CHAPTER 5

DESIGN OF FISH FARM PHYSICAL STRUCTURES

5. DESIGN OF FISH FARM GATES AND POND
SYSTEM

5.1 Design tide curve and elevation of pond bottom

The local pattern of tide curve upon which fishpond

design is based can be obtained from an analysis of the tide
record.
It is also referred to as design tide curve. The design
tide curve is drawn along the zero datum level which is usually
the
Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW). Adoption of inappropriate
design tide curve can cause problems in the
management of
the pond after construction is completed.

The bottom elevation of ponds is the primary consideration

in the design and is determined based on the design tide
curve (Figs. 5.1 and 5.2). Primary consideration should be
given to both the biological needs of the cultured species and
construction aspect such as the minimum and maximum water
level to be maintained in the pond and adequate flow of
water
into the ponds. On the economic side of construction, the
elevation of pond bottom should strike a balance
between
the excavation or filling work and the tidal range. For a site
with relatively high ground elevation, it is possible in
a specific
instance that pumping water to the ponds can prove to be
more economical than excavating the soil to the
desired elevation
(Gedney, Shang and Cook, 1983).

Fig. 5.1 Relation of tide curves to design elevations of a fish farm at the Sungai Merbok estuary, Malaysia
(After Hechanova and Tiensongrusmee, 1980)

 Fig. 5.2 Relation of tide curves to the different pond elevations (Modified after Denilo, 1976)

The elevation of other structures such as gates, canals and

dikes are also based on the design tide curve and these
should
fit properly to the water management and operational requirements
of the ponds. An example of representative
tide curve
which applies to the Ban Merbok estuary in Malaysia is given
(Fig. 5.3).

Fig. 5.3 Representative tide curve (Mean High Water Spring)

referred at Tanjong Dawai, Secondary Port,
Ban Merbok
Estuary, Malaysia


(After Hechanova and Tiensongrusmee, 1980)

5.2 Design, specifications and components of main water

control gate

5.2.1 Components of water control gates (Fig. 5.4)

Fig. 5.4 Parts of a main gate (double opening) made of reinforced concrete
(Modified after Jamandre and Rabanal,
1975)

(a) Floor. The floor serves as the foundation of the

structure and its elevation for main gates must be lower than
the
pond bottom elevation and as low or slightly lower than
the lowest tide in the site. If this is observed, the main gate
which rests on a prepared foundation support will not be
exposed even during extreme low tides.

(b) Apron. This is the broadened and extended part of

the floor and also generally rests on the foundation piles,
which
are made of seasoned bamboo or wood driven at 0.3 m
intervals into the soft soil with the butt end up. The apron
serves
as protection to scouring and future seepage of water
at the gate's sides.

(c) Cut-off-walls. Cut-off-walls are provided at both

ends of the gate's floor to prevent seepage and undercutting
of water
within the gate's foundation. They extend down
into the soil at a minimum of 0.60 m and are an integral
part of the
gate's foundation. Wooden sheet piles may be
used as an extension of concrete cut-off-walls in order to
reach deeper
depths at reduced cost.

(d) Side or breast walls. Side walls define the sluice way
in addition to their being retaining wall for the dike fill.
Grooves
or double cleats for flashboards and screens are
built on these walls. The top of these walls are as high as the
top of the
dike.

(e) Buttress. This is built against the side walls to support

or reinforce it. It also helps in reducing seepage flow along
the
side walls.
(f) Wing walls. Wing walls provide the transition from
the sluice way into the main canal in addition to retaining
the earth
at both sides of the gate. This transition improves
the condition of the flow by providing a control on flow
velocities from
one bed material to another.

(g) Bridges or catwalks. These are reinforced concrete

slabs or thick wooden planks that span the side walls. At
least
three catwalks are provided, two at each end and one
at centre near the flashboard grooves.

(h) Flashboards. Slabs or flashboards are generally

wooden planks, 2.5 to 5 cm thick and 30 cm wide inserted
into
grooves or double cleats. They are used to control the
amount of water flowing through the gate.

(i) Screens. Screens are usually made of bamboo strips

or of fine polyethylene meshes attached to a wooden
rectangular
frame that fit into the grooves. The screens are used
to prevent the exit of the cultured fish and the entry of
predators
into the ponds.

