Module 3

AR-1502
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND

MATERIAL - IV
AR. POURNAMI NARAYANAN

31-12-2021
AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 2

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ROOF STRUCTURES …
• Roof is defined as the upper most part of a building/structure , which is constructed in the form
of a frame work to give protection to the buildings against rain, heat, snow, wind etc.
Steel frames
Types of roofing
• RCC slabs
• Steel truss frames with
sheets/Tiling
• Wooden frames with Wooden frames
sheets/Tiling
• Space frames with
sheets/Tiling
Metropol parasol , Spain| Architect J Mayer Space frames

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Types of roof

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Types of
Sloping roof

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• The pitched roof generally have sloping top surface and these are useful at places where rainfall or snow fall is heavy. It is
one of the cheapest and economical alternative for covering the structure. Pitched roof are generally used in factories and
workshops, godowns and warehouse, theatre and auditoriums and in hilly regions.
• The climatic condition of the site, nature of the covering material, span and other factors are all responsible for the slope of
the roof. It is designed keeping all these aspects into consideration.
Span :
The horizontal distance between the internal
faces of walls or supports is called as span.
Rise :
The vertical distance between the wall plate and
top of the ridge is know as rise.
Pitch :
The inclination of the sides of a roof to the
horizontal plane is called as pitch.
Ridge :
Apex line of the sloping roof is called as ridge.
Hip :
The ridge formed by the intersection of 2 sloped
surfaces having an exterior angle more than
180° is called as hip.

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Eaves :
Wooden board which is fixed to the rafter at
the eaves. It is also called as facia board. It is
15-20 cm wide and 20-5 mm thick
Purlins :
Purlins are nothing but horizontal wooden or
steel members which are used to support the
common ratters of a sloping rout when span is
larger.
Gable :
The triangular upper part of a wall formed at
the end of a pitched roof is called as gable.
Verge :
The edge of a gable running between the eaves
and ridge is called as verge.
Cleats :
The small blocks of wood which are fixed on
the rafters or ceiling are called as cleats.

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Common Rafters :
Inclined wooden members which are laid from the
ridge to the eaves are called as common rafters.
They are intermediate rafters which are supporting
the roof coverings.
Hip Rafters :
Sloping rafters which forms the hip of a sloped roof
are called as hip rafters. They are laid diagonally
from the ridge to the corners of the wall for
supporting the roof covers.
Jack Rafters :
Jack rafters are normally shorter than any common
rafter. These rafters are generally laid from hip or
valley to the eaves.
Valley Rafters :
Valley gutters are generally supported by these
rafters. Valley rafters are sloping in nature and are
laid diagonally from ridge to the eaves.

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Truss frames …
• A roof truss is a simple assembly of members forming a
rigid framework of triangular shapes. The members are
joined by rivets or welding.
• These triangles combine to distribute the load across
each of the other members, resulting in a light structure
that is stronger than the sum of the strength of its
Typical roof truss and details
individual components.
• The main reasons for using trusses
are,
✓ long span and light weight
✓ reduced deflection
(compared to plain
members)
✓ opportunity to support
considerable loads.
Typical roof
truss and
details
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Types of trusses … Pitched roof - span 6 m to 30 m

• Most common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses wherein the top chord
is provided with a slope in order to facilitate natural drainage of rainwater and
clearance of dust/snow accumulation. These trusses have a greater depth at the
mid-span.
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Types of trusses … Parallel chord truss – span 12 m to 24 m
• The parallel chord trusses are constructed with two chords running parallel
to each other and supported by reinforcing trusses in between them. They
are used to support North Light roof trusses in industrial buildings, also
used as pre-fabricated floor joists, beams and girders in multistory buildings.
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Difference between Pratt/ Howe/ Warren trusses
Types of trusses … Trapezoidal trusses – span > 30 m

