched in the lamination with a slot die. The laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded together.

2. Armature Winding: The armature winding is the winding, which fits in the armature slots and is eventually connected to the commutator. It either generates or receives the voltage depending on whether the unit is a generator or motor. The armature winding usually consists of copper wire, either round or rectangular and is insulated from the armature core. 3. Field Poles: The pole cores can be made from solid steel castings or from laminations. At the air gap, the pole usually fans out into what is known as a pole head or pole shoe. This is done to reduce the reluctance of the air gap. Normally the field coils are formed and placed on the pole cores and then the whole assembly is mounted to the yoke.

4. Field Coils : The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set up the magnetic fields in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire are insulated from the poles. The field coils may be eithe r shunt windings (in parallel with the armature winding) or series windings (in series with the armature winding) or a combination of both. 5. Yoke: The yoke is a circular steel ring, which supports the field, poles mechanically and provides the necessary magnetic path between the poles. The yoke can be solid or laminated. In early days Yoke was made up of cast iron but now it is replaced by cast steel. This is because cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Wb/sq.m where as saturation with cast iron steel is about 1.5 Wb/sq.m. So for the same magnetic flux density the cross section area needed for cast steel is less than cast iron hence the weight of the machine too. If we use cast iron there may be chances of blow holes in it while casting. So now rolled steels are developed and these have consistent magnetic and mechanical properties. In many DC machines, the yoke also serves as the frame.

6. Commutator: The commutator is the mechanical rectifier, which changes the AC voltage of the rotating conductors to DC voltage. It consists of a number of segments normally

equal to the number of slots. The segments or commutator bars are made of silver bearing copper and are separated from each other by mica insulation.

7. Brushes: Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the external circuit. There are many types of brushes. A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in shape. The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact with the commutator. Each brush usually h a flexible copper shunt or pigtail, which extends to the lead wires. Often, the as entire brush assembly is insulated from the frame and is made movable as a unit about the commutator to allow for adjustment.

8. Interpoles: Interpoles are similar to the main field poles and located on the yoke between the main field poles. They have windings in series with the armature winding. Interpoles have the function of reducing the armature reaction effect in the commutating zone. They eliminate the need to shift the brush assembly. 9. Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings : The frame and end bells are usually steel, aluminum or magnesium castings used to enclose and support the basic machine parts. The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported betw een two bearings. The bearings are sleeve, ball or roller type. They are normally lubricated by grease or oil. The load end of the motor is the Back End. The opposite to load end, most often the commutator end, is the Front End of the motor. Self assessment_2: a. What is purpose of commutator? b. Why yoke should have low reactance? c. Discuss interpoles? d. What is the advantage of pole shoe? 8.2 Starter: Following relation gives the current drawn by a DC motor armature. Ia = V-Eb / Ra Where V is the supplied voltage, Eb is the back emf & Ra is the armature resistance. A motor at rest has no back emf. Therefore at the time of starting armature current is limited only by the resistance of the armature circuit. The armature resistance is very low and if the full supply voltage is impressed upon the motor terminals at stand still, the resulting armature current would be many times full load value usually sufficient to damage the machine. For this reason additional resistance is introduced in the armature circuit at starting. As the motor gains speed,

its back emf builds up and the starting resistance is cut out. Following are the starters used in DC motors: (a) Three point starter: Three point starter with its internal wiring is shown in figure connected to a shunt motor. To start the motor, the main switch is first closed & then the starting arm is slowly moved to right. As soon as the arm makes contact with stud no 1, the field ckt is directly connected across the line & at the same time full start ing resistance (Rs=R1+R2+R 3+R4) is placed in series with the armature. The starting current drawn by the armature Ia =V/ (R a+R s) where Rs is the starting resistance. As the arm is further moved, the starting resistance is gradually cutout till, when arm reaches the run position, the resistance is all cut out. The arm moves over the various studs against a strong spring which tends to restore it to OFF position. T here is a soft iron piece attached to the arm which in the full ON or running position is attracted & held by an electromagnet energized by the shunt current. It is variously known as No Volt Coil (NVC) or HOLD-ON Coil. It will be seen that as the arm is moved from stud no 1 to the last stud, field current has to travel back through that position of starting resistance that has been cut out of the armature ckt. This results in slight decrease of shunt current. But as the value of starting resistance is very small as compared to shunt field resistance, this slight decrease in Ish is negligible. This defect can, however be remedied by using a brass arc which is connected to stud no 1. The field ckt is completed through this arc so that current does not now pass through the starting resistance. The normal function of NVC is to hold on the arm in the full running position when the motor is in the normal operation. But in the case of failure of the supply or break in the field ckt, it is de -energized thereby releasing the arm, which is pulled back by the spring to OFF position. This prevents the stationary armature from being put across the line again when supply is restores after temporary shut down. The over current release (OLC) consists of an electromagnet connected in the supply line .If the motor become overloaded beyond certain predetermined value then the p is lifted & short ckt the electromagnet. Hence the arm is released & returns to the off position.

Three point starter

(b) Four point starter: Such a starter is shown in figure connected to a long-shunt compound motor. The NVC has been taken out of the shunt field circuit and has been connected directly across the line through a protecting resistance as shown. With this arrangement any change of current in the shunt field circuit does not at all affect the current passing through the NVC.

Four point starter

Self assessment_3: a. Discuss about need of starter. b. Discuss differences between 3 and 4 point starters. c. What will happen if supply cutoff while motor is in running state and it comes back after some time in case of both starters? d. What will happen if shunt winding get open circuited in both cases? e. What is purpose of OLC? f. Which shortcoming of three point starter is overcome in four point starter?

9. Three Phase Induction Motor

The modern civilization owe to electricity and its applications. We can not imagine a modern life without the use of electrical appliances such as air conditioners/ceiling fans, lights, computers and communication devices and many more. The electrical equipments play a vital role in every walk of our life. Among the many, one such equipment common to both domestic & industrial sectors is the "AC Motors". AC motors are playing a very vital role in everyday life, right from pumping water to overhead tank to modern robot's manoeuvring arm. The main

factors that lead to the adoption & wide use in various fields is its flexibility and its huge variety which can be matched w ith almost any kind of demand. Some of them are described in below. a. Synchronous Motor : These motors can run only at one speed, sync hronous speed. It is not a self starting machine. The stator is fed by 3- supply lines. The rotor is fed DC through slip rings. Torque is developed only when the motor is run at nearly synchronous speeds by an auxiliary source. Controlling the field, this motor can be made to take leading power factor. It can be used to improve the pf. Asynchronous Motor: These motors are self starting but can not run at the synchronous speed. They are general purpose and robust. They match the load demand almost for every application. They are inherently inductive. They are termed as Induction Motors, IM. They are available in three versions. Wound rotor IM, double squirrel cage IM and the most common, squirrel cage IM. The stator is fed from a 3 supply lines while rotor is short circuited either - externally through slip rings (wound rotor IM) or, directly on rotor without any slip ring (squirrel cage IM). Single Phase Motor: These motors are generally fractional HP motors. These can work on principles of induction motor, or, series motors. They are generally self starting by arranging splitted or, auxiliary windings or, through a rotary switch. They find applications in domestic appliances like ceiling fans, mixer grinders, portable power tools etc. The other versions of FHP AC motors include repulsion motors, reluctance motors, step motors etc. They are used in specific applications. Self assessment_1: a. Which motor is used with domestic water pump? b. Which motor is used to improve p.f.? c. Which type of IM is used in domestic fans? d. Which motor is used in portable power tools? e. Which motor is not self starting? f. Why a motor should be self starting? 9.1 Induction motor The induction motor essentially consists of two parts: Stator & Rotor. The supply is connected to the stator and the rotor receives power by induction caused by the stator rotating flux, hence the motor obtains its name induction motor. The rotor consists of a laminated and slotted core tightly pressed on the shaft. There are two general types of rotors: The squirrel-cage rotor, The wound (or slip ring) rotor. In the squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor winding consists of single copper or aluminium bars placed in the slots and short-circuited by end-rings on both sides of the rotor. In the wound rotor, an insulated 3-phase winding similar to the stator winding and for the same number of poles is placed in the rotor slots. The ends of the star-connected rotor winding are brought to three slip rings on the shaft so that a connection can be made to it for starting or speed control. Advantages of squirrel cage rotor: 1. Robust construction and cheaper. 2. Absence of brushes reduces the risk of sparking. 3. Lesser maintenance. 4. Higher efficiency and higher power factor. 5. Starting torque is low. Can take more load after reaching full speed. 6. May not start at high loads. Advantages of wound rotor: 1. High starting torque and low starting current.

b.

c.

2. Additional resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit to control speed. 3. Costly.

We concentrate on the construction of 3- Induction Motor. 9.2 Squirrel cage induction motor Any Induction Motor has a Stator and a Rotor. The construction of Stator for any induction motor is almost the same. But the rotor construction differs from type to type. 1. Stator: The stator is the outer most component in the motor which can be seen. It may be constructed for single phase, three phase or even poly phase motors. But basically only the windings on the stator vary, not its basic layout. The stator is built up of highgrade alloy steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses. The laminations are slotted on the inner periphery and are insulated from each other. These laminations are supported in a stator frame of cast iron or fabricated steel plate. The frame provides mechanical protection and carries the terminal box and the end covers with bearings. In the slots of a 3 -phase winding of insulated copper wire is distributed which can be wound for 2, 4, 6 etc poles. These windings are connected as either star or delta depending upon the requirement. The leads are taken out usually three in number, brought out to the terminal box mounted on the motor frame. The insulations between the windings are generally varnish or oxide coated.

