Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358

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Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

Constructed wetlands for textile wastewater remediation: A review on

concept, pollutant removal mechanisms, and integrated technologies for
efficiency enhancement
Rozi Sharma, Piyush Malaviya *
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Jammu, Jammu, 180006, Jammu and Kashmir, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Constructed wetland (CW) is sustainable

solution for textile wastewater
management.
• Vegetation, substrate, and microorgan­
isms are fundamentals of constructed
wetlands.
• Physico-chemical and biological mech­
anisms are involved in CW-based
remediation.
• Integrated CW-microbial fuel cells/algal
ponds/sponge iron coupled systems
preferred.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: T Cutright Textile industries are among the ecologically unsustainable industries that release voluminous wastewater
threatening ecosystem health. The constructed wetlands (CWs) are low-cost eco-technological interventions for
Keywords: the management of industrial wastewaters. The CWs are self-sustaining remediation systems that do not require
Constructed wetlands an external source of energy and encompass simple operational mechanisms including biological (bioremedia­
Ecotechnology
tion and phytoremediation), chemical, and physical processes for pollutant removal. This review idiosyncrati­
Integrated system
cally scrutinizes the recent advances and developments in CWs, and their types employed for textile wastewater
Remediation mechanisms
Wastewater treatment. The major focus is on mechanisms involved during the removal of contaminants from textile
wastewater in CWs and factors affecting the performance of the system. The article also discusses the State-of-
the-Art integrated technologies e.g., CW-MFCs/algal ponds/sponge iron coupled systems, for the performance
and sustainability enhancement of CWs. All the important aspects together with the technology amalgamation
are critically synthesized for establishing suitable strategies for CW-based textile wastewater treatment systems.

1. Introduction machinery for the production of different kinds of thread (e.g. polyester,
nylon, cotton, silk, rayon, linen, wool, acrylic) (Yaseen and Scholz,
Textile is a very diverse industrial sector that uses a huge volume of 2019). High water consumption and wastewater production at the end
clean water, a variety of raw materials, chemicals, dyes, processes, and of industrial processes are the dominant issues associated with this

* Corresponding author. .
E-mail addresses: piyushmalaviya@rediffmail.com, piyushmalaviya@jammuuniversity.ac.in (P. Malaviya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133358
Received 10 November 2021; Received in revised form 12 December 2021; Accepted 16 December 2021
Available online 18 December 2021
0045-6535/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
industry. The dark-brown colored wastewater contains toxic unfixed
dyes, chlorolignin residues, phthalates, heavy metals, huge concentra­
tions of many organic and inorganic compounds (e.g. sodium hydroxide,
sodium sulfate, calcium chloride, calcium nitrite, urea, ethyl alcohol,
toluene, cyclohexane, propanoic acid, benzene, tetratriacontane,
phthalic acid, diacetyl sulfide, hydroxylamine, tyramine, propane dioic
acid) (Asamudo et al., 2006; Talouizte et al., 2020). Wastewater that is
released at different stages (e.g. dyeing, printing) of textiles
manufacturing is a great threat to neighboring receptor water bodies.
Industrial wastewaters degrade valuable but scarce clean water re­
sources. It impacts all life forms directly when they consume water
contaminated by textile wastes, and indirectly when they eat crops
irrigated with polluted water (Malaviya et al., 2012). Since clean water
is necessary for textile production and wastewater generation is difficult
to avoid, therefore, adequate handling of textile industry wastewater
before its discharge into the environment is important, and needs sci­
entific scrutiny.
Textile wastewater is treated through many physico-chemical
methods including sedimentation, screening, aeration, filtration, floa­
tation, equalization, ion adsorption, chlorination, ozonation, coagula­
tion (Malaviya and Singh, 2012). There are certain limitations of these
methods like expensiveness, sludge formation, high power consumption,
need for skilled labour, production of toxic end products, and their
disposal (Sharma et al., 2021a). Biological techniques are widely desired
among environmentalists and have become the focus in recent studies of
dye degradation and decolorization. Such methods use biological en­
tities (plants, small animals/insects, microorganisms) for the removal of
pollutants from environmental matrices (Malaviya and Singh, 2012;
Malaviya et al., 2020). These methods are featured with important
benefits like low capital investments, higher effectiveness, and a sus­
tainable approach (Sharma and Malaviya, 2021; Singh et al., 2021).
Continuous research efforts of Khandare et al. (2011); Kurade et al.
(2012); El- Kassas and Mohamed (2014); Kore et al. (2017); Chandan­
shive et al. (2018); Chandanshive et al. (2020); Adelodun et al. (2021),
and many others have shown that biological technologies are the viable,
efficient, and most importantly, environmentally benign methods for
mitigating textile industry-derived water pollution and safeguard the
ecosystem. Therefore, instead of conventional methods, biological
methods are preferred for textile wastewater treatment.
There are many biological treatment methods including microbial
fuel cells, vermicomposting (use of worms for degradation of pollut­
ants), mycoremediation (use of fungi for pollutant removal), bacterial
bioremediation (oxidation ponds, aerobic/anaerobic lagoons, aerobic/
anaerobic bioreactors, biological filters, etc.), phytoremediation (use of
plants and associated microorganisms for removing pollutants, e.g.
constructed wetlands, rain gardens, floating treatment wetlands)
(Sharma and Malaviya, 2021; Sharma et al., 2021a, 2021b). Meanwhile,
constructed wetlands (CWs) are spotted in limelight due to their
well-reported high nutrient absorption potential; lesser construction,
operation, and maintenance expenditure; reduced energy demand, and
high process stability during wastewater treatment as compared to other
phytoremediation techniques available for management of polluted
waters (Malaviya and Singh, 2012).