(j) Pillars. In wooden gates, these are vertical supports

where wooden walls are nailed. They are placed at regular
intervals so that they form a framework for the gate itself.

(k) Braces. In wooden gates, these wooden members

hold or fasten two or more pillars together or in place. They
keep
the opening of a gate rigid.

5.2.2 Main gate

The main gate links the pond system to the source of water.
It regulates the exchange of water between the pond
system
and the tidal stream or sea. Instead of wood, it should be
made of concrete for effective control and to last
longer. The
main gate is usually situated at the central side of the proposed
fishpond facing the source of water. The
following provides
some information needed in the design of the main gate.

(a) The floor elevation of the main gate should be lower

than the lowest pond bottom elevation desired inside the
pond
system. It should also be as low or slightly lower than
extreme low tides (Fig. 5.5). The front end or riverside elevation
of
the floor or apron may be made lower if a pump is to
be installed (Fig. 5.5).

(b) The height of the main gate depends upon the highest
tide and flood and should be the same as the elevation of the
main dike which is also dependent upon the tidal fluctuations,
floods and other factors in the area.
 Fig. 5.5 Detail of main gate with pump sump (Reinforcement not shown)
(After Hechanova and Tiensongrusmee, 1980)

(c) Main gates may have single, double, or triple or even

quadruple or more openings (Figs. 5.6 to 5.8). The opening
of
the main gate depends upon the area to be flooded. Gates
should not have too wide opening so that they would be
difficult
to manage. One to 1.2 m wide per opening has been found
appropriate for easy handling of wooden slabs and
screens.
Wider opening than these may require lifting mechanisms in
the operation of the gate. Experience in the
Philippines
shows that a single opening of 1.0 m for a concrete main gate
could flood a 10 to 15 ha pond system in a
milkfish farm in
two or three successive high tides. This opening, however,
does not necessarily apply to shrimp farm
because of the
difference in water depth requirement between shrimp and
milkfish. Based on the computations done
(Appendix B),
a gate with three openings and 1.2 m wide each would fill an
11.35 ha shrimp farm to a minimum depth of
one meter in
two consecutive tide cycle. For much larger areas and deeper
ponds, a double or triple opening-gate of
proper width may
be constructed at one or more spots along the perimeter
dike.

Fig. 5.6 Main concrete gate single-opening

Fig. 5.7 Main concrete gate double-opening (After Lijauco, 1977)
(After Lijauco, 1977)
 Fig.5.8 Sample of a triple-opening concrete main gate

(d) There must be a separtate groove for the slabs and

screens. It may be necessary to have four pairs of grooves;
two
pairs for slabs and two pairs for screens (one at each end)
depending upon their use.

(e) The wings should be properly designed to provide

easy current flow. The best angle of flare should be 45° towards
the outside. This angle may not be necessarily the same for
both ends of the gate.

(f) The gate foundation must be rigid and stable. It must

be able to carry the whole weight when the gate is fully
constructed.
There are two designs of gate foundations in use —
one has the floor and apron of gate resting on a
combination
of piles and layers of boulders and gravel. The other one
uses piles alone to stengthen the foundation that
supports the
structure. The former design is common in the Philippines and
Indonesia while the latter is found in
Malaysia (Fig. 5.9 to
5.11).

(g) Cut-off-walls and aprons must be provided. They

must be wide enough to include portions susceptible to scouring
and under-cutting of water.

(h) Adequate reinforcements against sidewise pressure

must be provided. Spacing of steel bars should not exceed
40
cm centre to centre. The size of vertical bars should be
12 to 13 mm and 10 mm for horizontal bars.
Fig. 5.9 Foundation support and piling scheme (Philippines)
(Portion of flooring only)
Fig. 5.10 Foundation support plan and piling scheme (Malaysia)
(Portion of flooring only) (After Khoo, pers. comm.,
1982)

Fig. 5.11 Foundation and elevation plan of concrete main gate (single opening)
(After Denila, 1976)
5.3 Design of secondary and tertiary gates and other
water control structures