Stator of three phase induction motor

2. Rotors: a. Squirrel Cage Rotor: This kind of rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors, which are not wires, but thick, heavy bars of copper or aluminium or its alloys. The conductor bars are inserted from one end of the rotor and as one bar in each slot. There are end rings which are welded or electrically braced or even bolted or casted a t both ends of the rotor to maintain electrical continuity. These end rings are short -circuited thus it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting purpose. The rotor conducting bars are usually not parallel to the shaft, but are purposely given slight skew. In small motors, the rotor is fabricated in a different way. The entire rotor core is placed in a mould and the rotor bars & end-rings are cast into one piece. The metal commonly used is pure grade aluminum. Some very small rotors which operate on the basis of eddy current can have their rotor as solid steel without any conductors.

Reasons for Having Skewed Rotor : a. It reduces magnetic hum, making the motor quiet. b. It also helps to avoid Cogging, i.e. locking of the rotor. The tendency of rotor teeth remaining under the stator teeth due to the direct magnetic attraction between the two.

c. Increase in effective ratio of transformation between stator & rotor. d. Increased rotor resistance due to comparatively lengthier rotor conductor bars. b. Double Cage Rotor: Squirrel cage type rotor has two end rings, which are permanently shorted with the rotor conductors. Thus external resistance could not be added to the rotor circuit. Since the rotor has a very low resistance, the starting torque is very poor. The starting torque c be increased by having a cage of high resist ance, but the an motor will have a very poor efficiency during normal running conditions, as there will be more additional Copper losses. These shortcomings can be avoided with a motor, which have two independent cages on the same rotor. The outer cage consists of bars of high resistance metal, whereas the inner cage has low-resistance copper bars. Thus the outer cage has a high resistance with low reactance to resistance ratio and the inner cage has low resistance but high reactance to resistance ratio. Thus the outer cage develops a maximum torque at starting, while the inner cage does so at about 15% slip.

Double cage rotor Self assessment_2: a. Why stator is made up of laminations? b. Which iron material is used for stator and rotor? c. What purpose the f rame solves? d. What is the advantage of wound rotor? e. Why external resistance can not be added in squirrel cage rotor. f. Why rotor conducting bars are skewed? g. Compare squirrel cage and wound rotor. h. What is the advantage of double cage rotor? 9.3 Starting methods There are two important factors to be considered in starting of induction motors: (a) Starting current drawn from the supply (b) Starting torque The starting current should be kept low to limit the Electro Magnetic Interference created due to excessive dips in the supply network. The starting torque must be about 50 to 100% more than the expected load torque to ensure that the motor runs up in a reasonably short time. Following are the methods used for starting of squirrel cage induction motor: (a) D irect-on-line starting (DOL Starter): This is the most simple and inexpensive method of starting a squirrel cage induction motor. The motor is switched on directly to full supply voltage. The initial starting current is large, normally about 5 to 7 times the rated current but the starting torque is likely to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque. To avoid excessive supply voltage drops because of large starting currents the method is restricted to small motors only.

(b) Star-delta starting: This is applicable to motors designed for delta connection in normal running conditions. Both ends of each phase of the stator winding are brought out and connected to a 3-phase change -over switch. For starting, the stator windings are connected in star and when the machine is running the switch is thrown quickly to the running position, thus connecting the motor in delta for normal operation. The phase voltages & the phase currents of the motor in star connection are reduced to 1/ 3 of the direct -on -line values in delta. The line current is 1/3 of the value in delta. A disadvantage of this method is that the starting torque (which is proportional to the square of the applied voltage) is also reduced to 1/3 of its delta value.

(c) Autotransformer starting: This method also reduces the initial voltage applied to the motor and therefore the starting current and torque. The motor, which can be connected permanently in delta or in star, is switched first on reduced voltage from a 3-phase tapped auto-transformer and when it has accelerated sufficiently, it is switched to the running (full voltage) position. The principle is similar to star/delta starting and has similar limitations. The advantage of the method is that the current and torque can be adjusted to the required value, by taking the correct tapping on the autotransformer. This method is more expensive because of the additional autotransformer.

Self assessment_3: a. Which starter can be used for an induction motor with star wound stator? b. In which starter value of starting torque has maximum value? c. For star-delta starter how many terminals required in the terminal box? 9.4 Working of squirrel cage induction motor: 1. A 3 squirrel cage induction motor has a stator with three windings to be fed from 3 external supply and has a 3 short circuited rotor. The stator windings are so distributed that when the 3 mains power is fed to it, a circularly rotating magnetic field is created in the air -gap between the stator and the rotor. This magnetic field always revolves at the synchronous speed, n s (=120 f/P where f is the supply frequency and P is the number of poles of the motor). 2. This revolving magnetic field, in turn, cuts the 3 windings of the stationery rotor causing in them the short circuit current due to transformer action. The frequency of this rotor current is the same as supply frequency as the rotor is at standstill i.e. at the slip s=1. This current creates its own magnetic field in the air gap which like stator, rotates at the synchronous speed. 3. The interaction of these two fields develops a torque. The motor begins to rotate. 4. As the motor picks up the speed and runs at a speed of (1 s the armature -s)n winding is cut by the rotating stator flux at the rate of s, causing the short circuit rotor current to be generated at the frequency sf s. The magnetic field created due to this rotor churns at the speed of s*n s wrt the rotor. Since the rotor is rotating at the speed = (1-s)*n s, the air gap flux due to the rotor is rotating at the synchronous speed: s*ns + (1-s)*ns = ns. Independent of rotor speed, it thus rotates at the synchronous speed and therefore stationery with respect to each other. 5. However, should the rotor rotate at the synchronous speed, no current will circulate in the rotor-windings which will make the corresponding flux, zero.; resulting in torque to drop to zero; forcing the speed of the motor to drop below synchronous. Thus the squirrel cage induction motor can never run at the synchronous speed. 6. The torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor is directly related to the resistance and reactance of the rotor. Hence, the torque-speed characteristics may be obtained by finding the rotor resistance to rotor reactance. The motor power factor depends on the operating load. At no-load referred rotor current is very

small and the stator current is mainly a magnetizing component I and a small m component due to stator iron loss I c thus the no-load power factor is very small, but as motor is loaded, the power factor improves. 7. The output power (brake power) is computed from theory of mechanics, as follows T0=pull (kg) * 9.81 * arm radius Output power P 0= ? rT 0 Efficiency ?=P0/Pi Where Pi = W1+W2 8. In order to reverse the direction of rotation of an induction motor, it is necessary to reverse the direction of the stator revolving field. This is done by interchanging the two supply phases to the stator. Note that there is no change in wattmeter readings for the same load but with reversed direction. Self assessment_ 4: a. Why the induced emf in rotor changes with its speed ? b. How the output power is measured. c. Calculate synchronous speed if number of poles is 6 and frequency is 50 Hz. d. What happen if frequency is increased by 5%. e. What will be the effect of increase in frequency on core loss? f. Why rotor cannot revolve with the synchronous speed? g. The flux in the airgap due to stator is stationery wrt that due to rotor. h. Discuss the relationship between stator terminal voltage and motor torque. i. Why no load pf is poor in Induction Motor? j. How the interchanging of phase voltages changes the direction of rotation of rotor.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore EXPERIMENT 3

Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C D F Signature:
Cross the grade.

1. Aim: a. To explore and validate Kirchhoff laws & other network theorems as a way to solve the networks. b. To identify that phasor sum of currents at a node is zero so also phasor sum of voltages in a loop is zero. To relate them with the theorem of conservation of energy. c. To learn the meaning of homogeneity in defining the linearity of a component. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able to a. Describe and use Kirchhoff Laws to solve electrical circuit problems. b. To represent a network at a terminal pairs: as a Thevenin equivalent and Norton equivalent and to establish relationship between equivalent voltage source, equivalent current source and output impedance and choice of selecting Thevenin or, Norton equivalent representation. c. To calculate the contribution of current through or voltage across any element due to various sources in a network using superposition theorem and to establish the linearity of a component. d. To calculate the node voltage in a multisource network. 3. Problem Statement: (a) To find out that algebraic sum of currents at a node equals zero. (b) To find out that algebraic sum of voltages around a loop equals zero. (c) For a given circuit appreciate the use of thevenins / nortons theorem in simplifying complicated circuits by breaking them into several equivalent circuits. (d) For a given circuit appreciate the use of thevenins / nortons theorem in situations where load changes frequently. (e) To determine the effect of each independent source (whether voltage or current) to the value of variable (voltage across the resistance or current through a resistance) and then the total effects simple added.

(f) To calculate voltage between two points by combining several sources in a network. 4. Apparatus: Circuit Board, Multimeter, Connecting wires. 5. Prior Concepts: Ohms law, voltage source, current source, linear and non-linear elements, internal resistance, network reduction technique, mesh analysis, nodal analysis.

6. Procedure: Kirchhoffs current law: a. Select a node to perform the test. b. Identify the branches connected to this node. c. Measure current through each of these branches. Take care about polarity of the current, assume current to be positive if leaving the node. d. Calculate algebraic sum of all the currents and ensure it to be zero. e. Take another node and repeat the procedure. Kirchhoffs voltage law: a. b. c. d. e. Chose a loop. Imagine walking clockwise around the loop. Go on measuring the voltage across every element of the loop. Take care of the polarity. Sum all the volta ges and ensure that it is zero. Take another loop and repeat the procedure.