CW is an artificial shallow basin that uses natural wetland vegetation
(macrophytes), substrate (soil, sand, gravel), and microfauna for the
removal of contaminants from polluted water (Malaviya and Singh,
2012). Macrophytes growing in CWs are central to wastewater treat­
ment and they play a pivotal role in uptaking, degrading, and removing
pollutants from wastewater. Various aquatic and semi-aquatic plants
species belonging to many genera like Lemna, Spirodella, Wolfia, Phrag­
mites, Typha, Eichhornia, Isoetes, Lobelia, Egeria, Elodea are known for
their phytoremediation potential (Pant and Adholeya, 2009). Macro­
phytes uptake pollutants from the matrix surrounding their roots,
accumulate them in their tissues and transport them to shoots for per­
manent removal by harvesting (Chandanshive et al., 2016). Roots pro­
vide a surface for microorganisms to grow, flourish and form biofilms
2
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
which in turn facilitates rhizospheric remediation processes like rhizo­
filtration, rhizodegradation. The penetration of growing roots in the
substrate helps to degrade organic contaminants, create optimum con­
ditions for settling suspended solids, and avoid blocking by making
conduits for water to pass through the CW bed (Malaviya and Singh,
2012). When wastewater flows through the wetland bed, a diverse
population of microorganisms living in association with the roots and
substrate feeds upon the pollutants and degrade them. Different designs
and structures of CWs can be experimented with for maximum pollutant
removal from different wastewater sources, performance can be
enhanced by optimizing operation parameters, and factors affecting
remediation processes (Sharma et al., 2018; Langergraber et al., 2019;
Minakshi et al., 2019). Not only the complete plant but adsorbents
prepared from macrophytes can also be used for removing pollutants
from wastewater, for instance, activated carbon prepared from
P. australis can effectively treat dye wastewater (Chen et al., 2010;
Kankilic et al., 2016; Parihar and Malaviya, 2013).
Nowadays, CWs have been extensively used for mineralization and
removal of dyes from textile wastewaters (Dogdu and Yalcuk, 2016a;
Hussein and Scholz, 2017). In this State-of-the-Art review, the latest
literature (within the recent 10 years) is coalesced to give special
importance to the wide-scale application and exploration of CWs for the
treatment of textile wastewaters. The principal objectives of the review
are (i) to emphasize efficient, sustainable, and nature-based solutions for
effective textile wastewater remediation i.e., constructed wetland, (ii)
critically synthesize the significant progress made so far on the technical
applicability of CWs in treating textile wastewater, (iii) study the effect
of various parameters like pH, temperature, retention time, substrate,
aeration and vegetation on performance efficiency of the system (iv)
highlight the pollutant removal mechanisms including filtration,
adsorption, sedimentation, ion-exchange, precipitation, and plant up­
take; and (v) to provide insightful discussion on the importance of
State-of-the-Art integrated technologies e.g., CWs in conjunction with
microbial fuel cells (MFCs)/high rate algal ponds/sponge iron coupled
systems, for the performance and sustainability enhancement.
2. Textile wastewater: a major issue
The textile industry is a major industrial sector that deals with the
production of yarn and cloth from natural or synthetic fibers. It is one of
the largest chains of industries in the modern world that comprehen­
sively adds to the nation’s economy in terms of creating industrial
output, job opportunities, and foreign earnings (Vymazal et al., 2021).
Textile industries employ approximately 120 million people around the
world and contribute $2000 billion to market share. They share 24% of
the world’s spindle capacity and 8% of global rotor capacity (Kishor
et al., 2021).
For the manufacturing of textile, raw materials used in the industry
include natural fibers (like cotton, flax, wool), and synthetic fibers
(derived from petroleum like polyamide, polyester) (Pensupa et al.,
2017). The procedure starts with the sizing process in which potency is
provided to the raw fibers with help of chemicals like carboxymethyl
cellulose, polyacetate, and polycyclic acids; impurities (especially
starch) from sized material are removed in the desizing process, and in
scouring processes (removal of waxes/pectins through agents like
glycerol, ethers, sodium hydroxide), luster is added to the fabric to make
it more absorbent (Saxena et al., 2017). Enzymes and auxiliary chem­
icals are further added to enhance the absorbency of fibers. Threads are
then washed, bleached, mercerized, colored, coated, printed, and
finished to produce the final textile material (Pazdzior et al., 2019).
Different dyes are used for coloring threads include azo, vat, reactive
acid, basic, sulfur, direct, metal complex dyes (Cao et al., 2019). A huge
volume of water is consumed in several units (printers, mercerizing
machines, finishing machines, dyers). Generally, ~1.6 million liters of
groundwater are utilized daily in the production of 8000 kg fabric. Out
of this, ~30–40% water is used in the coloring process (Khan and Malik,
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358

2017; Kishor et al., 2021). Nevertheless, highly polluted wastewater is respective stage, and characteristics of wastewater (e.g. BOD, COD, TDS,
generated towards the end of each process. TSS, color, turbidity, electrical conductivity) generated in the corre­
Textile wastewater is dark-brown colored and highly toxic. It is sponding step.
characterized by high dye content (~10–50% of unused dyes), high
temperature, high pH, high biochemical oxygen demand, high chemical 3. Constructed wetlands (CWs) as textile wastewater
oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total management tool
organic carbon, chlorides, phosphates, sulphates, nitrates, electrical
conductivity, alkalinity, salts, carbonates, bicarbonates, pectins, acid, 3.1. CW – basic concepts
bases, mordants, surfactants, VOCs, chlorobenzenes, phenols, oils, di­
oxins, waxes, and metals like Cr, Cd, Pb, Sb, As, Cu, Ni, and Zn (Parihar CW uses macrophytes, soils, gravels, and microbial populations to
and Malaviya, 2013; Chandanshive et al., 2017; Hussain et al., 2019; treat wastewater in a controlled environment, saturated conditions, and
Kishor et al., 2021). Table 1 depicts the typical range of important pa­ under the effect of gravitational force (Malaviya and Singh, 2012).
rameters (including highly toxic organic and inorganic pollutants, heavy Macrophytes use organic pollutants as their energy source, detoxify the
metals, color, oxygen demand, pH) of textile wastewater which severely pollutants in conjugation with plants’ enzymatic systems, and store
affects the ecosystem and public health (Priya and Selvan, 2017; Yaseen them in lignin cells of plants (Khan et al., 2017; Arslan et al., 2017), for
and Scholz, 2019). The textile wastewater composition differs signifi­ example, when P. australis is exposed to AO7 dye, enzymes like super­
cantly in concentration and toxicity, and is principally governed by the oxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APOX),
chemicals used (e.g. bleaching agents, surfactants, dyes), machines, and dehydroascorbate reductase protect the plant cells against oxidative
processes involved (e.g. pretreatment, dyeing, printing, finishing, batch, damage (Carias et al., 2008). Pollutants are then degraded by rhizo­
continuous, jiggers, jet), the season of the year, and processed fabrics (e. spheric bacteria and endophytic bacteria present in shoots of macro­
g. cotton, polyester, wool) (Pazdzior et al., 2019). The assessment of phytes (Hussain et al., 2018b). Different macrophytic species have
wastewater characteristics is significant to estimate the toxicity level of varying remediation potential, for instance, P. australis can remove 68%,
effluents released, the fate of their discharge into the environment, and 69%, and 67% of AO7, COD, and TOC, respectively (Davies et al., 2009),
most importantly, the selection of appropriate treatment strategies to among Paspalum scrobiculatum, Typha angustifolia, and their
mitigate the effects to a minimum. Fig. 1 describes different steps co-plantation, CW with co-plantation reported highest pollutant
(sizing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing, removal, while T. angustifolia was found with comparatively higher
finishing) involved in the textile production, variety of chemicals used in removal efficiency than P. scrobiculatum (Chandanshive et al., 2017). In
the constructed wetland, the plants with aerenchyma tissue are
Table 1 preferred because they can trap atmospheric oxygen within their roots
Characteristics of textile wastewater with the typical range of the parameters to incorporate it into the wetland soil (Ijaz et al., 2016; Hussain et al.,
(Priya and Selvan, 2017; Yaseen and Scholz, 2019). 2018a).