• In case of very long span length pitched roof, trusses having trapezoidal configuration, with depth at the ends are used.
• The trapezoidal configurations having the sloping bottom chord can be economical in very long span trusses (spans >
30 m), since they tend to reduce the web member length and the chord members tend to have nearly constant forces
over the span length.
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Types of trusses … in detail
King post truss Queen post truss
North light or saw tooth truss Fink truss
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King Post Truss and details …
• A king post is also known as crown post truss.
• it is the simplest form of truss used for simple roof
trusses and short-span bridges.
• Span varying from 5 meters to 8 meters.
• The inclined strut connected to the tie beam and the
principal rafter in inclined direction , prevents the
sagging of principal rafters.
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Queen Post Truss and details …
• A Queen post is used when the span exceeds 8mts
and upto 12 mts.
• The two vertical post known as queen post , the top
of which are connected by a horizontal piece ,
known as straining beam.
• The queen post members are the tension members.
The straining beams receives the thrust from the
principal rafters and keeps the junction in stable
position.
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Difference between King post truss and Queen Post Truss
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Fink Truss (W type) and details …
• A Fink truss is a
symmetrical truss that is Triple fink
most commonly used, with Double fink
V-shaped webs supporting
the interior of the
structure.
• A single Fink truss can be
up to 10 mts in length,
while a double truss can be
up to 16 mts. It is even
possible to create a triple
truss.
• These trusses can cover
over 24 mts when the web
pattern is duplicated.
Typical fink truss - single

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Fan Truss and details
• A truss characterized by the radiating lines of the king post and appended struts or
of the queen posts and appended struts.
• Generally fink trusses that have the web members fan out from the joints at the
bottom, with addition of vertical members.
• Can be used for spans from 10-15 mts.
• These trusses are made of steel.
Typical fan truss

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North light truss and details
• Spans that go over 20m and get up to 30m.

• North light truss are traditionally used in industrial workshop-type buildings.
• They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of
glazing on the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to
reduce solar gain.
• On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss
running perpendicular to the plane of the north light truss, to provide
column free spaces.
North light or saw tooth truss

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North light truss and details
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Types of connections … Timber joinery
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Types of connections … angular

• Pinned/bolted connections-bearing and friction bolts • Gusset plate connections
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Types of connections
• Riveted joints- riveting is a method of joining together structural components by inserting ductile metal pins,
called rivets, into holes of the components to be connected from coming apart. Riveting is a forging process during
which a hot rivet is driven in its plastic state and a head is formed at the other end, known as driven head.
• Bolted joints- are one of the most common elements in construction and machine design. They consist of fasteners
that capture and join other parts, and are secured with the mating of screw threads. There are two main types of
bolted joint designs: BEARING joints and FRICTION joints.
• Welded connections- welded connections are generally made by melting base metal from parts to be joined with
weld metal, which upon cooling form the connection.
• Gusset plate- a thin metal object, typically made of steel used to affix independent members of a structure to each
other to aid alignment. Gusset plates are used in joint, bend or otherwise disjointed structural locations that require
additional support to withstand stresses. They typically occur as flat dish-like triangular, rectangular units or any
customised shape and are fastened to structural members with the use of bolts or welds.
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RIVETS
WELDED JOINTS
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Types of connections … Tubular
• WELDED CONNECTIONS
• PINNED CONNECTIONS
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Types of construction materials … Wood
• A timber roof truss is a structural framework of timbers

designed to bridge the space above a room and to 1. Top Chord/ ridge beam
provide support for a roof. 2. Purlins
3. Common rafters
• Trusses usually occur at regular intervals, linked by
longitudinal timbers such as purlins.
• The space between each truss is known as a “ bay”.
• The top members of a truss are known as the top chord,
bottom members as the bottom chord, and the interior
members as webs.
• In carpentry the top chords are often called rafters, and the
bottom chord is an often a tie beam.
• There are two main types of timber roof trusses ,
• Closed : the bottom chord is horizontal and at the foot of
the truss.
• Open: the bottom chords are raised to provide more open
space, also known as raised bottom chord trusses.
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Types of construction materials … Steel Angles Strut
• Mild steel angle is a length of steel or iron that is bent at

Suspender
a right angle. Also known as the L , I , T , C channels.
• They can be made either from a single piece of iron or
steel bent lengthwise to a particular angle usually at 90 Tie beam
degrees or by attaching two pieces together at the
desired angle.
• The larger the steel angle, the more weight and stress
it can bear.
TYPES
Equal angles Unequal angles