5.3.1 Secondary and tertiary gates

These provide the control of water to and from the main

canal and into the different pond components such as catching
ponds, rearing ponds and nursery ponds. These structures
are usually made of wood and can be treated with coal tar
for
durability. Single or double opening made of reinforced
concrete or hollow blocks can also be used but it is sometimes
too expensive (Figs. 5.12 to 5.14). Considerations in the
planning and designing of secondary and tertiary gates are
the
same as those of the main gate except that their respective
elevations are dependent upon the elevation of the canal
bed
where they are being constructed. The usual elevation of
the flooring of these gates above the canal is 0.15 m. The
flooring elevation of the farthest gate from the main gate
should be checked against the design tide curve to insure
that
it still is capable of filling the pond within the prescribed
time. The width of opening may vary from 0.6 to 1.0 m. Wing
walls can be provided (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16) but some existing
designs, especially the wooden gates, do not have these
structures (Figs. 5.17 and 5.18). Anti-seep boards at the
side of the gate is also a good feature (Fig. 5.16).

5.3.2 Culverts or pipes

These structures convey water across dikes, roads, and

similar embankments. A recent innovation for a smaller
and
less expensive gate is the use of culverts or pipes made
of concrete hollow blocks or asbestos cement. Culverts or
pipes gates may or may not have wing walls (Figs. 5.19 and
5.20) and are likewise provided with slabs and screens and
are even more effective for water control in a fishpond, the
conduit section may be circular or square in shape (Figs.
5.19
to 5.21). For low-cost design wooden culvert may be used
(Fig. 5.22).

Fig. 5.12 Detail of a single opening secondary concrete gate

(After Hechanova and Tiensongrusmee, 1980)

Fig. 5.13 Details of secondary gates with double opening (After Hechanova and Tiensongrosmee, 1980)

Fig. 5.14 Concrete hollow blocks sluice gate (single opening - Indonesia)
(After Djajadiredja and Daulay, 1982)

Fig. 5.15 Wooden sluice gate - with wing wall in two ends side braces and cat walk (After Djajadiredja and Daulay, 1982)

Fig. 5.16 Wooden main sluice gate (Top view) - with middle anti-seep board
and wing wall in pond side (Modified after
Jamandre and Rabanal, 1975)
 Fig. 5.17 Secondary wooden gate (No wing wall)
(After Jamandre and Rabanal, 1975)

Fig. 5.18 Detail of wooden tertiary gate, for nursery/rearing ponds

(After Hechanova and Tiensongrusmee, 1980)

Fig. 5.19 Cut-out diagram of concrete culvert as secondary gate (with wing wall)
(After Jamandre and Rabanal, 1975)

Fig. 5.20 Concrete culvert (No wing wall)

(After Djajadiredja and Daulay, 1982)

 Fig. 5.21 Design of a square culvert gate

(After BFAR - UNDP/FAO, 1981)

Fig. 5.22 Wooden square culvert

(After Djadjadiredja and Daulay, 1982)

5.4 Design and specifications of main or perimeter dike

The function of perimeter dikes is to retain water for use

in the fish farming operation as well as to protect the farm
ponds, fish crops and other farm facilities from destruction
by floods and tidal inundation. Design of these
embankments
must be based on sound engineering principles and economic
feasibility. The design of perimeter dikes
are two types:
(i) for exposed areas; and (ii) for protected areas (Figs. 5.23 and
5.24).

5.4.1 Location of perimeter dike

Fig. 5.23 Sample designs of perimeter dike within the reach

of coastal waves

Fig. 5.24 Sample designs of perimeter dike located along river

or protected area

The perimeter dikes of a coastal fish farm is usually built

along the river banks, on the seaward side or in certain spots
that are vulnerable to flooding. In locating the dike, the
Philippines require a belt of mangroves of 20 m from a river
bank,
and 100 m wide from seashore to be left for the purpose
of protecting the dikes against waves and currents, and
absorption of wave energy and, to some extent, for flood
control and conservation of the environment. Indonesia
requires 400 m of mangrove as green belt of trees along the
shore.

The path of the dike is determined by survey to avoid

(a) crossing of streams or creeks that have substantial rate
of
flow; (b) areas of extremely poor soil which result in high
construction cost; and (c) locating the dike near an actively
eroding line of rivers or coasts.