Thevenin theorem and Norton Theorem (a) To find Open Circuit Voltage Voc and Short Circuit Current Is c 1. Given a circuit, establish the terminal pairs AB; about which the equivalence is to be established. 2. Ensure that the circuit has at least one voltage /current source exciting it. 3. Measure Voltage between A and B terminals, it is Vth. 4. To find Is c Short circuit the terminal pairs by an ampere meter. Take reading. 5. Calculate Thevenin Impedance as Voc/Isc and Norton Admittance as reciprocal of Thevenin Impeda nce. (b) To find R th 1. Replace the voltage/current sources by their internal impedances. 2. Connect an external voltage source between the terminals AB at the frequencies of original source. 3. Read voltage V across the terminal AB and current I into AB. Note down the ammeter reading. 4. The output impedance = V/I 5. V/I should be equal to Voc/ Isc

Draw Thevenin equivalent and Norton Equivalent. A Voltage & current sources are to be replaced by their internal impedances.
A

B Fig. 7 Superposition theorem (a) Make the connections as shown in fig.8 and measure the current 'I'. (b) Replace E2 by short circuit (assuming the internal resistance of E2 source to be zero) as shown in fig.9 and note down the current I1 when only E 1 is acting. (c) Replace E1 by short circuit (assuming the internal resistance of E1 source to be zero) as shown in fig. 10 and note down the current I2 when only E 2 is acting. (d) By superposition theorem I = I1+I 2. I + E1 Fig. 8 R1 + E2

I1 + E1 R1

Fig. 9 I2 R1 + E2 Fig. 10

7. Observations: For KCL For KVL I1 = _ _ _ _ _ _ V1 = _ _ _ _ I2 = _ _ _ _ _ _ V2 = _ _ _ _ I3 = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ V3 = _ _ _ _ V4 = _ _ _ _

For Thevenin theorem For Norton theorem

V TH = _ _ _ _ IN = _ _ _ _

R TH = _ _ _ _ RN = _ _ _ _

RL = _ _ _ _ RL = _ _ _ _ I2 = _ _ _ _

For Superposition theorem

I=____

I1 = _ _ _ _

8. Report: (1) Compare the results obtained by practically measuring the currents and voltages with the theoretically calculated values. (2) Find out Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit using theoretical calculation. Theoretical Values Practical Values

Parameters Vth In

Rth or Rn (3) Theoretically prove the validity of superposition theorem. (5) Theoretically prove the validity of millmans theorem. (6) Calculate current in load resistance using thevenins/nortons equivalent circuit for different values of load resistance. 10. Exercise: Solve following problems using KCL, KVL, Thevenins/Nortons theorem and superposition theorem. (a) In the following circuit find the power absorbed by the 10 ohm resistance. All resistances are in ohms. (Ans. 4.73 W)

(b) Find the value of current in 10 ohm resistance for the following circuit.

(c) Determine current through branch AB.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment 4
Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A 1. Aims: a) To understand the meaning and significance of 230V, 50 Hz, 1, 3W power supply terminals. b) To reason out the necessity of using sinusoidal wave shape for the supply voltage of electric power. c) To determine that an incandescent bulb offers resistor and the value o this resistance f changes with the current flowing through it. d) To be able to formulate various voltage and current terms, power factor & reactive, active and apparent powers when an A.C. sinusoidal power wave is impressed across an inductive load. e) To learn to select suitable equipments and measuring instruments to measure these parameters. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, the student should be able: a) To learn the importance of power rating of a component. b) To learn how to calculate/plot resistance from the I-V characteristic of a resistance. c) To verify that electric bulb is resistive load i.e. it exhibits unity p.f. d) To analytically and graphically relate tri-vectors of power: reactive, active and apparent powers. e) To be able to workout the values of tri-vectors and power factor; and to correlate them with resistance and inductance values of the load. f) To ensure that the load alone decides the vectors of these powers. 3. Problem Statement: a) To appreciate that the properties required to deliver electric power are satisfied by harmonic wave. b) To understand that power rating of a component depends on the value of voltage across itself. B C D F Signature:
Cross the grade.

c) To understand that in an incandescent lamp resistance of the filament wire does not remains constant and varies as it warms from room temperature to operating temperature. d) To correlate the concept of Average and RMS value of a wave with statistical definitions of mean and standard deviation; and power factor with correlation coefficient. e) To measure volt age, current and power of the resistive and inductive loads and to calculate values of tri-vectors and load parameters like resistance, inductance and power factor thus to confirm that power factor and values of tri-vectors are the properties of the load alone. f) To note that resistive loads is treated as real quantity and inductive loads as complex quantity. g) To learn to draw phasor diagram and the use of graphical method to separate active and reactive components of apparent power and load; and to workout t he power factor. 4. Apparatus required with specifications: Multifunction meter, Voltmeter 2 No. (0 300 V), Autotransformer, Connecting wires. 5. Procedure: Following fig. shows the Connection diagram for drawing I-V characteristic of electric bulb. M L

Connection diagram for drawing I-V characteristic of electric bulb a. b. c. d. Note down the specifications of the electric bulb. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Use Autotransformer as variable AC Source. Vary input voltage gradually from 0 to 230V and take readings of current and voltage.

Following fig. shows the Connection diagram for measuring power in R-L Circuit
wattmeter A + R B + Ammeter
+

A
r L

AC supply

from auto transfomrer

C

Florescence choke: Z L= (r+j L)

Fig. 5 suggested circuit connections for the experiment.

a. Workout the specifications of the meters and indent them. b. Make a circuit using external resistance R, a wattmeter, an ammeter and a fluorescence tube choke in series.

c. The thick horizontal line shown in wattmeter represents current coil while the vertical thin line represents the pressure coil. d. The expected maximum current through the circuit is 0.2 Ampere. e. The line voltage is 230 V rms and its frequency is 50 Hz. The wave shape is sinusoidal. It is generally called 1 supply. This should be verified by you. f. The output of an autotransformer connected to the 1 supply, is fed to the circuit. By varying the autotransformer knob, one can vary voltage from 0 to 270 V, frequency remains unchanged. g. Get these connections checked by the laboratory staff. The staff will also switch on the power supply to your circuit. h. Verify that the supply remains sinusoidal with frequency unchanged at 50Hz at all the settings of auto-transformer. i. Take wattmeter, ammeter and voltage across AB, BC and AC terminals at various input voltages varied by the autotransformer. They represent voltag respectively across the es resistance R,choke r+jL and input voltage to the circuit. j. Make a suitable table for your observations and results. k. Calculate r, L and power factor by both the methods described above. Use analytical and graphical methods. 6. Tabulation of readings and calculation:

Measured Data
Voltage V (volts) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 Current I (A) Power (watt)

Calculated Data
R = V/I (ohm)

S.No.

VR in volts

VL in volts

V in volts

Ammeter reading, I in amp.

Wattmeter reading, W in watt

Calculated data
Z=V/I R=VR /I XL=VL /I pf=R/Z VA=VI Q=VIsinF

Calculate the value of inductance as L=XL/2pf 7. Report should comprise of interpretation on following questions. a. Ensure that the line supply is 1 on two live wires and the third wire is earth. It is 230V rms. b. The frequency of the supply is constant at 50 Hz. c. How output voltage of an autotransformer can be varied between 0-270 V when the input is line voltage. d. Justify the statement: As long as current through the circuit and voltage across the load are proportional: 1. the power factor of the choke coil (load) is independent of the supply voltage, 2. there is no change in the frequency, 3. there is no change in the waveform of the supply. 4. The waveform of the supply is harmonic wave. e. Watt meter reading represents the power loss in the resistance(s) of the circuit connected between its pressure coil terminals. f. Verify that power factor is unity for each reading. g. Plot I-V characteristic of electric bulb and justify its shape. h. The results obtained by (a) three voltmeter reading and (b) watt meter reading are consistent. i. Results obtained by calculations and by graphical methods by both the methods are also consistent. 8. Exercise: 1. A length of copper wire (a = 0.004041 at 20o C) has a resistance of 5 ohms at 20 degrees Celsius. Calculate its resistance if the temperature were to increase to 50 degrees Celsius. (Ans. 5.606 ? ) An incandescent light bulb has a filament resistance of 5.7 ? when at room temperature (20 o C), but draws only 225 mA when powered by a 12 volt DC source. Given that the filament is made out of tungsten metal (a = 0.004403), calculate its temperature in degrees F when powered by the 12 VDC source. (Ans. 3,484oF) A coil of power factor 0.6 is in series with a 100 F capacitor, when connected to a 50 Hz supply the voltage across the coil is equal to the voltage across capacitor. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil. (Ans. 19.098 ohm, 81.06 mH) A voltage e=200sin100pt is applied to a coil having R=200 ohm and L=638 mH. Find the expression for the current and also determine the power taken by the coil. (Ans. 0.706sin(314t-45.060 ), 50W)

2.

3.

4.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore Experiment No. 6

Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others: Grade: A B C D F Signature:
Cross the grade.