The two legs of The two legs of
the angle the angle sections
sections are of are of different
same dimension dimensions.
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Different sizes of “ L “ Angles sections

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Types of construction materials …Tubular sections
• A hollow structural section (HSS) is a type of

metal profile with a hollow tube.
• Rectangular and square HSS are also called as

tube steel or structural tubing.
• Members can be circular, square, rectangular

sections (or elliptical).
• dimensions - based on exterior dimensions of

the profile.
• Generally tubular sections has heavily

rounded corners.
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Gutters
• A gutter also known as a "rain catcher", is a narrow

channel, forming the component of a roof system
which collects and diverts rainwater away from the
roof edge.
• Rain gutters can be made from materials such as

cast iron, lead, galvanized steel, copper, painted
aluminum, PVC , concrete etc.
• Water collected by a rain gutter is fed, usually via a

"downpipe“, from the roof edge to the base of the
building where it is either discharged or collected
or diverted to rain water harvesting pit.
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Eaves
• The eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall
and, normally, project beyond the side of a building.
• The function of the eaves is to keep rain water off the walls and to
prevent the ingress of water at the junction where the roof meets
the wall.
• The eaves overhang may also shelter openings to ventilate the roof
space. The eaves may be covered by eave boards or timber planks in
some details.
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Space Frames … • stronger form is composed of interlocking

tetrahedral or square pyramid in which all the
• A truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from struts may have unit length.
interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.
• more technically this is referred to as an isotropic
• Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior vector matrix or in a single unit width forming an
supports. octet truss.
• A space frame is strong because of , • more complex variations change the lengths of the
struts to curve the over all structure or may
• The inherent rigidity of the triangle;
incorporate other geometrical shapes.
• Flexing loads (bending moments) are
• Can be built from aluminum or tubular ( circular /
transmitted as tension and compression
square / rectangular) steel struts.
loads along the length of each strut.
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Octet truss grids Square / rectangular grids

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Space Frames … types as per curvature Space Frames … types as per grids
Flat covers Barrel vaults Spherical domes Single layer Double layer Triple layer
Composed of This type of vault Usually require the All elements are Organised in two Placed in three
planar has a cross section use of tetrahedral located on the parallel layers with parallel layers ,
substructures. of a simple arch modules or surface to be each other at a linked by the
The plane are form. pyramids and approximated. certain distance diagonals.
channelled through Usually does not additional support apart. Almost always flat.
the horizontal bars need to use from a skin. The diagonal bars This solution is to
and the shear tetrahedral connecting the nodes decrease diagonal
forces are modules or of both layers in members length.
supported by the pyramids as a part different directions in Used for large
diagonals. of its backing space spans.
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Space Frames … types of connections
Welded connection
Bolted connection Threaded connection
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Space Frames … Advantages
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Girders …
• A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is

the main horizontal support of a structure which
supports smaller beams.
• Plate Girders : The plate girders are typically I-beams
made up from separate structural steel plates , which
are welded or bolted or riveted together to form the Plate girders - Bridges
vertical web and horizontal flanges of the beam.
• the depth of the girder is no less than 1/12 to 1/15 of the
span, depending on the required load bearing capacity.
Plate girders - parking bays / factories

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• Warren Girders : The Warren type girder replaces the solid web
with an open latticework between the flanges. This truss
arrangement combines strength with economy of materials and can
therefore be relatively light.
• James Warren designed this truss firstly in 1848.
• Mainly used for bridges, roof support of large span

structures etc.
• The Warren Truss uses equilateral

triangles to spread out the loads on
the bridge.
• The equilateral triangles minimize
the forces to only compression and
tension.
• Steel angles I , L , C sections are
used for this truss. The joints can
be welded or bolted ( widely used )
together. Combination of warren truss and plate girders
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ROOFING TILES … TYPES
• Roof tiles are one among the oldest , roofing system preferred for residential buildings in villages and old urban
settlements.
• Country tiles are manufactured from locally available earth , like the same process as bricks.
• The various types of roofing tiles are ,
• Plain or flat tiles
• Curved or pan tiles
• Half round country tiles or Spanish tiles
• Italian or Allahabad tiles
• Inter locking tiles
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Plain or Flat tiles