5.4.2 Cross-section of main dike

The cross-section of dikes is described by the crown or

top width, height, side slope and the bottom width or base
(Fig.
5.25). Modifications are made by providing berm and
core or puddle trench (Fig. 2.6). Cross-section of the perimeter
dike should be designed to: (a) prevent over-tapping
at high tide combined with a maximum flood height from the
river
system; and (b) prevent failure due to slips and seepage.

Due to poor and soft foundation soil in coastal swamps,

the embankment requires a process of consolidation before
it
becomes stable. Consolidation is a natural phenomenon
and it occurs as a counterbalance between the settlement and
bearing capacity of the foundation. Slip and collapse of
an embankment constructed on poor ground occurs when
irregularities or unbalanced conditions develop in the
foundation.

(a) Determination of height

The height of the dike should be above the highest tide

and flood that occur in the site. The design flood level is
based
on the maximum flood water that was observed in the
locality to recur within 10 to 15 years (in Chapter 2).
 Fig. 5.25 Steepness of side of dike for different values of side slope
(Horizontal and vertical ratio)

Fig. 5.26 Design of different dikes

(After BFAR-UNDP/FAO,1981)

The design height of dike should be provided with a freeboard

after shrinkage and settlement of 0.3 to 1.0 m above
the
highest water level. Given below are the recommended
allowance for shrinkage and settlement:
   Condition Allowance for structure and settlement
(%)
Poor material and poor methods and practices in
1. 15–30
construction
2. Soil exceptionally high in organic matter 40 or more
3. Compacted by construction equipment 5–10

The total height of the main dike above the ground level
can be computed by the following formula (see Fig. 5.27).

Where: Hm =height of the main dike

  Hat =highest astronomical tide
  Gs =elevation of the ground surface
  Mf =maximum flood level
  F =allowance for freeboard
  %S =percent shrinkage and settlement

Fig. 5.27 Cross-section of perimeter (main) dike and basis for determining height

Example 5.1

It is required to determine the height of a main dike with

the given conditions in the site as follows:

a. Highest astronomical tide — 2.04 m

b. Elevation of the land — 0.91
c. Flood allowance — 0.30 m
d. Freeboard — 0.30 m
e. Settlement/shrinkage — 15%

Solution:

Hm

=   2.04 m
(b) Determination of side slopes, crown and base

The dike should also be of adequate width so that it could

hold water inside and prevent flooding from outside with
appropriate side slope of 1:1 for clay soil and height up to
3.0 m. Side slope of 2:1 (horizontal to vertical) is used for
height greater than 4.0 m and even flatter if located along
seashore and being subject against wave action. If available
soil permits, provision for a berm (single or both sides) is
desirable for additional stability. The berm should slope
towards the dike wall to trap eroded soil particles during
rains. It also serves as small ditch that conveys runoffs
towards
the outlet gate especially when acidity of exposed dike is a
management problem.

The top width or crown of the dike should be designed

so as to serve its purpose. For dikes used as roadways, top
width
of 3.5 m to 4.0 m can be used but preferably 4.0 m.
A 0.6 m wide allowance should be provided on each side of a
roadway dike to prevent ravelling. In the Philippines, the
desirable minimum crown for milkfish culture is at least 2.0 m
for main dike.

Dikes subjected to wave action should have a minimum

crown of approximately equal to the height of the maximum
wave.

The base (without a berm) is computed in accordance

with the width of crown and side slope as follows (Fig. 5.28)

Fig. 5.28 Simple pond dike

  b = T + 2(zd)
Where: b = width of base, m
  T = width of crown, m
  d = height of dike, m
  z = horizontal value of side slope

Example 5.2

Referring to Figure 5.28, determine the width of base if

the dike should have a top width of crown of 2.5 m, height
of 1.3
m and a side slope of 1.5:1 (or z = 1.5).