S.No. Textile parameter Typical range
3.2. Different types of CWs involved in textile wastewater treatment
1 pH 5.5–12
2 Temperature 20-45 ◦ C
3 Electrical conductivity <1000 (μScm− 1) Many lab-scale and field-scale CW studies have been conducted for
4 Alkalinity 250-800 (mg L− 1) textile wastewater treatment. Lab-scale studies help identify essential
5 Color 50-2500 (Pt-Co) microbial and plant species, as well as the design of the CW which can
6 Total Dissolved Solids 1500-12000 (mg L− 1) then be engineered at field-scale for enhanced degradation and
7 Total Suspended Solids 80-10000 (mg L− 1)
8 Total Organic Carbon 100-350 (mg L− 1)
maximum remediation. (Saeed and Sun, 2013; Dogdu and Yalcuk,
9 Chemical Oxygen Demand 100-30,000 (mg L− 1) 2016a; Hussein and Scholz, 2017). Depending upon the direction of
10 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 80-6000 (mg L− 1) wastewater flow, CWs are classified into different types viz. surface flow
11 Oil and Grease 5-30 (mg L− 1) CWs, horizontal flow CWs (HFCW), up-flow CWs, vertical flow CWs
12 Total Nitrogen 10-50 (mg L− 1)
(HFCW), hybrid systems (VFCW + HFCW). Under this section, we have
13 Total Phosphorous 5-30 (mg L− 1)
14 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 70-80 (mg L− 1) discussed the types of CWs applied for textile wastewater treatment.
15 Silica <15 (mg L− 1) Horizontal flow CWs (HFCW) fed with textile wastewater, planted
16 Phenol <10 (mg L− 1) with Leptochloa fusca, and inoculated with three endophytic bacterial
17 Sulphates 500-1000 (mg L− 1) strains can remove a significant proportion of organic and inorganic
18 Nitrate <15 (mg L− 1)
19 Phosphate <10 (mg L− 1)
pollutants, nutrients, and up to 85% and 77% of COD and BOD,
20 Sulphides 5-20 (mg L− 1) respectively after 48 h of operation (Hussain et al., 2018a). HFCW
21 Chlorides 200-6000 (mg L− 1) planted with Phragmites australis, and inoculated with bacteria can
22 Cobalt <10 (mg L− 1) reduce COD, BOD, and TOC by 89%, 91%, and 96%, respectively after
23 Cadmium 0.07-2 (mg L− 1)
72 h of operation (Hussain et al., 2019). Additional bacterial inoculation
24 Chromium 2-5 (mg L− 1)
25 Lead 3-6 (mg L− 1) improves the performance of already existing bacterial strains, and
26 Arsenic <10 (mg L− 1) hence overall efficiency of wetlands. Similar reports have been found by
27 Iron 0.03-<10 (mg L− 1) other researchers (Ijaz et al., 2016; Fatima et al., 2018), which clearly
28 Zinc <10 (mg L− 1) indicates that water toxicity is decreased by inoculation of bacteria in
29 Copper 2-<10 (mg L− 1)
30 Nickel 0.5-3 (mg L− 1)
the wetlands, and efficiency depends on the vegetation type as well.
31 Sodium 400-7000 (mg L− 1) Up-flow CW planted with P. australis fed with wastewater containing
32 Potassium 30-50 (mg L− 1) different concentrations of dye (acid-orange 7) and supplemented with
33 Calcium 10-50 (mg L− 1) artificial aeration show outstanding performance in the removal of
34 Magnesium 10-30 (mg L− 1)
organic matters, aromatic amines, and ammonia from wastewater.
35 Mercury <10 (mg L− 1)
36 Chlorine 1000-6000 (mg L− 1) Nutrient removal remains unaffected by supplementary aeration.
37 Manganese <10 (mg L− 1) However, doubling the dye concentration can enhance the removal of
38 Bicarbonates 400-2000 (mg L− 1) organic matters and ammonia in non-aerated wetlands, and improve the
39 Carbonates 50-150 (mg L− 1) denitrification and decolorization in aerated CW system. Furthermore,
40 Total Hardness 75-250 (mg L− 1)
increasing the hydraulic retention time (HRT) by two times can

3
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
Fig. 1. Steps involved in textile production, chemicals used in the respective stages, and characteristics of the wastewater generated in each step.
significantly increase the NH4 removal efficiency of non-aerated wet­
lands. COD removal is found higher in aerated wetlands (Ong et al.,
2011). Thus, higher HRT and dye concentrations are more important
than aeration in terms of removal efficiencies.
The vertical-flow CW (VFCW) planted with P. australis can efficiently
remove acid blue 113, basic red 46, direct red, and reactive black 5 dyes
from synthetic textile wastewater (Hussein and Scholz, 2018). VFCW
grown with T. angustifolia can remove approximately 60% of color from
textile wastewater, and absorb large amounts of nutrients, sulfur, sili­
con, iron, and calcium in its leaves and roots (Nilratniskorn et al., 2009).
VFCWs vegetated with Brachiaria mutica, and inoculated with five dye
degrading and plant growth-promoting endophytic bacteria can remove
a majority of the pollutants from the textile wastewater. The VFCW can
increase the dissolved oxygen up to 188%, decrease the COD, BOD, TDS,
color, nitrogen and phosphorous by 81%, 72%, 32%, 74%, 84%, 79%,
respectively, and remove heavy metals very efficiently [Cd (72%), Ni
(88%), Fe (89%), Cr (97%)] (Hussain et al., 2018b). A VFCW planted
with P. australis, filled with gravel media, and fed with low (7 mg L− 1)
and high (215 mg L− 1) concentrations of Acid Blue-113 and Basic
Red-46 dyes at two HRT (48 h and 96 h) was studied by Hussein and
Scholz (2017). Results obtained showed that at a low concentration of
Basic Red-46, there was no significant difference in terms of dye and
COD removal at short and long retention times. But at high concentra­
tion, the removal efficiency for dye and COD were 82% and 74% at 48 h
retention time which increased to 94% and 89% at 96 h retention time,
respectively. Conversely, a low concentration of Acid Blue-113 is linked
to good removal. At a low concentration of Acid Blue-113, the per­
centage removal corresponding to dye and COD were 68% and 59% at
48 h retention time which increased to 80% and 67% at 96 h retention
4
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
times, respectively. But at high concentration, only a two percent in­
crease was reported on increasing the retention time. Therefore, a longer
retention time was found with higher removal efficiencies in the case of
both the dyes.