• Plain tiles are made of clay or concrete , but commonly of clay.
• Rectangular shapes , varying from 250 mm x150 mm to 280 mm x 180
mm , with thickness from 9 mm to 15 mm .
• Not flat , it have slight camber of 5 to 10 mm in their length.
• Common rafters are to be laid , at
• Every tiles has stubs or nibs under side of the head , which is used to 200 to 300 mm spacing .
hung from battens or reapers.
• Battens or reapers are then fixed
• It can be nailed also by using copper nails , the holes formed at about 25 across the rafters / or rcc slabs at a
mm from head , and 38 mm from the edges. spacing of 40 to 60 mm.
• Then the tiles are laid over it , with
sufficient overlap on sides and edges.
Plain flat tiles

Plain flat tiles laid above common rafters
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• Hip and valley details : At hip , special granny bonnet hip tile are
used. These hip tiles will be bonded with the plain tile with a
mortar on the back of the tile below.
• For ridges and also valleys the same laying principle is followed.
Eaves details Ridge details
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Curved or Pan tiles …
• Pan tiles are 330 to 360 mm long , 225 to 250 mm wide

and 12 to 19 mm thick.
• They have a S–curve or a flat wave.
• Every tile has a nib at the under side and a nail hole .
• Pan tiles are laid with over lapping side joints , from eaves to ridge. This can be laid by single lapping system.
• The lap in pan tiles varies from 38 to 50 mm.

• Pan tiles can be nailed also . The hip and valley
will be laid by using special tiles and bounded
with mortar.
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Half round country tiles or Spanish tiles …
• Half round are laid in pairs of under tiles and over

tiles.
• The under tiles are laid with concave surface Half round country tiles Type 01
upwards and over tiles with convex surface
upwards.
• Semi circular in section at each ends , but
diameters tappers longitudinally from tail to head.
• In another one type , the under tiles are flat with
broader head tapering towards the tail , the over Half round country tiles Type 02
tile is segmental in section , with wider tail and
narrower heads.
Spanish tiles / Half round country tiles roofing

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Italian or Allahabad tiles …
• Half round are laid as over tiles and a flat , tapered with upturned
edges as under tiles.
• The under tile measures , 230 mm at the interior end (tail) , 260 mm
at the wide end ( head ) with a length of 370 mm and upturned edges
height of 40 mm.
• The over tiles is half round , tappers from 12 cm at head to 16 cm tail.
• The head lap varies from 65 to 75 mm , and the side lap is 50 mm .
• The tapper in the over tile allows the tile in the next course to fit in.
• The ground work consists of rafters or RCC slab , above that 50 x 25

mm battens are fixed at the gauge apart. The gauge equals the length
of tile lap.
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• The vertical battens of size 22 x 75 mm are fixed between side of
adjacent under tiles and to these half round over tiles with 38 mm
long copper nails .
• And also the over tiles are fixed to vertical battens with 78 mm
nails.
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Inter locking tiles …
• The common of the roofing tiles , seen in most parts of India .
• The locking systems between the tiles , helps to prevent their dislodgment in
most exposed conditions also.
• These tile are machine made. Various types of interlocking tiles are available
named as flat interlocking , Sialkot tiles , single roman etc .
• They also follow the batten as the ground system , above that the tiles has to
be laid with interlocking ails or flanges which comes along with the tiles.
Single roman tiles
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Flat interlocking tiles
Double roman roof tiles

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LIGHT ROOFING MATERIALS … TYPES
Galvanized iron sheets …

• G.I sheets are widely used because of its
strength and durability.
• Not used for slopes flatter than 1: 4 .
• G.I sheets are made of iron sheets which are
Trapezoidal corrugated G.I sheets Plain G.I sheets
galvanized with zinc to protect them from
rusting action of water and moist weather. • The end lap should not be less than 150 mm and side lap varies from
1.5 to 2 corrugations .
• Plain sheets or corrugated sheets are also
available , with gauge from 8 to 32 numbers , • The holes can be drilled or punched , then should be fixed to the
pitch from 15 mm to 75 mm. purlins by G.I hook bolts, screws and nails with curved washers.
• The sheets should be fixed to eaves by means of flat iron wind ties.
Circular corrugated G.I sheets