Solution: Using the formula above:

b = 2.5 + 2(1.5) (1.3)

= 6.4 m

(c) Cross-sectional area and volume of dike

The cross-sectional area is estimated by adding the width

of crown and base, divide the sum by two, and multiplied
by
the height. The height should be the estimated height for
main, secondary or tertiary dike which includes allowance
for
shrinkage. The volume of soil required to construct the
dike is computed by multiplying the cross-sectional area
by the
length of dike. In symbol,

 
 Where A = cross-sectional area of dike, m2

V = volume of dike, m3
L = length of dike, m

Example 5.3

From Example 5.2, the cross-sectional area and volume

of a dike that will be constructed 1 250 m long are:

5.4.3 Leakage and seepage

To maintain a watertight pond, leakage should be given

due attention in dike design and proper construction procedure
followed. After the dike has been constructed, leakage
is usually caused by the damage of the dike due to crustacean
burrows, particularly the species Thalassina anomala (Tang,
1982). They make burrows in the soft mud under the dike
thereby causing “piping” by which sand and silt particles are
moved by seepage flow. Effective measures for preventing
leakage include:

a. Minimizing the amount of seepage flow through proper

compaction, core trenching, embedding vertical plastic
membrane inside dike, covering dike wall with concrete
bricks, riprapings, etc.

b. Minimizing destruction by crustaceans by desalinizing

and drying out the embankment soils.

The rate of seepage through a dike can be estimated if

the following factors are known: (i) the permeability coefficient
of the dike; (ii) height of water level in the pond or canal;
(iii) effective width of the dike; and (iv) the nature of dike
foundation whether permeable or impermeable. Under
normal conditions, the passage of water through a dike with
impermeable foundation is only confined within the dike soil.
When the foundation is permeable, the rate of seepage
flow
is the sum of the seepage passing through the dike itself and
the quantity passing through the thickness of the dike
soil
foundation. In brackishwater fish farm, dike foundation
is mostly, if not all, permeable. The appropriate formula
for
estimating seepage flow is given in Appendix E.

Since the permeability of alluvial clay is relatively

constant, the increase or decrease of seepage flow in a
coastal fish
farm depends mainly upon the levels of tidal
fluctuation and effective width of dike. The effective width
of dike can be
calculated by constructing the seepage line
(Appendix E). For a value of permeability of the embankment
and
foundation soil of 1.32 cm/hour, water level in the pond
maintained at 3.3 m, and tidal level of 4.8 m and 0.0 (datum
level), estimates of seepage inflow and outflow through the
dikes with three effective widths is given by Tang, 1976
(Table 5.1). The table shows that as the effective width
of dike becomes narrower, more seepage flow occurs. Hence
placing linings of impermeable material is more needed in
small dikes.

5.5 Cross-section of secondary and tertiary dikes

The secondary and tertiary dikes are smaller than the main
dikes. Secondary dikes are usually provided on both sides
of
the canals and should be able to contain the mean high
water springs. Tertiary dikes are partition dikes that separate
the
ponds and should be able to contain the desired water
levels in the ponds.

Table 5.1
Seepage flow through dikes with
three effective widths

Minimum seepage inflow in rising Minimum seepage outflow in ebb

Dimension of dikes
tides tides
Top
Height Effective dike Rate of seepage Effective dike Rate of seepage
width Slope
(m) width (m) flow (cm3/hr) width (m) flow (cm3/hr)
(m)
2.0 2.0 3:1 11.0 0.13 14 0.28
2.0 2.0 2:1 8.0 0.18 10 0.32
2.0 2.0 1:1 5.0 0.29 6 0.69

5.5.1 Determination of height

The equation below can be used for the determination of
dike heights:

(a) Secondary dikes (Fig. 5.29)

Where: Hs = height of the secondary dikes above the ground

surface
Hst = mean high spring tide
Mr = maximum rainfall within 24 hours

Example 5.3

If the mean high spring tide above the zero datum is 1.35 m,
the ground elevation at the side of dike is 1.00 m, and
maximum
24-hour rainfall in the locality for 15-year interval is 12 cm.
Determine the height of secondary dike needed.
Provide
25% allowance for shrinkage and 30 cm freeboard.

Solution: (Refer to Fig. 5.29)

= 1.30 m

(b) Tertiary dikes (Fig. 5.30)

Where: Ht = height of the tertiary dike above datum

Dwl = desired water level above datum

Fig. 5.29 Typical cross section of secondary dike showing ground elevation, water levels
and basis for determination of
height
 Fig.5.30 Typical cross section of tertiary dike showing ground and water levels
and basis for determining height

Example 5.4

Determine the height of a tertiary dike if the desired water

level in the pond is 1.35 m from the zero datum and the
ground
elevation is 1.00 m. The maximum 24-hour rainfall is 12 cm,
allowance of shrinkage is 20% and freeboard is 30
cm.