Textile wastewater treatment in hybrid systems (VFCW + HFCW) has
been also reported. Such a hybrid system planted with P. australis can
decrease BOD, COD, TSS, and color by 66, 84, 93, and 90%, respectively
(Bulc and Ojstrsek, 2008). The use of multiple vegetation and combi­
nations of substrates in hybrid wetlands can remove a high percentage of
pollutants from highly polluted wastewater as well. For instance, a
hybrid system co-planted with Asplenium platyneuron, Dracaena sander­
iana, and P. australis, filled with sugarcane bagasse and Sylhet sand as
substrate can remove 74–89% BOD, 59–66% ammonia, 76–91% color,
and ~80% COD from heavily polluted textile wastewater under hy­
draulic loadings of 566–5660 mm d− 1 (Saeed and Sun, 2013).
From several research reports, it is found that bacterial (having traits
of effluent degradation) inoculation improves plant growth, increases
toxicity reduction percentage, and boosts the overall remediation effi­
ciency of CWs. HFCWs are found with better remediation potential for
textile wastewater than VFCWs even in absence of bacterial augmenta­
tion. It is because plants grow well and bacteria flourish more in HFCWs
than VFCWs (Hussain et al., 2018a, 2018b). Moreover, these bacteria
can be recovered at a greater rate in HFCWs. All this concludes that
wastewater toxicity is reduced by bacterial inoculation which promotes
plant growth which in turn absorbs a higher concentration of pollutants.
Thus, it is recommendable to harvest the macrophytes timely and
revegetate the CW for better results. The use of different bedding ma­
terials or their combination can enhance the treatment efficiency of CWs
(Dogdu and Yalcuk, 2016b). Table 2 summarizes various studies
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358

Table 2
Studies on constructed wetland-based textile wastewater remediation.
Plant used CW design characteristics Substrate used Parameter Removal % References
studied

Phragmites australis Vertical flow Gravel, sandy-clay soils AO7 70 Davies et al.,
TOC 70 (2005)
P. australis Hybrid of Vertical flow- Gravel-sand-tuff Color 90 Bulc and Ojstrsek
Horizontal flow COD 84 (2008)
BOD 66
TOC 89
TN 52
Organic N 87
NH4 + 33
SO42- 88
TSS 93
P. australis Vertical flow Gravel AO7 68 ± 8 Davies et al.,
COD 69 ± 8 (2009)
TOC 67 ± 4
Echinodorus cordifolius Horizontal flow Clay, microorganisms Dye 96 Noonpui and
TDS 42 Thiravetyan
Conductivity Reduction: 50 (2011)
pH Lowered to 7.4 from 9.5
P. australis Vertical flow Gravel-sludge Color 94 Ong et al., (2011)
COD 95
NH4 + 86
Eichhornia crassipes Fed with fixed wastewater Gravel and wetland soil EC 87.2 Sivakumar et al.,
volume of 1000L TDS 90.2 (2013)
Chloride 82.6
SO42- 86.8
Phenols 78.5
BOD 91.3
COD 92.8
Gaillardia pulchella Vertical flow Coconut shavings-soil with bacteria COD 70 Kabra et al., (2013)
TOC 74
BOD 70
Portulaca grandiflora Vertical flow Coconut shavings-sand-gravel-soil COD 59 Khandare et al.,
BOD 38 (2013)
TOC 37
Turbidity 41
TDS 71
TSS 60
Canna and Typha sp. Vertical flow Gravel-sand Color 95 Yalcuk and Dogdu
Zeolite COD 64 (2014)
PO43- 94
NH4 + 77
Typha sp. Vertical flow Coconut shavings-gravel-sand-soil COD 79 Shehzadi et al.,
BOD 77 (2014)
TDS 59
TSS 27
Typha angustifolia and Vertical flow Zeolite COD 57.63 Dogdu and Yalcuk
Canna indica Color 94.99 (2016a)
SO42- 44.48
NH4 + 39.44
PO43- 84.88
T. angustifolia, Paspalum Vertical flow Eucalyptus leaves, saw dust and fly ash Color 62, 59, 76 Chandanshive et al.
scrobiculatum and co- COD 65, 63, 70 (2017)
plantation BOD 68, 63, 75
TDS 45, 39, 57
TSS 35, 31, 47 for T. angustifolia, P.
scrobiculatum and co-
plantation, respectively
Brachiaria mutica Vertical flow inoculated with Coarse gravel (3–5 cm in diameter), fine COD 81 Hussain et al.,
textile effluent degrading gravel layer (2–3 cm in diameter), BOD 72 (2018a)
endophytic bacteria washed river sand (1–2 mm in diameter) TSS 32
Color 74
TN 84
TP 79
Cr 97
Fe 89
Ni 88
Cd 72
Leptochloa fusca Horizontal flow inoculated Coarse gravel (50 cm), fine gravel (30 COD 85 Husain et al.
with textile effluent degrading cm), and sand (15 cm) BOD 77 (2018b)
endophytic bacteria
P. australis Hybrid of Vertical flow- Coarse gravel, fine gravel layer, washed COD 89 Hussain et al.
Horizontal flow river sand BOD 91 (2019)
TOC 96
Canna indica Sub-surface flow Eggshells, gravels, wood husk and BOD >40 Jayabalan et al.
activated charcoal COD (2020)

5
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
AO7: Azo dye- Acid Orange 7; TOC: total organic carbon; COD: chemical oxygen demand; BOD: Biochemical oxygen demand; TN: total nitrogen; TP: total phosphorous;
NH4+: ammonia; SO42− : sulfate; TSS: total suspended solids; TDS: total suspended solids; SO42− : sulfate; EC: electrical conductivity; PO43− : phosphate; Cr: chromium;
Fe: iron; Ni: nickel; Cd: cadmium.
conducted on constructed wetlands-based textile wastewater remedia­
tion. The type of CWs design, substrate and macrophyte used, and
removal efficiency for studied pollutant are mentioned in the table.