1. Aim: (a) To verify relations between phase & line quantities in a star connected system. (b) To verify relations between phase & line quantities in a delta connected system. (c) To learn about the balanced and unbalanced loads. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able: (a) To measure phase & line voltage, and phase & line current in star connected system. (b) To measure phase & line voltage, and phase & line current in Delta connected system. (c) To connect three phase load into star and delta connections. 3. Problem Statement: 1. To identify that in star connection line and phase currents have same value while voltages have a constant ratio. 2. To identify that in delta connection line and phase voltages have same value while currents have a constant ratio . 4. Prior Concepts: Three phase supply, phase sequence, star connection, delta connection. 5. Apparatus Required: 3-phase supply, 3-phase load, Voltmeters (500 V, 2 no.), Ammeter (1 A, 2 no.), Connecting wires. 6. Procedure: Following fig. shows the connection diagram for the verification of phase and line parameters in a star connected system.

Verification of phase and line parameters in a star connected system

Verification of phase and line parameters in a delta connected system a. Select measuring instruments and make sure that they are adequate to measure desired quantities and of suitable scales. b. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. c. Get these connections checked by the laboratory staff. The staff will also switch on the power supply to your circuit. d. Note down the reading of voltmeter s and Ammeters & compare them with theoretical values, both for star & Delta connection. 7. Tabulation of readings and calculation: Star Connection VL

IL

VP

IP

Delta Connection VL

IL

VP

IP

8. Report: (1) Determine probable value of power consumed in the load per phase during each test and justify the variation in value of power between both connections (Star and Delta).

Prepared by

date

Modified on

11. Exercise: 1. A 400 V, 3 phase system is conne cted to a balanced star load with the load impedance in each phase as 40 60 0 ohm. Find and draw (i) the line and phase currents; (ii) phasor diagram showing line voltages, line currents and phase currents. (Ans. 5.775 A, 5.775 A) 2. Three identical impedances are connected in delta to a 3 -phase, 400V, 50 Hz supply. The line current is 34.65A and total power taken from supply is 14.14KW. Calculate the value of resistance and inductance of each phase. (Ans. 11.78 ohm, 51.45 mH) 3. Three 100 ohm non-inductive resistances are connected in (i) star (ii) delta across a 400V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the power taken from supply in each case. In the event of one of the resistance getting opened what would be the value of total power taken from the supply in each case. (Ans. 1600W, 4800W, 800W, 3200W)

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 7 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Othe rs:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aims: To understand the significance of different components of a circuit model of a 1 transformer thereby to approximate its iron losses and copper losses. 2. Objectives: a. To learn the application of turns ratio in a 1- transformer. b. To determine and use the polarities of the windings of a transformer. c. To determine the parameters of equivalent circuit of a given 1- transformer. d. To appreciate the advantage of OC and SC test over the test on load to determine the efficiency and regulation of a transformer. e. To study the effect of resistive load on its efficiency and voltage regulation. 3. Problem Statement: a. To appreciate the use of transformer in AC supply, its turns ratio and relate them with voltage ratio, current ratio, impedance ratio and VA ratio. b. To study the use of polarities of the windings. c. To calculate the various parameters of the equivalent circuit of a given transformer using open circuit (OC) and short circuit (SC) tests. d. To draw phasor diagram of the given transformer. e. To study through chart, construction of a 1- transformer, effect of core material on its equivalent circuit and performance. f. Applications/different types of transformer such as voltage booster, isolation, welding, instrument transformers, transformers in UPS etc. g. To use three single phase transformers as a three phase transformer. 4. Prior Concepts: Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, flux, leakage flux, Hysteresis losses, eddy current losses, copper losses.

5. Apparatus Required: Single phase transformer (400 V/ 230 V), Autotransformer, Voltmeter

(600V), Voltmeter (300 V, 2 No.), Ammeter (5/10 A), Multifunction Meter, Wattmeter (5/10 A), Multimeter, Connecting wires.
6. Procedure: Following figures shows circuit diagram of open circuit and short circuit test. 1 M C.C. L

230 V AC Supply

P.C.

N LV HV

V
2

Figure 1: Connection diagram for open circuit test 1 M C.C. L

C 230 V AC Supply 2

P.C.

V
HV LV

Figure 2: Connection diagram for short circuit test 1. 2. Since the generally available equipments work at 230V and 400 V, the winding corresponding to these voltages is selected for open circuit transformer testing. For the reason as above, the open circuit test is performed on LV side of a step down transformer by exciting the LV at its rated voltage (V2), keeping the HV winding open so as to get maximum reading of no load current (I o) & power (P o), as the core loss & magnetizing current is very small (<5%). The connections are made as per circuit diagram. Take readings at various points up to 110% of the rated LV voltage. The short circuit test is performed by short circuiting the LV winding and exciting the HV winding so that 100-110% of full load current (I1) flows through It. Normally 5 -10% of full voltage can achieve this. For large transformer (>1KVA), any value of short circuit current (Isc) can be taken & corresponding input voltage (Vsc) and power (Psc) is noted. Take readings at various points up to rated HV current. The total copper loss (I12R 01), transformer resistance (R 01) and reactance (Xo1) can be calculated from these reading. Determination of kVA rating: (a) Read ambient temperature ________. (b) Read resistance of primary winding ________. (c) Read resistance of secondary winding ________. (d) Apply rated voltage across the primary for approx. 20 min. then disconnect the supply. (e) Read resistance of primary winding ________. 0 (f) Calculate temperature rise T p C = __________. (g) Short circuit secondary winding. (h) Apply 3A in the primary winding for approx. 20 min. VP=________. (i) Disconnect the circuit from supply and measure resistance of secondary winding ______.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

(j) Calculate temperature rise Ts0 C = __________. (k) Now increase the value of current by 10% and repeat the procedure (from h to j). Value of current for which total temperature rise ( T p0 C + Ts0 C ) becomes 600C is I = ________ and VP=______. (l) kVA rating of transformer is VP.I = _________ kVA. 8. Connect three transformers in various combinations of three phase connections.

V
V3

V1

V2

Figure 3: Ratio and polarity test Above figure shows the connection diagram for ratio and polarity test. (1) Make the connection as per circuit diagram. (2) Switch off the load on secondary winding & switch on primary with zero input voltage. (3) Increase the primary voltage in steps of 50 Volts & note down the secondary voltage also.
(4) (5) Verify the turns Ratio K = V1 /V2 = N1/N2.

If V3 reads V1- V2 then assumed dot locations are correct (Subtractive polarity).

7. Observation and Calculations Open circuit & Short circuit test

Open Circuit Test

(LV side at full voltage VOC)

S. No. Input Voltage V0 (Volt) 1 2 3 4 Input Current I0 (Amp) Input Power P0(Watt)

Short Circuit Test (HV side at reduced voltage Vsc) S. No.

1 2 3 4 Input Voltage Input Current Input Power

Vsc (Volt)

Isc (Amp)

Psc(Watt)

Ratio & Polarity test

S.No. 1. 2. 3. V1 V2 V3 K=V1/V 2 V1-V2 Polarity

4.

Calculations: The OC Test provides the no load losses (Iron Losses) & the value of core loss (R0), & Magnetizing Reactance (X0). Turns ratio K = V1/V2 V0I0 Cos? 0 = P0 Therefore, Cos? 0 = P 0/V0I 0 , Phase Angle ? 0 = & Sin? 0 = Iw = I0cos? 0= & I = I 0sin? 0 = Core Loss Resistance R0 = V0 2/P 0 = & Magnetizing Reactance X0 = V0/I = Equivalent circuit Let V20 = V2 = No Load LV Voltage V1 =V2L = Full Load LV Voltage R01 = R02 = R2+R1 = R01/K2 = X01 = X02 = X2+X2 = X01/K2 = Voltage Drop due to load current on L.V. side V2 -V1 = I 1Ro2Cos? I1Xo2sin? , where I2 = KI 1 or V2-V2L = I2Ro2Cos? I2Xo2sin? p.f. = 0.8 Per Unit Voltage Regulation = ( V2-V 2L ) / V2 = The short circuit test provides the total copper loss (Pc) and the equivalent Resistance (Ro1) and leakage Reactance (Xo1): Let the full load HV Current. I1 = KVA 103 / V1 Copper Loss at full load Pc = Psc(I1/Isc)2 Now Ro1 = Pc/I12 Zo1 = Vsc / Isc Xo1 = v(Z 012 - X01 2) Ro1 = R1 + R2 & Xo1 = X1 + X2 If output power is given by P the efficiency of an transformer is given by ? = output power/input power = P/Pi = P/(P+Losses) = P/(P+P0+Pc) Pc for any fraction of full load current say x is given by Pc = x2Pc In this way efficiency for any value of load current can be determined 10. Assessment Report: Marks 100. (i) Calculate the value of tranformation ratio. (ii) Draw equivalent circuit referred to either side. (iii) Calculate efficiency of transformer for full load, 0.75 load and half load. (iv) Draw the curve showing effect of power factor on the efficiency of transformer for full load (Calculate from equivalent circuit parameters). (v) Determine fraction of load current for which efficiency is maximum. (vi) Plot the input voltage V0, versus no load input current I0. (vii) Plot the core loss, Pc, versus input voltage, V0.