Solution: (Refer to Fig. 5.30)

= 0.96 or rounded to 1.0 m

5.5.2 Side slope, crown and base

The top width of secondary and tertiary dikes are narrower

than the perimeter or main dike. Top width of 1 to 2 m are
common for the secondary dike and even less than one meter
for the tertiary dike.

The side slope is usually 1:1. Side berms in secondary

dike may be provided if there is excess soil in order to reduce
the
cost of hauling. Puddle trench in the dike base is provided
when necessary.

The computation of the width of base is done in the same

way as in the perimeter or main dike. Table 5.2 gives values
of
base for different values of dike height, crown and side
slopes.

5.6 Design of various types of ponds and pond bottom

Fishponds are designed to have the best environment

for the cultured species — through efficient water management,
ease in the cultivation of food organisms and manipulation
of stock for good growth and production. This objective
could be attained when the arrangement of the pond compartments,
water control structures and all other facilities
mutually complement each other.

Production ponds are designed independent of each other

by providing each with individual water supply and drainage
gates. Within the compartment, pond bottoms are designed to
further fit the environmental requirement of cultured
species.
The whole bottom should slope towards the drainage gate
to facilitate removal of water. This sloping bottom
can be
modified and improved by providing bottom ditch within
the pond running along and close to the base of the
dike. This
ditch collects and leads the water to the catching pond where
the drainage gate is also located. In this
scheme, a slope divide
is provided at the centre of the pond (Fig. 5.31). For much
larger compartments, a middle ditch
connecting the peripheral
ditch may be provided (Fig. 5.32).

Ponds designed purposely for shrimp culture usually

have two separate gates — supply (inlet) and drainage (outlet)
gates. Peripheral canals are provided mainly to serve as
shelter for the shrimp; to increase the pond bottom surface
area; and to have better water circulation. Facilitating drainage
is only secondary in the purpose. Hence, more canals
or
bottom platforms are sometimes provided (Fig. 5.33)
and some Figures in Chapter 4).

Table 5.2

height of dike with given side slopes
Relationship among the top width,
bottom width and

Height (m) Top width or crown (m) Bottom width, m at given side slop
1:1 1:5:1 2:1
1.5 2 5 6.5 8
2 2 6 8 10
3 2 8 11 14

Fig. 5.31 Peripheral ditch or canal in bottom of shrimp pond

(Not drawn to scale)

 Fig. 5.32 A central ditch in addition to peripheral ditch in shrimp pond

(Not drawn to scale)

Fig. 5.33 A flow-through type of pond bottom design for shrimp pond
(After Pinij, pers.comm., 1982)

(Not drawn to scale)

Pond bottom for shrimp culture may or may not be cleared

of tree stumps depending on harvesting method. Stumps
may just be cut short well below the pond water level
(Fig. 5.34). Milkfish ponds, however, require that the pond
be
totally cleared of stumps to facilitate harvesting by gillnet
seine. This method of harvest, however, is not common in
the
Philippines, because it removes some of the scales, thus
reducing the quality of fish.

5.7 Design of water canals or channels

Water from the outer sea is drawn into the fishpond at

the specified rate and time through the canal and discharged
into
the outer sea also through the same canal. In the design
of the canal, it is necessary to give consideration on the
following
criteria:
 Fig. 5.34 Dike-canal type pond (Modified after Cook, 1976)

a. The cross-section is determined to effect the flow of

required amount of water in rational way. That is, the most
effective section in terms of hydraulics; within the possible
minimum time.

b. If the canal is to be used for other purposes than water

conveyance, it should be designed to fulfill such purpose.

5.7.1 Kinds of water channel

Canals in fish farms are usually made of soil material.