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Asbestos cement sheets …
• Asbestos cement sheets are manufactured from

asbestos , fiber ( 15 % ) and Portland cement.
• Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral existing in veins of
metamorphosed volcanic rocks , which has a
compound of magnesia and silica.
• Its cheap, light weight, durable , water tight, fire
resisting and vermin resistant.
• Less maintenance , no protective coating is required.
• Used in all types of buildings , residential to
auditoriums etc.
• It has length of about 1.25 mts to 3 mts in
increments of 150 mm.
• Fixing is same as the G.I sheets , having purlin ( Laying of A.C. Sheets ( left to right )
wood/ steel )as the ground system , and sheets will
be lapped and fixed with bolts , screws and nuts with
washers.
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• Three different types of AC sheets are available ,

which depends upon, the no of corrugations , pitch
and depth . The standard length will be from 1 mts
to 3 mts . The three types are :
• Everest big six

• Everest standard
• Trafford
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Corrugated aluminum sheets …

• Aluminum sheets consists of aluminum alloyed with small
percentage of manganese's for strength.
Types of corrugated
• Aluminum roofing sheets are extremely light and have a high aluminum sheets
strength-to-weight ratio.
• Its corrosion resistant, resistant to chemicals , durable ,
doesn’t require any protective coatings.
• An aluminum sheet structure can be easily dismantled,
transported and re-assembled in a new location.
• Though the metal is a good conductor of heat, its high
reflectivity for radiant heat and light (75 to 80 per cent )
which reduces 5 to 8 degree Celsius lesser .
• Length between 1500 to 6500 mm. width ranging from 750
mm to 1200 mm.
• Various types resembling like tiles , in different colors and
patterns are available in market .
• Thickness from 0.30 mm to 1.63 mm.
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PVC sheets …
• PVC sheets consists of poly vinyl chloride as its main
constituents , which has to be blended with additives such
as stabilizers for durability, plasticizers for flexibility and
pigments for colors.
• Its durable, bended into curvy profiles, corrosion
resistance, waterproof and high tensile strength.
• Chemical and alkali resistance , easy installation , fire
retardant , light weight etc. Fixing details of PVC sheets
• Thickness: 1mm , Lengths: 2 to 3.66 mts , Colors: Green,
Blue, White, yellow, gray etc.
• Available as circular or trapezoidal corrugated sheets.
• Heat insulation - 35%, Temperature tolerance - Upto
70°C
• Used in factories, warehouses, villas, car parks, agricultural
and trading markets, balconies and heat-insulation sheds
etc.
Curvy profile
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Glass fiber reinforced plastic sheets …

• G.F.R.P Sheets are manufactured by reinforcing Un-Saturated Polyester
Resin with Glass to obtain exceptional mechanical, thermal and electrical
properties.
• Glass Fiber imparts mechanical properties to the Sheets, whereas Resin
determines its overall resistance to chemical corrosion, environmental
de-gradation and wear and tear.
• Durable, Robust in construction , Lightweight, Aesthetically appealing,
Easy to install , easy maintenance etc.
• Act as thermal insulation materials and guard against UV rays of sunlight.
• Mostly semi - transparent sheets and light colored sheets , which passes
natural daylight.
• Fixing as same like other sheets , side laps or end laps with bolts fixed in
battens.
• Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic sheets are being widely used in Industrial
Sheds, Shopping Malls, Swimming pools , Railway Stations, Airports,
Ports etc for natural sky lighting.
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Poly carbonate sheets …
• Polycarbonate roof sheets are commonly called transparent steel