11. Exercise: 1. The maximum flux density in the core of 250/3000 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer is 1.2 Wb/m2. If the emf per turn is 8 V, determine (i) primary and secondary turns (ii) area of the core. (Ans. 32, 375, 0.03 m 2) 2. The no load current of transformer is 5 A at 0.2 pf when supplied at 240 V, 50 Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding is 250. Determine (i) the maximum value of flux in the core (ii) the core loss and (iii) magnetizing current. (Ans. 4.32 mWb., 240 W, 4.899 A) 3. Obtain the equivalent circuit of 1-phase, 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz transformer from the following test results: (Ans. R0=571.43, X0=330, R 01=0.2, X01=0.317) OC test:200V 0.7A 70W on LV side SC test: 15V 10A 80W on HV side 4. The primary and secondary windings of a 500 kVA transformer have resistances of 0.42 ohm and 0.0011 ohm respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600 V and 400 V respectively and the iron loss is 2.9 kW. Calculate the efficiency at full load, assuming the power factor of the load to be 0.8. (Ans. 98.273%) 5. The efficiency of a 400 kVA single phase transformer was 98.77% when delivering full load at 0.8 pf and 99.13% at half load and unity power factor. Calculate the iron losses and full load copper losses. (Ans. 1.012 kW, 2.973 kW)

Prepared by

date

Modified on

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 8 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aim: To understand the importance of different parts of a DC machines, significance of their construction and various materials used in them. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able: (a) To describe the constructional details of DC machine. (b) To classify DC machines. 3. Problem Statement: 1. To learn the constructional details, effect of different materials used for winding, core, yoke etc. 2. To learn the different types of DC machines according to different arrangements of their field windings. 4. Answer the following questions:

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 9 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aim: a. To understand different parts and the construction of a 3 induction motor. - b. To calculate output power P 0 (=? rT 0) and efficiency (=P0/P i) of a 3 induction motor. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able: a. To describe the constructional details of three phase induction motor. b. To describe various starting methods used. c. To classify rotating AC machines. d. To visualize the effect of phase sequence on direction of rotation of a 3 phase induction motor. e. To plot and calculate torque, output power and efficiency, at various slips and interpret from here the stable operating region of the Induction Motor. 3. Problem Statement: 1. To appreciate the use of multi phase supply in creating circular rotating magnetic fields. 2. To appreciate the use of three phase induction motor in electromechanical energy conversion and starting methods used. 3. To learn the constructional details, effect of different materials used for winding, core, frame etc. 4. To be able to calculate brake power and torque of a motor and hence efficiency, at various load conditions and slip. To determine the stable operating region of the Induction Motor and the factors that governs the characteristic. 5. To be able to reverse the speed of an induction motor and to study its effect on wattmeter readings at various slips.

6. To distinguish between the stable region and unstable region of operation of 3 induction motor. 4. Prior Concepts: 3- supply, faradays law of electromagnetic induction, star connection, delta connection, relationship between star-delta, Autotransformer. 5. Procedure: Following fig. shows the connection diagram for the two wattmeter method of power measurement connected with a 3 phase load (3 phase Squirrel cage induction motor).

A V

3- Load

C 3 M L

Connection diagram of the meters and the induction motor. a. Note down the specifications of the load (three phase induction motor). b. Make sure that the ranges of measuring instruments are adequate to measure desired quantities and of suitable scales. Note their multiplying factor. c. Take precaution to save instrument from the inrush current at the time of starting of the motor. d. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. e. Motor is supplied by a DOL starter; motor can be switched ON by pushing the green button. f. Load the motor by tightening the belt; after the motor has started at no load. g. Check and adjust zero indication of measuring instruments. h. Get these connections checked by the laboratory staff. i. Pull (Kg) can be tabulated by taking the difference of the two spring balances readings. j. Switch on the supply in the presence of the technical staff of the lab. k. Take the readings of Voltmeter, Ammeter, and Wattmeters. l. Measure the speed of rotor using Tachometer. m. Tabulate the Pull. n. Increase the load and repeat the pr ocedure from step k. o. Continue and take few more readings until motor current reaches its rated current. Switch off the motor by pushing the red button on the starter.

6. Tabulation of readings and calculation: n s = _______ rpm

Measured Data V L-L volts I1 amp W1 watt W2 watt nr rpm Pull Kg P i=W 1+W2 watt T0

Calculated Data P 0= ? rT0 watt

N-m

Slip, s

p.f.

?%

7. Assessment Report: max marks 100: a. Observe type of motor installed in the laboratory. b. Observe type of starter connected to it. c. Calculate load torque, power output, power i put, power factor, and n efficiency of induction motor from measured data at each loading. d. Plot on linear graph paper (a) Curves of stator current and torque versus speed (b) Curves of power factor and efficiency versus speed. (c) Explain the theoretical basis for shape of the curves. 8. Exercise: 1. A four pole induction motor operating at a frequency of 60 Hz has a full load rotor slip of 5%. Calculate the rotor frequency (a) at the instant of starting (b) at full load. (60 Hz, 3 Hz) 2. If emf in the stator of an 8-pole induction motor has a frequency of 50 Hz and that in rotor 1.5 Hz, find the speed at which it is running and its slip. (Ans. 727.5 rpm, 0.03) 3. It is desired to obtain a speed of approximately 700 rpm with a 3-phase induction motor. Determine number of poles for (i) 60 Hz (ii) 25 Hz. If the rated load slip of each motor is 5%, determine rated speed for each motor. (Ans. 10 poles, 684 rpm, 4 poles, 712.5 rpm)

PART

1. Analog Circuits
Unidirectional Source: The source with dependent values (magnitude) in one direction only. It can be represented by a mean value and a variance about it. The magnitude never goes in other direction. Ex. the output of a rectifier circuit; biased output of an RC coupled class A amplifier. DC source: A constant magnitude unidirectional source such as the output of a battery or, storage cell or, a ripple free power supply. Resistance: It is an electrical friction that hinders the flow of current. According to Ohms, V = IR. Work is done or, energy is dissipated in overcoming the Resistance. It is represented by R= ? L / A O where A is the cross sectional area L is the length in me tric system and resistively in ? O-m. The resistance limits the current in a circuit. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What is the role of resistance in circuit? Q.2 What is meant by unidirectional and By directional source? Q.3 What is the application of D.C. source in circuit? Diode: Diode is a two terminal device that permits current to pass only if it is in for ward bias, that is, cathode at a higher potential than anode. This property of the diode is used to rectify the signal impressed on it. Ideally a diode is a switch with zero resistance, which automatically is closed to permits the current to flow when forward biased and opens when in reverse bias (that is not in forward bias). It acts as a non return valve of our water supply system. It requires some finite positive potential, called threshold voltage, to be applied at the cathode wrt to anode (0.7-1.2 V in case of silicon power rectifier diode) and the switch has some finite but low resistance (in the range of ? ? to ? ) when forward biased and high resistance or, insulator (in the range of 10s of M? ) in reverse bias, permitting only ? A to flow, called leakage current (Ico). These resistances are not fixed but vary with temperature and voltage applied. They follow the rule expressed by the expression (I/Ico)=(e V/?Vt -1) where V is the voltage applied across the diode and t is the temperature inside the diode. Most present day diodes are semiconductor p junctions. A p diode offers low resistance -n -n when the anode( p-type side) is a higher potential to the cathode( n -type side) permitting current limited by load resistance, to flow and high resistance in the opposite direction limiting current by this reverse -bias resistance.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What are the two terminals of diode and what is forward and reverse direction of it? Q.2 What is the forward and reverse resistance of diode? Q.3 What is the work of diode in a circuit? P-N JUNCTION DIODE is also known as rectifier diode. They are mainly used for rectification of 50 Hz Sinusoidal wave. Currentvoltage characteristic: A semiconductor diode's currentvoltage characteristic, or IV curve, is related to the transport of carriers through the so -called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p junction between differing semiconductors. When a p junction is -n -n first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the Pdoped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential or, threshold voltage (V?) or cutin voltage lies in the range between 0.6-1.2 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, V? volts will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias.

Fig. (a) : IV characteristics of a P -N junction diode . A diodes IV characteristic can be a pproximated by four regions of operation (see the fig. (a) ).

At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a heavily doped p junction allowing electrons to -n tunnel from the valence band of the p -type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the zener voltage ), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current or, leakage current. This reverse saturation current increases to double for each 10 0 C rise in temperature. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is in A range. The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forwar d current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined "cut-in voltage" or "on-voltage", the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered "appreciable" and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The currentvoltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary "cutin" voltage is defined as 0.6 to 1.2 volts. The value is different for other diode types Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more and blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. The equation of diode is given by I= Io( e
V/? V T

1) ----------------(1)

Where A positive value of I means that current flows from the p to the n side. The diode is forward-biased if V is positive, indicating that the p side of the junction is positive with respect to the n side. The symbol ? is unity for germanium and is approximately 2 for silicon at rated current. The symbol VT stands for the volt equivalent of temperature, and is given by Eq (1) , repeated here for convenience: V T = T/11600, At room temperature (T=300 oK), V T= 0.026V=26mV

The of the volt-ampere characteristics described by eq (1) is shown in fig (a). When the voltage V is positive and several times VT , the unity in the parentheses of Eq. (1) may be neglected. Accordingly, expect for a small range in neighborhood of origin, the current increases exponentially with voltage. When the diode is reverse-biased and | V | is several times VT , I= - Io. The reverse current is referred to as the reverse saturation current. The reverse saturation current is several orde r of magnitude lesser than forward current.