They may only vary in size depending on its location and
purpose.
A canal may serve the purpose of supplying and
draining water to and from the ponds.

a. Main water supply canal. — This starts from the main

gate and usually traverses the central portion of the fish
farm. The size of the main canal should consider the emergency
discharge of water from the entire fish farm and
surrounding
area, if any, during heavy rain.

b. Secondary water supply canal. — This serves the

portions where main canal cannot reach. It starts from the
main
canal and traverses the inner portion of the fishpond.
It is usually constructed in large fishpond areas and is
smaller
than the main canal.

c. Tertiary canal. — This is the canal that usually

supply water in the nursery and transition ponds. Because
of the
small size, it is sometimes said to be a part of the
nursery pond system. The tertiary canal may be modified to
serve as catching pond. Usually the bed width is 1.0 to
1.5 m.

d. Diversion canal. — The purpose of this canal is to

protect the farm from being flooded with runoff water coming
from the watershed. It should have the capacity to carry at
least the peak runoff from the contributing watershed
for a
ten-year frequency storm. The slope of the diversion canal
should be such that the water flows toward the
drainage
area or around the fish farm to a convenient and prepared
outlet.

e. Drainage canal. — A separate drainage canal is

recommended in intensive culture, especially of shrimps, in
order
to effect flow-through system. This is usually located
at the other side of the pond, opposite and parallel to the
supply canal, if provided.

5.7.2 Cross-section of canal bed

The cross-section of the canal is generally of trapezoidal

shape with side slope of 1:1 for the alluvial clay soil (Fig. 5.35).
The depth of the main canal ranges from the level of mean
higher high water (excluding the height of freeboard) for
mixed tide or mean high water (for diurnal), to the mean
lower low water (the datum plane); and the secondary canals
from the designed pond water level to the mean tide level.
The lower limit of the water canals depends on the range of
tide. Generally, a smaller tide range requires a lower canal
bed.
 Fig.5.35 Design of different canals (After BFAR-FAO/UNDP,1981)

For the most efficient cross-section, canal bed should

be.

Where: b = canal bed

d = depth of canal excluding freeboard
z = horizontal value of side slope

Example 5.5

Using the above formula, if the water depth inside a canal

that has side slope of 1:1 is 1.0 m, the bottom width would
be
0.83 m. Values of bottom width for other depths and side
slopes are given in Table 5.3. The table also includes the
cross-sectional
area.

5.7.3 Design velocity

Velocity of water on canals should be designed properly

to avoid soil erosion and siltation on the canal bed. Velocity
should be slow to prevent excessive erosion but not too
slow to prevent siltation. In most soils, design velocity of
water
in canals should not be lower than 0.3 m/sec to avoid
silting. The usual velocities in canals are within 0.5 to
0.7 m/sec.

The nature of velocity of flow in a canal during tidal inflow

is different compared to the velocity during drainage of pond
water at ebb tide. The former is an unsteady flow and water
is flowing against the direction of canal slope. The latter is
a
flow of water in the same direction of slope. It is still an
unsteady flow or flow that changes with time because of the
falling depth of water in the ponds during drainage.

The opposite of unsteady flow is steady flow. This flow

does not fluctuate or change with time. An example of a
steady
flow that exists in brackishwater fish farm is when
pumping water from a river or a well and discharging in a
canal that
delivers the water to the ponds. The flow in the
canal is further called uniform flow because the depth of
water does not
change and flows by gravity or in the direction
of the slope.
 Table 5.3
Cross-sectional area, A of trapezoidal earthen
canal at given side slope, z:1; water depth, d; and bottom width, b

  Side slope 1:1 1.5:1 1.75:1 2:1

z=1 z = 1.5 z = 1.75 z=2
d b A b A b A b A
m m m2
m
m2
m
m2
m
m2

0.25 0.207 0.114 0.152 0.132 0.133 0.142 0.118 0.155

0.50 0.414 0.457 0.302 0.526 0.265 0.570 0.236 0.618
0.75 0.621 1.028 0.453 1.184 0.397 1.284 0.354 1.391
1.00 0.828 1.828 0.604 2.104 0.530 2.280 0.472 2.472
1.25 1.035 2.856 0.755 3.288 0.662 3.562 0.590 3.863
1.50 1.242 4.113 0.906 4.734 0.795 5.130 0.708 5.562
1.75 1.449 5.598 1.057 6.444 0.927 6.981 0.826 7.571
2.00 1.656 7.312 1.208 8.416 1.060 9.120 0.944 9.888
2.25 1.863 9.254 1.359 10.652 1.192 11.541 1.062 12.515
2.50 2.070 11.425 1.510 13.150 1.325 14.250 1.180 15.450
2.75 2.277 13.824 1.661 15.912 1.457 17.241 1.298 18.695
3.00 2.484 16.452 1.812 18.936 1.590 20.520 1.416 22.248