4. Mechanisms commonly involved in CW system treating
textile wastewater
Constructed wetland systems are effective in removing organic
matter, nutrients, heavy metals, organic and inorganic chemicals,
pathogens from wastewater. The treatment systems encompass many
physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms for the removal of varied
contaminants from different types of wastewater. The active zone of
CWs is the rhizosphere (precisely mycorhizosphere) where all those
physico-chemical and biological reactions occur due to the interactions
of macrophytes, microorganisms, substrate, and contaminants (Stott­
meister et al., 2003). The processes are no more different than in wet­
lands treating textile wastewater. Fig. 2 represents a basic constructed
wetland showing its different zones, sectioning of the substrate, different
mechanisms involved in pollutant removal, and the location where the
removal phenomenon takes place in CW.
4.1. Sedimentation
It is a physical process that treats wastewater under influence of
gravitational force. It is a preliminary step in the treatment process.
Wastewater moves slowly through the substrate of CW as a uniform
sheet flow (Galletti et al., 2010). Plants trap sediments which then settle
down under gravity and due to differences in relative densities of sus­
pended material. Plant roots grow within the aggregated sediments and
help in decomposing organic matter with help of microorganisms. The
Fig. 2. Graphical representation of constructed wetlands showing basic pollutant removal mechanisms involved during textile wastewater remediation.
6
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
effectiveness of the sedimentation process is dependent on the size,
weight, and specific gravity of suspended impurities (Sharififard et al.,
2018). Associated benefits of the process are that fewer chemicals are
required for subsequent water treatment, and hence is a cost-effective
method. The drawback is that only the particles with a diameter
greater than 1 mm can be removed, and heavy metals, dyes, and many
other hazardous pollutants cannot be removed from the wastewater
through this process. The extent of sedimentation influences the design
and operation of CWs (Kadlec and Wallace, 2008).
4.2. Filtration
Another physical process is filtration which removes the particulate
materials from wastewater by forcing the wastewater to pass through
the porous substrate of CW. Substrate, media, or CW bed is usually
packed with sand, soil, and gravel, which contains numerous voids. The
suspended matter is filtered through the roots of plants and pores pre­
sent in the system bed (Saeed et al., 2018; Bharathiraja et al., 2018). The
bacterial community is established on the surface layer of sand that
helps in treating wastewater that flows through it (Hussein and Scholz,
2018). Although the particles with a diameter between 1 nm and 0.1 mm
can pass through the porous media, pathogens and many other con­
taminants cannot be removed completely through this process because
most of the toxic pollutants are much smaller than the 1 nm diameter.
Though slow sand filtration can remove a small proportion of microor­
ganisms, it is advisable to disinfect the water further through more
reliable and effective mechanisms (Collivignarelli et al., 2018).
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
4.3. Precipitation/coagulation
Precipitation/Coagulation involves the addition of phosphate ions to
wastewater which react with metal ions like Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, and form
easily removable amorphous or poorly crystalline solids. Precipitation
largely depends on the pH of the wastewater, concentration and solu­
bility product of metal ions, and type of coagulant used. Precipitation
occurs when the concentration of ions exceeds their solubility product
(Sheoran and Sheoran, 2006). Phosphorous, recalcitrant organic and
inorganic pollutants, color, sulfur dyes, and certain heavy metals can be
removed through this mechanism. Heavy metals in CWs may be adsor­
bed to soil or sediment or may be chelated or complexed with organic
matter and trapped in wetland systems. However, acid dyes, vat dyes,
direct dyes, and reactive dyes cannot be removed from textile waste­
water by this process (Bhatia et al., 2017). Besides, this method has
certain drawbacks like high conductivity requirements, toxic sludge
generation, foul odor of treated wastewater, and disposal issues (Ahmed
et al., 2021). Ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, aluminum sulfate, poly­
ferrous sulfate, copper sulfate, calcium chloride, polyferric chloride,
hexamine, ethylidene dichloride, polyaluminium ferric chloride, poly­
aluminium chloride, penta ethylene can be used as coagulants for
removal of dyes, BOD, COD, TDS, and heavy metals from textile
wastewater (Zou, 2015; Liu et al., 2019).
4.4. Adsorption
Adsorption is the simplest, economical, and reliable method for the
degradation of dyes and decolorization of textile wastewater (Li et al.,
2019; Liang et al., 2020). Like precipitation, adsorption also plays an
important role in phosphorous removal from dye wastewater. Soluble
inorganic phosphorous moves from wastewater present in soil pores to
get adsorbed on soil mineral surfaces. It is noteworthy that out of the
total metal cations, only a fraction is absorbed into cells, while a sig­
nificant part is adsorbed at the negatively charged sites (COO− ) located
at the surface of root cell walls (Si et al., 2019). In the adsorption pro­
cess, dissolved pollutants (inorganic and organic matter, dyes, metal
ions) get attached to the surface of the adsorbent through physical or
chemical forces (like liquid-solid intermolecular forces of attraction)
(Bhatia et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019). Absorbable pollutants (adsorbate)
present in wastewater get deposited on the porous surfaced solid
adsorbent (maybe plant roots, biochar, activated carbon, vegetable
seeds) on adequate contact. Some of the most commonly used adsor­
bents for textile wastewater are melon seeds (Djilani et al., 2012), fruit
and vegetable peels (Fernandez et al., 2014), domestic sewage sludge
(Silva et al., 2016), sawdust (Banerjee and Chattopadhyaya, 2017).
These adsorbents are economical, eco-friendly, easily available, and
highly efficient (Li et al., 2019). Nonetheless, the process is associated
with a few drawbacks like low kinetics, high energy requirements, and
production of toxic sludge. Activated carbon prepared from ideal mac­
rophytes is the most efficient adsorbent that is widely employed in
removing pollutants from textile wastewater by adsorption (Li et al.,
2019; Herrera-Gonzalez et al., 2019). For instance, Chen et al. (2015)
used activated carbon prepared from P. australis for the removal of dye
Rhodamine-B, Shouman and Rashwan (2012) also used the same
macrophyte for removal of two basic dyes, Crystal violet (CV) and
Rhodamine (RB).
4.5. Microbial processes
In CWs, the removal of pollutants has also been supported by mi­
croorganisms. Microorganisms play an important role in the reduction
of COD, BOD, organic pollutants, and inorganic nitrogen from textile
wastewater (Maltais-Landry et al., 2009). Roots of the plant provide a
large surface area for bacterial attachment, uptake the nutrients from
surrounding soil solution, and release oxygen into the rhizosphere that
further aids in aerobic degradation of pollutants. The heterotrophic
7
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
microorganisms utilize organic pollutants as a carbon source to produce
CO2 under aerobic conditions and methane under anaerobic conditions
(Vymazal, 2011). Oxygen for aerobic degradation of pollutants is also
supplied by oxygen leakage from the plant roots into the surrounding
substrate. Moreover, microorganisms form a biofilm at the surface of
bed material which helps in filtration as well. Microorganisms can
accumulate a small amount of heavy metals in them and reduce them
into non-mobile forms (Hallberg and Johnson, 2005).