The breakdown portion of the curve of fig (a) indicate that, at a reverse- biasing voltage Vz, the diode characteristics exhibits an abrupt and marked departure from Eq (1) . At this critical voltage a large reverse current flows, and the diode is said to be in the breakdown region. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What do you mean by forward biasing and reverse biasing of diode? Q.2 What is cutin voltage of diode? How it affect forward current? Q.3 Define breakdown voltage of diode? Can this region be used for any application? Q.3 What is the maximum forward current of diode? Q.4 What is maximum reverse current of diode? Q.5 What is peak inverse voltage of diode? Q.6 What is power rating of diode? Q.7 Define forward and reverse resistance of diode. Types of semiconductor diode

Diode

Zener diode

Schottky diode

Tunnel diode

Light-emitting PIN diode Varicap diode

Silicon controlled rectifier

Fig. (b): Some diode symbols Zener diode :- It is a heavily doped PN diode. When used in breakdown region, it provides nearly constant voltage at the load connected across it. This voltage varies slightly with the current through the diode. However, it the current through the zener diode is maintained constant, it provides reasonably constant voltage since this voltage now changes with change in atmospheric temperature. It is m ainly used for constant voltage and voltage regulation purposes. Other applications of zener diode are in wave shaping circuit and meter protection. Schottky diode :- It uses a metal-semiconductor junction as a Schottky barrier, this Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and low forward voltage drop. Main applications of this diode are

Switch mode power converter in the range of 200 KHz to 2 MHz. RF detectors and mixers operate up to 50GHz. Voltage clamping. Prevention of transistor from de ep saturation. Low voltage rectification.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What is the doping level of zener diode? How it helps in its application as a breakdown diode. Q.2 What is the use of breakdown region in case of zener diode? Q.3 What is the power rating of zener diode? Q.4 What are the applications of zener diode? Q.5 Write down the measure characteristics of Schottky diode. Write how these characteristics help in its application as a fast switch?
Tunnel diode:- In the TUNNEL DIODE, the semiconductor materials used in forming a junction are doped(1 part in 10 3 atoms ) to the extent of one-thousand impurity atoms for ten -million semiconductor atoms. This heavy doping produces an extremely narrow depletion zone similar to that in the Zener diode. Also because of the heavy doping, a tunnel diode exhibits an unusual current-voltage characteristic curve as compared with that of an ordinary junction diode. Main characteristic of tunnel diode is its negative resistance region which makes it suitable for high gain amplifiers and oscillator in the GHz frequency range. The characteristic curve for a tunnel diode is illustrated in figure(c) below.

The three most important aspects of this characteristic curve are (1) the forward current increase to a peak (I P) with a small applied forward bias, (2) the decreasing forward current with an increasing forward bias to a minimum valley current (IV), and (3) the normal increasing forward current with further increases in the bias voltage. The portion of the characteristic curve between IP and I V is the region of negative resistance.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What is the doping level of tunnel diode? Q.2 What is the negative resistance region of diode and how it is useful in oscillator circuit? Light e mitting diode :- A light-emitting diode is a diode which, when forward biased, produces visible light due to recombination of hole and electrons. The light may be red, green, or amber, depending upon the material used to make the diode. The application lies In seven segment display Polarity detector As an indicator of current flow. Modern TV screen.

PIN diode :- This diode is lightly doped near intrinsic semiconductor region between a p type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor regions. It works as a diode in low frequency range but at radio frequencies (RF), it can work as a bias current based variable resistor when forward biased and low capacitance when reverse biased. It finds applications in 1. Switches - Reverse bias low capacitance does not pass and hence blocks RF signal while in forward bias is provides one ohm resistance at RF. 2.

Variable attenuators - By changing the bias current through a PIN diode, its is possible to quickly change the resistance at RF.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Q.1 What is the phenomenon behind generation of light in LED? Q.2 Write down a few applications of LED? Q.4 Write significant features of PIN diode. Q.3 Write down application of PIN diode.

Varactor Diode
One characteristic of any PN junction is an inherent capacitance. When the junction is reverse biased, increasing the applied voltage will cause the depletion region to widen, thus increasing the effective distance between the two "plates" of the capacitor that decreases the effective capacitance. By adjusting the doping gradient and junction width, we can control the capacitance range and the way capacitance changes with applied reverse voltage; from 60 Pico farads (pf) at zero bias down to 15 pf at 20 volts (4:1 ratio) is common. 10:1 ratio varicap diodes are also available. These devices are used in electronic tuning thus eliminating the mechanical parts and their problems. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:1. Can you think of any use of diode on the basis of the acquired characteristics? 2. Compare the characteristics of silicon & a germanium diode & determine which you would prefer to use for most practical application?

A transistor is a three-terminal active device names after the initial property observed, TRANSfer reSISTOR. The three terminals are emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). The current through the base controls the current flow between emitter and collector; permits the control action in three different configurations: Common Base (CB), Common Emitter (CE) and Common C ollector (CC). For amplifier and control operations, base emitter junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse biased. The input characteristic is a plot between I and VBE keeping voltage VCE constant. The input B resistance ri ( hbe in term of h parameter) is ratio of ?VBE/?IB. This characteristic is very similar to that of a diode in forward bias. The output characteristic curves are plotted between IC and VCE, keeping I B constant. These curves have some slop with horizontal which increases as IB increases. In electronics , a common-emitter amplifier is one of three basic single-stage bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies. Here both, voltage and current, are amplified. In this circuit the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, and the collector as he output. The emitter is common to both. A basic common emitter configuration circuit is constructed and shown in Fig f.

V CC IC RC

IB VBE VCE IE

FIG( d ) Basic emitter configuration

The amplified voltage output (voltage between the collector and ground) of this configuration is in phase reverse of voltage between base and the ground. Note that emitter is at ground potential.

Common-Emitter: o Input characteristics: Same as in the case of common-base configuration, the EB junction of the common-emitter configuration can also be considered as a forward biased diode, the current-voltage characteristics is similar to that of a diode:

Where IB= Base current of transistor. Io= Reverse saturation current of base emitter junction.

VBE= Forward voltage between base and emitter. The symbol VT stands for the volt equivalent of temperature, and is given by : V T = T/11600, At room temperature (T=300 oK), V T= 0.026V=26mV

The collector -emitter voltage VCE has very little effect on IB.
o

Output characteristics: The CB junction is reverse biased, the current I C = IB + I CEO = IB + ( +1 )ICBO depends on the curre nt IB . When IB=0 , I C = I CEO , the current caused by the minority carriers crossing the collector to emitter when base is opened. When IB is increased, I C is correspondingly increased fold. ICBO = collector to base current with emitter opened (For CB configuration). The current gain in the common-emitter circuit is called BETA (). It is the ratio of collector current (controlled current) to base current (controlling current). To calculate beta, use the following formula: = ? I C/ ? IB at constant V CE In term of h parameter is called hfe.

One should workout the current gain (hfe ) and output impedance (r 0e) from the output characteristics of the transistor.

IB (mA)

IC VCE = 0V, 2 V, 4V

(mA) 0.4mA

20mA 0.3 0.2 0.1 VBE 15mA 10mA 5mA 5V 10V

0.3mA 0.2mA 0.1mA IB =0 15V VCE

0.5V

Base characteristics

Collector characteristics

Fig (e) : Input and out put characteristics of transistor in CE configuration..

Circuit Diagram:-

IB RB

IC RC A
2

VBB R1

A 1

VCE VBE VCC R2

FIG: (f)

To determine the characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration, the circuit is arranged as shown in fig f. The base current is varied by adjusting potential of base with respect to emitter by using potentiometer across power supply V EB. Whereas, the collector to emitter voltage is varied by adjusting the setting of potentiometer R2. For different setting, the currents and voltages are read from the mA and VM connected as shown. Sufficient reading are taken to permit a good characteristics curves to be plotted on a linear-linear graph. Plot transfer current (Ic vs. Ib ) for V ce constant; characteristic also. Input characteristics in CE configuration: the curve plotted between base current I B and base-emitter voltage V BE at constant collector -emitter voltage VCE is called input characteristics. To draw the input characteristics, note down the reading of ammeter I B connected in the base circuit for various value of VBE at constant VCE. on the graph taking I B along y-axis and VBE along x-axis as shown in fig e .

Common Emitter configuration.

Draw a family of curves for different setting of VCE.. The following point are worth from these characteristics: (i) These curve are similar to those obtained for CB configuration i.e. like a forward bias diode characteristics. The only difference is that in this case IB increases less rapidly with increase in VBE . Hence, the input resistance of CE configuration is comparatively higher than that of CB configuration. (ii) The increase in VCE. result in a decease in IB , this effect is called early effect. The effect is due decease in width of base region with increase in VCE which result in lesser IB current. Input resistance:- The ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (? V BE ) to the resulting change in base current (I B) at constant collector -emitter voltage (VCE ) is known as input resistance, i..e. Input resistance ri ( hbe in term of h parameter )= ? V BE / ? I B at constant VCE

Output Characteristics:- In CE configuration, the curve plotted between collector current I C and collector - emitter voltage V CE at constant base current IB is called output characteristics. A family of characteristics curves can be plotted for different setting of IB . Fig. 2(b) shows the output characteristics of a typical npn transistor in CE configuration. The following points from the characteristics may be noted: In the active region increase slightly as VCE. increases. The slope of the curve is little bit more than the output characteristics of CB configuration. Hence, the output resistance (ro ) of this configuration is less as compared as CB configuration. (ii) Since the value of Ic increases with the increase in V CE at constant IB , the value of (hfe) also increases (as (h fe) = ? I C/ ? IB ). (iii) When VCE falls below the value of V BE ( i.e below a few tenths of a volt ) , I C decreases rapidly. In fact, at this stage, the collector-base junction is also forward biased and the transistor works in the saturation region. In the saturation region, I C becomes independent and in the does not depend upon the input current IB.