due to their wonderful impact resistance and glass like clarity.
Green houses roofing
• Polycarbonate is a engineered thermoplastic sheets , consisting of
polymer as its main constituents.
• High strength , light in weight , Excellent thermal and electrical
insulation properties, High temperature tolerance (from -40°C to
+130°C) , Very high light transmission upto 90% etc.
• Available in corrugated , profiled plain sheets in different colors etc
, with transparent nature .
• Excellent flexural strength hence can be cold curved or even cold
bent into simple shapes.
• Available in various lengths, hence minimum wastages.
• Skylights in railway stations, bus stands , ware houses etc.
• Terrace coverings, sun shades and private extensions . Green
houses for critical cash crops, sensitive to climatic change. Weather
protection for aquaculture ponds.
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Acrylic sheets …
• As like polycarbonate sheets , acrylic also has been

designed for optimal light diffusion , particularly for
green houses as roofing's.
• Transparent, clear or embossed translucent, UV
resistant etc.
• High light transmission - over 90% Pergola - covering acrylic sheets
• Good impact resistance , good chemical resistance, Standard acrylic sheets

lightweight, easy to install.
• 17 times stronger than glass at half the weight.
• Used as covering for pergolas, swimming pools
,canopies , car porches , terrace gardens etc.
• Available as twin wall and also triple wall roof Triple wall – acrylic sheets
coverings.
• Thickness from 3 mm to 12 mm and of varying
Double wall – acrylic sheets
length.
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Bitumen sheets …
• Bituminous sheets are used mainly in buildings exposed to rainy

and snowy weathers , because of its high water proofing property.
• Bitumen (asphalt or coal-tar pitch) is a mixed substance made up of
organic liquids that are highly sticky, viscous, and highly
waterproof.
• Suitable for garden sheds, factories , garages, stables and
agricultural buildings.
• Easy to install , low maintenance , heat resistant , UV resistant etc.
• Reduces noise transmission via panel resonance.
• Can also be used as a underlay in roofs , were roofing tiles can be
laid above it , to maintain a architecturally pleasing roofing design.
• Black colored sheets , grey colored rolls are also available.
• Available as corrugated sheets , for ridge and hip , specific
bituminous tiles can be used along with.
• Fixing is same as like all other sheets , with side laps and bolts .
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THANK YOU
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AR-1502

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND

AR. POURNAMI NARAYANAN

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 2

Metropol parasol , Spain| Architect J Mayer Space frames

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 4

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 5

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 6

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 7

AR 1502 – Building Construction and Materials - IV Module -3 8

Types of trusses … Pitched roof - span 6 m to 30 m

Types of trusses … Parallel chord truss – span 12 m to 24 m

Difference between Pratt/ Howe/ Warren trusses

Types of trusses … Trapezoidal trusses – span > 30 m

Types of trusses … in detail

King post truss Queen post truss

North light or saw tooth truss Fink truss

King Post Truss and details …

• A king post is also known as crown post truss.

• it is the simplest form of truss used for simple roof

trusses and short-span bridges.

• Span varying from 5 meters to 8 meters.

• The inclined strut connected to the tie beam and the

principal rafter in inclined direction , prevents the

sagging of principal rafters.

King Post Truss and details …

King Post Truss and details …

Queen Post Truss and details …

• A Queen post is used when the span exceeds 8mts

and upto 12 mts.

• The two vertical post known as queen post , the top

of which are connected by a horizontal piece ,

known as straining beam.

• The queen post members are the tension members.

The straining beams receives the thrust from the

principal rafters and keeps the junction in stable

Difference between King post truss and Queen Post Truss

Fink Truss (W type) and details …

Typical fink truss - single

Fan Truss and details

Typical fan truss

North light truss and details

• Spans that go over 20m and get up to 30m.

North light or saw tooth truss

North light truss and details

Types of connections … Timber joinery

Types of connections … angular

Types of connections … Tubular

Types of construction materials … Wood

• A timber roof truss is a structural framework of timbers

Types of construction materials … Steel Angles Strut

• Mild steel angle is a length of steel or iron that is bent at

Equal angles Unequal angles

Different sizes of “ L “ Angles sections

Types of construction materials …Tubular sections

• A hollow structural section (HSS) is a type of

• Rectangular and square HSS are also called as

• Members can be circular, square, rectangular

• dimensions - based on exterior dimensions of

• Generally tubular sections has heavily

• A gutter also known as a "rain catcher", is a narrow

• Rain gutters can be made from materials such as

• Water collected by a rain gutter is fed, usually via a