4.6. Plant uptake
Macrophytes are the most important part of CWs. They act as storage
sites for nutrients and carbon. They aid in gas movement to and from the
substrate (Kurniawan et al., 2021). Direct uptake of pollutants by plants
is called phytodegradation. Degradation of pollutants in the rhizosphere
under the action of substances secreted by plants is called rhizode­
gradation. When pollutants enter the plant biomass and get transpired,
the process is called phytovolatilization. The highest metal concentra­
tions are seen in the roots of wetland plants (Barley et al., 2005). Hel­
ophytes can accumulate a high amount of heavy metals in their biomass
(Stottmeister et al., 2003).
4.7. Accumulation and transport
Macrophytes are capable of accumulating heavy metals in their roots
and transporting them to their aboveground biomass from where they
can be easily removed by harvesting. There are two groups of plants,
excluder plants, and hyperaccumulators. Excluder plants accumulate
heavy metals in their below-ground parts whereas hyperaccumulators
retain the heavy metals in their shoot system (Seregin and Kozhevni­
kova, 2008). In this mechanism, bound metals are first released in the
soil solution; then they accumulate in roots after plant uptake, and from
here they can be easily transported to shoots via transpiration stream.
Capillary plumbing system enhances the transportation of heavy metals
occurring in the xylem. Some of the transporters include ABC type,
AtVramp1/3/4, AtMRP, CAX-2, COPT-1, HMT-1, IRT-1, LCT-1, RAN-1,
ZAT, ZNT-1, ZIP-1-4 (Shah and Nongkynrih, 2007). Chelating agents
and chaperones are also added to the substrate for rapid metal avail­
ability which significantly increases the metal uptake and their trans­
location in the plant system (Revathi and Venugopal, 2013). Metals
move to shoot as a metal-chelate complex. Chelating agents detoxify the
accumulated metals by buffering cytosolic metal concentrations, and
chaperones distribute metals to organelles and metal needing proteins
(Verkleij et al., 2003; Shah and Nongkynrih, 2007). After harvesting, the
roots, shoots, and rhizomes of plants are digested for heavy metal
analysis.
4.8. Translocation
In this mechanism, root cells first uptake the metallic ions and then
translocate them to aboveground parts via xylem or other intracellular
organelles such as the vacuoles from where they can be removed by
harvesting shoot biomass (phytoextraction) (Bonanno et al., 2018).
Metal ions can enter into the roots either through the apoplastic
pathway or symplastic pathway. Hyperaccumulators translocate a very
high concentration of metals through symplastic movement into the
shoots. The electrochemical gradient between the plasma membrane
and metals ions present in the soil solution eases the inward movement
of metals due to the high negative resting potential of the membrane.
Metal ion translocation is also mediated by transporter proteins present
in membranes. These proteins possess specific kinetic properties and ion
affinities. Metal ions resting in cell vacuoles enter into the xylem stream
through stele. Therefore, entry of metal ions into the xylem stream oc­
curs in three steps; sequestration of metal ions into root cells, symplastic
transport of the ions into stele with help of transporter proteins, and
their release into the xylem (Saxena and Misra, 2010).
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
4.9. Detoxification
Detoxification occurs in vacuoles which are the compartments in the
cell that restrict the other parts of the cell to have access to the
sequestered contaminants (Khan et al., 2020). In this process, heavy
metals stored in cell vacuoles of hyperaccumulator plants are converted
into the volatile state in three phases of the plant detoxification
pathway. In phase 1, enzymes (e.g. cytochrome P-450, peroxidases)
oxidize the xenobiotics (pollutants) into forms that conjugate with
glutathione under the catalytic action of Glutathione S- transferase.
Phase 2 and 3 involve the translocation of these volatile conjugates to
harvestable shoot parts (Carias et al., 2008).
5. Factors affecting contaminants removal in CWs
Parameters like water pH and temperature, soil chemistry, microbial
communities, vegetation, HRT, oxygen level decide the treatment out­
comes of CWs (Thullen et al., 2005; Varma et al., 2020). Therefore,
proper designing of size and structure of the system, growing of
appropriate macrophytes, embedding of wetland bed with an efficient
substrate, controlling hydraulic conditions, providing sufficient aera­
tion, maintaining pH and temperature of wastewater is necessary to
optimize the physico-chemical and biological processes of pollutant
removal from textile wastewater (Tanner and Headley, 2011). Impor­
tant efficiency affecting factors have been discussed in the following
subsections.
5.1. pH
pH is an important factor that affects the nutrient, organic matter,
COD, TSS removal as well as microbial populations that in turn affects
the degradation of pollutants in CWs (Paing et al., 2015). During nitri­
fication, protons are produced which cannot be neutralized by HCO3
ions. This results in a decrease in the pH value of wastewater. Under
acidic conditions, co-precipitation of metals (like Fe, As, Sb, Se) occurs
which promotes the adsorption and removal of oxyanions (Sheoran and
Sheoran, 2006). However, under alkaline conditions co-precipitation of
cationic metals (such as Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn) takes place. pH modification in
CWs is attributed to interactions between media and microbial biofilms.
The type of dye and plant used in CW influence the pH of treated
wastewater. The optimum pH range for degrading pollutants is 4–9.5
(Kadlec and Wallace, 2008).