(iv) Inactive region, I C = IB , hence a small change in base-current IB produces a large change in output current I C. (v) When input current I B=0, the collector current I C is not zero but its value is equal to the reverse leakage current I CEO ( i.e. collector emitter current when base is open). Output resistance: The ration of change in collector-emitter voltage(? VCE ) to the change in collector current (? I C ) at constant base current I B is called output resistance (ro). Output resistance, ro = ? V CE / ? I C at constant IB . In term of h parameter out put resistance are called 1/ hoe , where hoe is output conductance of transistor. The output resistance of CE configuration is less than CB configuration as the slope of output characteristics is more in this case. Its value is of the order of 50KO. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:Q1. Why the fig 1 circuit is called common emitter configurations? Q2. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals? Q3. What is the input current in the common -emitter circuit? Q4. What is the current gain in a common-emitter circuit called? Q5. Which transistor configuration has a current gain greater than 1? Q6. What is the output current in the common-emitter configuration circuit? Q7. Which transistor configuration has the highest input resistance?

Digital Circuits
Every digital devices such as computer, calculator, digital display works on the binary system. In the binary system there are only two digit 1 and 0 and all the numbers in the system are made by different combination of 1 and 0. Two represent the 1 and 0 by the voltage levels, many systems have been formed. The three most important systems are as follows. (1) Positive Level Logic System : In positive level logic system the comparatively higher level of voltage represents logic 1 and lower level represents logic 0. IN TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) 5V represent the logic level 1 and 0V represents logic level 0. (2) Negative Level Logic System : In Negative level logic system the comparatively higher level of voltage represents logic 0 and lower level represents logic 1. IN TTL negative logic system (Transistor Transistor Logic) 5V represent the logic level 0 and 0V represents logic level 1. (3) Pulse logic System: In this system Positive pulse represent logic 1 and negative pulse represent logic 0. Logic Gates: Logic gates are digital circuits which take as different combination of 1 and 0 as inputs and produce output accordingly. Hence, the are called combinational circuit. If there are two variable A and B applied at the input of the gate and each one of these variable can take two value (1 and 0), then 22 combination of input are possible. The output at any instant depends only on current combination of input.

I/Ps

Combinational Circuits

O/Ps

These Logic gates implement certain Boolean functions. Types of Logic Gates: The logic gate implements certain Boolean functions. Depending on the Boolean function implemented by the gate, type of gate is defined. Basic gate: There are three basic gates. Each of the these gate does their own basic function. OR gate : OR gate implements the OR function of Boolean algebra.

Definition: If any input of OR gate is one then the output of OR gate will be one. If both the inputs of OR gate is zero then the output of OR gate will be 0.
Truth Table A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Z=A + B 0 1 1 1

A B Z=A+B

AND gate : AND gate implements the AND ( DOT) function of Boolean algebra. Definition: If any input of AND gate is zero then the output of AND gate will be zero. If both the inputs of AND gate is one then the output of AND gate will be 1.
Truth Table A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Z=A + B 0 0 0 1

A B Z=A. B

Universal Gates: NAND and Nor gate are called universal gate as they can implement any logical function.

NAND gate : NAND gate implements the NAND (complement of DOT product function ) function of Boolean algebra. Definition: If any input of NAND gate is zero then the output of NAND gate will be 1. If both the inputs of NAND gate is one then the output of NAND gate will be 0.
Truth Table A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Z=A + B 1 1 1 0

Z=(A.B)

NOR gate : NOR gate implements the NOR (Complement of OR function) function of Boolean algebra.

Definition: If any or both input of NOR gate is one then the output of NOR gate will be 0. If both the inputs of NOR gate is zero then the output of NAND gate will be 1.
Truth Table A 0 0 1 1 A B B 0 1 0 1 Z=A + B 1 0 0 0

Z=(A+B)

The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optics, or even mechanical elements. In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a voltage or current, (which depends on the type of electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires power so that it can source and sink currents to achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full electronic schematic, power connections are required.

AND GATE:If any one input of AND gate is zero, then the output of AND gate will be zero. If both the inputs of AND gate is one, then the output of AND gate will be one.

As shown in figure the two diodes are connected in such a way that if cathode of any diode is grounded (at Logic 0) then that diode will be forward biased, result in almost zero potential at Y. This zero potential represents logic zero. If cathode of both diodes is left open, both the diode will not be forward biased, and the potential of Y will be at 5V. This 5V represents logic 1.By using above method we can verify the truth table given below for AND gate.

TRUTH TABLE:AND GATE Inputs A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 OR GATE:Output Y 0 0 0 1

As shown in figure the two diodes are connected in such a way that if anode of both diodes are grounded( at L ogic 0) then those diodes will remain reverse biased, result in almost zero potential at Y. This zero potential represents logic zero. If cathode of any diode is at 5V(logic 1) then that diode is forward bias result flow of current through R. Due to the current some potential drop across R results in. Hence, the potential of Y will be at 5V. This 5V represents logic 1.By using above method we can verify the truth table given below for AND gate.

TRUTH TABLE:OR GATE Inputs A 0 0 1 1 NOT GATE:-

B 0 1 0 1

Output Y 0 1 1 1

If the potential of point A is kept at 5V( logic 1), the transistor will be forward biased.

This forward result in higher flow of current in transistor. Owing to this flow of current the potential of collector (point Y) reduces significantly (almost 0 volt). This zero potential represent logic 0. Now if the potential of point A is kept at 0V(logic 0), the transistor will remain in reverse biased state. As transistor is not on the potential of collector is at Vcc (5V). The potential of 5 V represents logic 1. By using above two methods we can verify the truth table given below for AND gate.

TRUTH TABLE:NOT GATE Input A 0 1 NAND GATE USING TRANSISTOR:Output B 1 0

This circuit is combination of circuit for AND gate followed by circuit for NOT gate. The combination works as NAND gate. By using the same methods as mention for AND and for NOT gate we can verify the truth table given below for NAND gate. TRUTH TABLE:NAND GATE Inputs Output A B Y 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

NOR GATE USIN G TRANSISTOR:-

This circuit is combination of circuit for OR gate followed by circuit for NOT gate. The combination works as NOR gate. By using the same method as mention for OR and for NOT gate we can verify the truth table given below for NOR gate.

TRUTH TABLE:NOR GATE Inputs A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 SELF ASSESSMENT:1. What do you mean by logic level? What are different types of logic system use to represent the 1 and 0 in logic circuits? 2. Sketch circuit diagram, make truth table and assemble an EX-OR Gate from AND, OR, NOT logic Gates using ICs. 3. Name the ICs used in the above experiment instead of discrete circuit. 4. Name any 3 companies which manufacture ICs... 5. Why NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates.? 6 .Implement various basic gates (OR, AND and NOT) using NAND and NOR gates. ADDER : In electronics an adder is a digital circuit that performs addition of two numbers. In modern computer adder resides in ALU ( Arithmetic and logic unit of computer. Adder is not only important in computer but also in many types of digital system in which digital data are processed.

Output Y 1 0 0 0

Types of adder: There are two types of adders. (1) Half adder (2) Full adder Half Adder: The half adder accepts two binary digits on its inputs and produces two binary digits outputs, a sum and a carry bit.

Block diagram:-

Half Adder

HALF

ADDER

Sum

Carry( Cout)

Truth Table for Half Adder INPUTS A B Sum 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 OUTPUT Carry 0 0 0 1

Boolean expression for sum and carry of half adder Sum= AB+AB (EX-OR Gate) Carry= A.B (AND Gate)
Circuit Diagram :-

For Half Adder

Full adder: Full adder accepts two inputs bits and an carry and generates a sum and a output carry.

Block diagram:- Full Adder

Cin

FULL

ADDER

Sum

Carry( Cout)

Truth Table for Full Adder INPUTS B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 OUTPUT Carry 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

Cin 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Sum 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Boolean expression for sum and carry Sum=ABC+ABC+ ABC+ABC+ABC Carry=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC FULL ADDER using two half adder

C A HALF ADDER S1 B

HALF ADDER

Sum

Carry2

Carry1

Carry

For addition of two binary bits we use half adder. It is the circuit which takes bit A and bit B, and produces SUM and Carry bits. While half adder adds two bits, the purpose of full adder is to add three bits. In block we have implemented full adder u sing two half adders. In this circuit, the first half adder produces S1 and C1 (sum and carry of half adder respectively). The S1 and the third input Cin are added by the second half adder to produce SUM and C2( the sum and carry of second half adder). Now the carry of both half adders are added by using OR gate to produce final carry. FULL ADDER Using two half adder circuit diagram

Fig.2

Self Assessment Questions:1. Implement the above circuits using AND, OR and NOT gates.

2. Find out Boolean exp ression for half adder and Full adder using truth able and K - MAP. 3. Construct Half Adder and Full Adder circuits using NAND gates in place of EX-OR gates. 4 Construct Half Adder and Full adder .using Nor gates in place of EX -OR gate. 5. For adding 1010101 and 101000, how many half adder and full adder are needed?

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 10 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submiss ion

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aim: a. To Study forward & reverse characteristics of Zener diode. b. To study power rating concept of diode. c. To study the different types of diode. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able: a. To compare the forward V-I characteristics of a Zener diode. b. To understand the different parameters such as cut in voltage, reverse saturation current, breakdown voltages etc. c. To understand maximum forward and reverse currant and voltages can be applied to the diode. d. To identify different types of diodes and their application. 3. Problem Statement: 1. To calculate the forward and reverse current of diode in both forward and reverse direction respectively. 2. To calculate the forward static and dynamic resistance of the diode at a suitable operating point. 3. Find the value of operating temperature of diode with slope of graph and compare it with room temperature. 4. To calculate the breakdown voltage.

4. Requirement: S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 APPARATUS REQUIRED Bread Board or Experimental board Diode Zener diode Resistance 1K Analog Voltmeter, Ammeter Power supply (0 10V or 30 V) Connector Jumpers QUANTITY 01 01 01 01 01 06 10

5. Circuit Diagram:-

6. Procedure : (i) Forward Characteristics of Zener diode: 1. Make the connections as shown in the figure 1. 2. Connect the voltmeter of range 1V and ammeter of range 10mA in the circuit. 3. Vary the in built D.C. Supply voltage in steps of 0.1Vand note down the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. 4. Plot the graph of forward voltage V f (on X-axis) vs forward current If (on Y5. Axis and compare it with theoretical.

(ii) Reverse characteristics of Zener diode: 1. Make the connections as shown in the figure 2. 2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 10V and ammeter range switch to 200A. 3. Vary the in built D.C. Supply voltage in steps of 1Vand note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. 4. Plot the graph of reverse volta ge V r (on X-axis) vs. reverse current Ir (on YAxis and compare it with theoretical. 5 Calculate the breakdown voltage.

7. Observation Table : (i) Forward characteristics: S.no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Vf (V) If (mA) Rf = Vf / If

(ii) Reverse characteristics: S.no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. -Vr (V) -Ir (mA) R r=Vr / I r

Note: Show breakdown voltage in table and indicate in graph. 8. Analysis: 1. Plot the graph for forward and reverse characteristics of various diodes. Self Assessment Questions : 1. 2. 3. 4. What is the shape of the graph of the data for the diode? For the graph of diode, how did the values of V/I vary as the values of V increased? Which device conducts electricity both directions? Which device conducts electricity only in one direction?

9. Result: The forward & reverse biased characteristics of Zener. The cut in voltage of Zener diode as determined from the graph is found as ________, The breakdown voltage of Zener diode as determined from the graph is found as = 10. Report:- Write about the cut in voltage of Zener diodes. Write about is relation of voltage and current in forward bias. What is the maximum forward current of above diodes.

What is the value of reverse saturation current ? what is effect of increase in temperature on reverse saturation current. Write about the breakdown voltage of Zener diode. Write about the value of current after breakdown taken place. Write about Power rating of diode.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 11 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aim: a. To study input & output characteristics of common emitter transistor. b. To study the working of transistor circuit in common emitter configuration. 2. Objectives: After completing the experiment, student should be able: a. Analyze and design a transistor circuit in emitter configuration. b. Analyze a input impedance of the circuit. c. Analysis the effect of change in VCE. on IB (Early effect). d. Analyze the output impedance of transistor. e. Analysis how transistor can amplifies input current IB. f. Also analysis the effect of increase in slope of IC with increase in VCE. at higher values of IB. 3. Problem Statement: 1. Find out the response of the transistor in different regions of biasing. 2. Find out the condition for saturation. 3. Calculate the relation of IB and IC in active region. 4. Calculate reverse leakage current ICEO cutoff region (when IB )

IB RB

IC RC A
2

VBB R1

A 1

VCE VBE VCC R2

FIG: (f)

REQUIREMENT:-

S. No. 1 2 5 6 7

APPARATUS REQUIRED Experimental board Banana to banana Ammeter(0-10mA) Voltmeter(0-12V) Ammeter(0-200A)

QUANTITY 01 12 01 02 01

PROCEDURE:(I) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR IN COMMON BASE MODE:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Make connections as shown in fig.1for N -P -N transistor. Apply a constant dc voltage between collector and emitter VCE for the first set of readings. Keep input voltmeter range switch to 1V and ammeter range switch to 10mA. Vary input voltage V BE in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding VBE and IB readings. Repeat above steps, by keeping different constant voltage VCE. Plot the graph of I B v/s VBE for constant VCE.

(II) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR IN COMMON BASE MODE:1. Keep input voltmeter range switch to 10V and ammeter range switch to 10mA. 2. Apply a constant input current IB for the first set of readings. 3. Vary output voltage VCE in steps of 1V and note down corresponding VCE and IB readings. 4. Repeat above steps, by keeping emitter current IB constant to different values. 5. Plot the graph of I C v/s VCE for constant IB.

OBSERVATION TABLE:INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: S.NO. VCE = 0v VBE (V) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Input impedance of transistor h = ? VBE/ ? IB at constant VCE IB (mA) VCE = 2v VBE (V) IB(mA) VCE= 4v VBE (V) IB (mA)

be

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: S.NO. IB =10uA VCE (V) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. IC (mA) IB =10uA VCE(V) IC (mA) IB= 20uA VCE (V) IC (mA)

Output impedance of transistor r be = ? VCE/ ? IC at constant I B. Output conductance hoe= 1/ r be Current Gain hfe = ? I C/? I B RESULT:The Common emitter transistor characteristics have been studied and plotted on the graph paper. Report: Write about the effect of VCE on IB in input characteristic of transistor. Write how you put the transistor in cutoff, active and saturation region. From graph Conclude what is relation IB and Ic in active region? Write about what is effect of increasing IB on output characteristics with increase in V CE ? Write about why cutoff and saturation region not used for amplification ? SELF ASSESSMENT:Q11. Draw a NPN transistor diagram and show the different currents and their relationship.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 12 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Othe rs:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

1. Aim:- To verify logic operations - AND, OR and NOT using diode and transistor. 2. Objectives:- After completing the experiment, the student should be able: To understand the making of the truth table with the help of the logic gates circuit diagrams. To implement the logic gates using discreet components. 3. Problem Statement:a) To make the truth table of the gates given in the experiment. b) To do verification of truth tables of various logic gates. c) To show the operation of the different diodes and transistors used in the making of the different gates. 4. Requirements:-Bread Board, Power Supply (5V), Patch cords, 330? resistances1k? , LED, Data switches.

TEST PROCEDURE:AND GATE:-

TRUTH TABLE:AND GATE Inputs A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 OR GATE:-

Output Y 0 0 0 1

TRUTH TABLE:OR GATE Inputs A 0 0 1 1 NOT GATE:-

B 0 1 0 1

Output Y 0 1 1 1

NAND GATE USING TRANSISTOR:-

TRUTH TABLE:NAND GATE Inputs Output A B Y 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

NOR GATE USING TRANSISTOR:-

A 0 0 1 1

B 0 1 0 1

Z=A + B 1 0 0 0

1) Make connections as per circuit diagrams of figs. 2) Switch on the power supply. 3) Give logic inputs to A and B by using data switches and verify result on Y (by connecting Y terminal to LED).

9. Result:Did you get the results as expected? 10. Report: Write about what you mean by logic circuit, truth tale and Boolean expression and how these are interrelated. Write about the use of diode and transistor function in the logic circuit above.

Medi-Caps Institute of Science & Technology, Indore

Experiment No. 13 Performance Evaluation: Name of the student Performing on Extra Regular Enrollment No. First submission Second submission

Grade and Remarks by the Tutor 1. Clarity about the objective of experiment 2. Clarity about the problem statement 3. Submitted the work in desired format 4. Shown capability to solve the problem 5. Contribution to the team work Others:

Grade: A B C Cross the grade. D F Signature:

Aim:Implementation of Half adder and Full adder circuits.

Objectives:After completing the experiment, the student should be able: To implement the half and full adder circuits in various binary parallel and serial adder circuits.

Problem Statement: - To implement the given adders with different gates. Prerequisites: Knowledge about Boolean algebra, basic gate and EX-OR gate.
Experimental board OR Breadboard, Patch cords, IC7408, IC7432, IC7486, 330 Resistances, LEDs, Power supply (5V).

Requirement:-

Block diagram:-

Half Adder

HALF

ADDER

Sum

Carry( Cout)

FULL ADDER using two half adder

C A HALF ADDER S1 B

HALF ADDER

Sum

Carry2

Carry1

Carry

Circuit Diagram:(a) FOR HALF ADDER

Fig.1 (b) FOR FULL ADDER

 Procedure:1) 2) 3) 4)

Fig.2

Assemble the circuit of fig.1 on Trainer board using ICs. Give the logic inputs using 5V power supply. Test the sum output S and carry output C for all combinations of inputs. Make the truth table for the circuit. Similarly repeat steps 1 to 4 for fig.2.

Observation:Truth Table for Half Adder INPUTS A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 OUTPUT Carry 0 0 0 1

Sum 0 1 1 0

Boolean expression for sum and carry of half adder Sum= AB+AB Carry= A.B Truth Table for Full Adder INPUTS A B 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 OUTPUT Carry 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Sum 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Boolean expression fo r sum and carry Sum=ABC+ABC+ ABC+ABC+ABC Carry=ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC Result:

We verified the half adder and full adder by the circuit implementation.

Report : Write about the addition of binary numbers us ing half adder and full adder with
some examples.