5.2. Substrate
Substrates used in CWs can be a natural material, artificial media, or
agricultural/industrial by-product. The natural substrate includes shale,
soil, zeolites, limestone, volcanics, minerals, rock, compost, sediments,
litter, clay, calcite, marble, vermiculite, bentonite, dolomite, wollas­
tonite. Agricultural/industrial substrate materials include alum sludge,
oyster shell, woodchips, plant waste, peat, rice husk, slag, fly ash, con­
struction waste. The artificial substrates include ceramsite, activated
carbon, calcium silicate hydrate, synthetic fiber, cement clinker, recy­
cled concrete, modified clays. (Saeed and Sun, 2012; Wu et al., 2015;
Wang et al., 2020; Yuan et al., 2020). The substrate provides support to
macrophytes and reactive sites for microfauna attachment. It facilitates
the sedimentation and filtration process, stores and transforms pollut­
ants, accumulates organic matter, and provides sites for matter ex­
change (Varma et al., 2020). In water-saturated substrates, oxygen
present within the pore spaces is consumed in metabolic processes and is
replaced by water molecules, resulting in anoxic conditions. Such con­
ditions, therefore, significantly remove nutrients and metals from
wastewater (Vymazal, 2013; Wu et al., 2015). Substrates are selected
based on hydraulic permeability and the capability of pollutants to be
treated. Poor substrate hydraulic conductivity leads to low adsorption of
pollutants and clogging of the system, thereby decreasing the efficiency
8
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
of CWs (Wang et al., 2010). Although natural substrates (like sand,
gravel, rock) are cheap but possess low hydraulic conductivity and lesser
phosphorous storage capacity. Conversely, artificial and agricultur­
al/industrial materials possess high hydraulic conductivity and phos­
phorus sorption potential, and hence more effectiveness. Adding
external carbon sources to the substrates is a good choice for enhancing
the denitrification process (Zhao et al., 2010). Biochar prepared from
different organic biomass can also be added to the conventional sub­
strate to increase the microbial activity and adsorption in CWs (de
Rozari et al., 2018).
5.3. Temperature
Another important factor governing the effective performance of
plants and microorganisms in CWs is temperature. The treatment effi­
ciency of CWs is higher in hot regions than in cold areas. High tem­
peratures improve plant growth, speed up biogeochemical reactions,
enhance microbial activity, and hence increase phytoremediation by
macrophytes in CWs (Katsenovich et al., 2009), whereas properties of
the substrate and organic matter removal are relatively insensitive to
temperature variations (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). On the other hand,
under low-temperature conditions, biological processes like organic
breakdown slower down or can even stop. Thus, plant debris and sludge
accumulate over time due to the absence of equilibrium between mi­
crobial growth and plant decay due to an inadequate supply of oxygen to
the CW system. This sludge accumulation reduces the pore spaces, and
hence the mineralization of organic pollutants by microorganisms
(Chimney and Pietro, 2006; Healy et al., 2007). The optimal tempera­
ture for maximum microbial activity depends on factors like hydraulic
loading, wastewater quality, vegetation, and substrate. However,
effective remediation at cold temperatures is not uncommon (Margesin
and Schiner, 1998).
5.4. Aeration and hydraulic retention time
Availability of oxygen is another important factor affecting the
removal of contaminants from wastewater in CWs. Oxygen is mainly
released from the roots of plants and added to the substrate (Malaviya
and Singh, 2012). Since plant growth is retarded in the winter season;
oxygen production is reduced resulting in decreased removal efficiency,
especially of nitrogen and ammonium (Sharma et al., 2021a). Therefore,
artificial aeration seems to be a promising method for overcoming ox­
ygen deficiency, and ultimately increasing the wetland treatment effi­
ciency (Tuncsiper et al., 2015). Nevertheless, artificial aeration cannot
completely compensate for the loss due to the absence of plants. This
concludes that role of macrophytes is afar the addition of oxygen in the
substrate.
The length of time for which pollutants remain in contact with the
substrate, plants, and rhizosphere is called hydraulic retention time and
is a crucial factor in controlling pollutant removal efficiency (Akratos
and Tsihrintzis, 2007). Generally, long HRT allows extensive contact of
wastewater with flora and microfauna of the wetland ensuring efficient
nitrification, denitrification processes, and hence higher pollutant
removal and better wetland performance (Saeed and Sun, 2012; Yan and
Xu, 2014; Bakhshoodeh et al., 2020). For instance, CW vegetated with
Typha sp. and Scirpus sp. can remove only 76% of COD at a shorter HRT
of 5 d but 80% of COD from wastewater at 10 d HRT (De La Mora-Orozco
et al., 2018); CW planted with Tradescantia pallida can remove
73.24–77.9% of Cr(VI) at 1 d HRT but 95–97% Cr(VI) from wastewater
at 2 d HRT (Sinha et al., 2017). Contrariwise, Schulz et al. (2003) re­
ported that there is no direct influence of HRT on TSS and COD removal
in a CW treating wastewater from fish farms, but there is a negative
correlation of TP, TN removal with HRT.
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
5.5. Vegetation type
Macrophytes play a dynamic role in influencing the remediation
mechanisms (including absorption, adsorption, uptake, retention,
filtration, volatilization) in CWs (Kataki et al., 2021). Plants affect the
growth of epiphytic and endophytic bacteria and provide oxygen to the
root zone (Sandoval et al., 2019). After harvesting, the macrophytes can
be used for biofuel production, biogas generation (Ingrao et al., 2020).
Different plants have different adaptability, tolerance, disease resis­
tance, and different response to different types and varied concentra­
tions of pollutants (Sharma et al., 2021a). Therefore, selection of
suitable macrophytes must be carefully made before designing the CWs,
depending upon the environmental suitability, target pollutant, and
results desired (Almuktar et al., 2018). Thus, the use of ideal macro­
phytic vegetation is the most important and influential parameter in
maximizing the CWs output.
6. Integrated technologies for enhanced remediation and
simultaneous resource recovery
The changing and complex status of contaminated matrices neces­
sitates the effectual integration of diverse environmental techniques and
treatment philosophies. The present single-stage remediation ap­
proaches fail to remediate an array of contaminants from the industrial
wastewaters mainly due to adaptability issues especially for the bio­
logical systems and consequently reduced efficiency of the treatment
system both in terms of operation and performance. Thus, researches are
now focused on hybrid/integrated technologies for the remediation of
industrial wastewaters. The modern-day remediation technologies are
augmented by coupling two or more biological, physical, and chemical
processes to eliminate target pollutants from complex and variable
contaminated matrices. For textile wastewaters, various State-of-the-Art
integrated technologies e.g., CWs integrated with MFCs/high rate algal
ponds/sponge iron coupled systems, are now been exploited for per­
formance and sustainability enhancement of CWs.
Integration of CWs and MFCs is a newer technology that is better
than both the systems operating individually (Srivastava et al., 2020).
Depth of CWs hinders the diffusion of air down the substrate column and
therefore creates anaerobic conditions in the bottom zone. However, a
Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of simple CW-MFC treatment system employed for textile wastewater remediation.
9
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
sufficient amount of atmospheric oxygen can diffuse at the surface, and
rhizospheric oxygen leakage also takes place in this zone (Gorgoglione
and Torretta, 2018). Therefore, embedding anode and cathode elec­
trodes in anaerobic and aerobic zones of CW, respectively, can develop
the CW-MFC system (Yadav et al., 2012a). Photosynthetic oxygen sus­
tains the cathodic reactions, ensuring electrochemical performances
(Colombo et al., 2017). Fig. 3 represents the working principle of
CW-MFCs; showing appropriate placement of cathode and anode, elec­
tron flow, power generation, degradation of organic matter, reduction of
dyes, and purification of wastewater. Exudates secreted by macrophytic
roots provide co-substrates for enhanced growth of electrochemically
active bacteria at surface layers, and in deeper zones, the anodic surface
provides enough electron acceptors for anaerobic decomposition of
pollutants, and oxidation of organic substances by benthic microor­
ganisms (Srivastava et al., 2019; Yadav et al., 2010). Electrons released
during microbial oxidation of organic pollutants flow to the cathode
from anode through an electric wire, and hence electricity is produced.
Therefore, electron acceptors and electron transfer pathways directly
influence the treatment efficiency and power output of CW-MFCs (Gupta
et al., 2021). Merits of CW-MFC include high remediation potential,
increased electricity generation, and pollution control. CW-MFC has
been found successful in decolorizing azo dyes with simultaneous pro­
duction of electricity (Fang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017).
The batch study on CW-MFC reported a maximum power density of
around 69.75 mAm− 2, COD removal up to 70%, and 93.15% removal of
dye (Yadav et al., 2012a). CW-MFC vegetated with Fimbristylis dichotoma
can achieve a power density of 198.8 mWm− 2, and remove 82.2% of
color, and 70% of COD from textile wastewater (Rathour et al., 2019).
Two-step horizontal subsurface flow CW-MFC vegetated with Fim­
bristylis ferruginea (step 1) and a consortium of Fimbristylis ferruginea and
Elymus repens (step 2) studied by Patel et al. (2021) reported that COD
removal, color removal, and power density increased by 1–2% in step 1
whereas color removal was improved by 7.31% after bioaugmentation
in step 2. Up-flow CW-MFC unit planted with Typha latifolia can remove
91% of Acid Red 18 (AR18) dye and achieve 8.67 mWm− 2 power den­
sity. At higher dye and nitrate concentrations, power density, as well as
extent of decolorization decreased. However, an increase in the con­
centration of salts (3.5 g NaCl L− 1) along with artificial aeration can
increase the power output, enhance the COD removal and
R. Sharma and P. Malaviya
mineralization of dye intermediates (Oon et al., 2018). Recently, Mittal
et al. (2021) have worked upon the innovative design of CW-MFC. The
treatment system used was non-vegetated, and did not involve mixing of
anodic and cathodic wastewater. The system showed a very high
removal (94%) of COD and dye, and high current and power density was
achieved in this new design.
Constructed wetlands can perform better when added with algae in
them. The growth of algae increases the dissolved oxygen concentration
in CWs due to photosynthesis, and algal debris increases the COD up to
some extent in form of degradable bioresource, ultimately increasing the
carbon and oxygen content which facilitates nitrification and denitrifi­
cation (Sevda et al., 2019). Thus, the combination of CWs and algae can
intensify the nitrogen removal by CW + algae system than single CW
(Ding et al., 2016). CW + algae system can be applied for textile
wastewater treatment. Yaseen and Scholz (2016) used Lemna minor for
treatment of azo dyes and found that the CW + algae system out­
performed CW planted only with L. minor in terms of dye, COD, and TSS
removal. A very few studies have been done on this integrated treatment
system. Further studies need to be conducted in this field.
Employment of organic electron donors to CWs for enhanced bio­
logical nitrification and chemical denitrification is cost-ineffective.
Therefore, using low-cost electron donors (like nano-zerovalent iron
(nZVI) particles, sponge iron) integratively with CWs can be a wise
strategy for the high nitrogen removal performance of CWs. nZVI plays
an important role in microbial growth (Zhao et al., 2018; Si et al., 2020).
Recently, nZVI has been used in CWs treating dye wastewater, and it is
found that the addition of these iron scraps enhances the chemical
reduction of dyes and COD removal. Dye degrading bacteria are
enriched in CWs dosed with even a small fraction of nZVI (Zhao et al.,
2020). The influence of iron scraps on color removal had been also
studied by Yadav et al. (2012b) who found that Canna indica can remove
a higher concentration of dye from wastewater when CW is incorporated
with iron scraps. Therefore, it is clearly revealed that higher dye removal
can be achieved in innovative CWs.
7. Future directions
More research on the application of CWs for textile wastewater
treatment at field-scale is still required. Nevertheless, improvement of
monitoring and management methodologies for quantization of CW
design variables before using them at field-scale, increased remediation
output by macrophyte co-plantation, and thorough groundwork to
determine the long-standing efficiency of CWs could be a significant part
of future wastewater treatment programs. The development of new cost-
effective substrates possessing high retention capacity and long-term
efficiency, and the effect of hybrid substrates on wetlands efficiency
can be an important direction for future research. Moreover, recycling
and reusing nutrient-enriched substrates (obtained at the end of the
treatment process) to make this technology completely purposeful can
be an attractive direction for future researchers. Further research is
needed on the role of purified enzymes in the degradation of dyes, and
the fate of dye metabolism.
Though CW-MFCs are popular nowadays, many areas are still un­
explored which need to be studied deeply before their larger application.
Better and highly efficient designs of integrated circuits in CW-MFCs
need to be studied for minimizing energy loss and maximizing power
output. Life-cycle and cost-benefit analysis, and improved CW-MFC
configurations including co-plantation of macrophytes, use of com­
bined substrates, employment of hybrid CWs, and modified electrode
types are interesting options for researchers to make this hybrid tech­
nology more commercial and successful.
8. Conclusion
Constructed wetland, a green infrastructure technology involving the
ideal macrophyte-microorganism combination and appropriate
10
Chemosphere 290 (2022) 133358
substrate for textile wastewater treatment. Plant uptake, accumulation
in biomass, and detoxification are major mechanisms for contaminant
remediation. Timely harvesting and substrate replacement in CWs
completely exclude the pollutants from wastewater. The treatment
performance of CWs is greatly dependent on oxygen concentration in the
substrate, wetland design, treatment conditions, HRT, aeration,
macrophyte types, wastewater quality, media characteristics. An in­
crease in HRT is more important than providing artificial aeration for
efficiency enhancement. In general, the CW-integrated systems offer a
holistic solution for textile wastewater management.
Credit author statement
Rozi Sharma: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Writing- Review
& Editing. Piyush Malaviya: Conceptualization, Resources, Methodol­
ogy, Writing – original draft, Writing- Review & Editing, Supervision
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The corresponding author (PM) gratefully acknowledges the finan­
cial support received from JK Science Technology & Innovation Council,
Department of Science & Technology, India (Grant no. JKST&IC/SRE/
945-47).
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