Under the condition of steady and uniform flow, the

velocity of water in the canal can be calculated by using
Manning's
formula:

Where: V = velocity, m/sec

R= hydraulic radius, A/P, m
S= canal bed slope, m/m
n= roughness coefficient of the canal wall
A= cross-sectional area of the canal
P= wetted perimeter or cross-sectional length of side wall of canal that is in contact with the water, m

The design discharge or capacity of a canal for steady and

uniform flow is calculated by using the continuity equation:
Q
= AV, where Q = discharge or rate of flow in m3 sec.

Example 5.6

Determine the bottom width and capacity of an earthen

canal with water depth of 0.75 m and side slope of 1.5:1. The
canal has a bed slope of 0.0010 or 1 1 000.

Solution:

From Table 5.3, for d = 0.75, and side slope of 1.5:1, the
bottom width of the canal for an efficient cross-section is
0.453
m. The velocity of flow at bed slope of 1 1 000 is
0.44 m/sec (Table 5.4). In Table 5.3, the corresponding area
for d =
0.75 and b = 0.453 m is 1.184 m2. Therefore, the
capacity of the canal is 1.184 m2 × 0.44 m/sec = 0.521 m3 sec.

5.7.4 Design requirement for multiple use

When canals are used for temporary holding of fish, the

size of the canal will be calculated by the quantity of fish to
be
held. Under normal conditions, the maximum quantity
of milkfish that can be held by tidal water is about 1.3 to
1.7
kg/m3. If the length and depth of canal are fixed, then
the width should adjust in order to satisfy the required volume
of
water for a given quantity of fish to be held. The bottom
of the canal if intended for temporary holding of fish should
be
30 cm lower than the pond bottom or secondary gate.
 Table 5.4
Velocity of water (m/sec) in trapezoidal earthen canal in clay soil
at given side slope; roughness coefficient, n = 0.025;
depth, d; and bottom width, b
Side slop = 1:1

CANAL SLOPE
Depth (m) Bottom width (m)
0.25 0.207 0.45 0.37 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18
0.50 0.414 0.71 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.29
0.75 0.621 0.93 0.76 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38
1.00 0.828 1.13 0.92 0.80 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46
1.25 1.035 1.31 1.07 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.53
1.50 1.242 1.48 1.21 1.05 0.94 0.86 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60
1.75 1.449 1.64 1.34 1.16 1.03 0.94 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.69
2.00 1.656 1.79 1.46 1.26 1.13 1.03 0.96 0.89 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.73
2.25 1.863 1.94 1.58 1.37 1.22 1.12 1.03 0.97 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.79
2.50 2.070 2.08 1.69 1.47 1.31 1.20 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.93 0.88 0.85
2.75 2.277 2.21 1.81 1.56 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.11 1.04 0.99 0.94 0.90
3.00 2.484 2.34 1.91 1.66 1.48 1.35 1.25 1.17 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.96
Side slope = 1.5:1
0.25 0.152 0.45 0.37 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18
0.50 0.302 0.47 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19
0.75 0.453 0.62 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25
1.00 0.604 0.67 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.27
1.25 0.755 0.87 0.71 0.62 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.36
1.50 0.906 0.99 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.40
1.75 1.057 1.09 0.89 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.45
2.00 1.208 1.20 0.98 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.54 0.51 0.49
2.25 1.359 1.29 1.06 0.92 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53
2.50 1.510 1.39 1.13 0.98 0.88 0.80 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.57
2.75 1.661 1.48 1.21 1.05 0.94 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60
3.00 1.812 1.51 1.28 1.11 0.99 0.90 0.84 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64
Side slope = 1.75:1
0.25 0.133 0.45 0.37 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18
0.50 0.265 0.71 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.29
0.75 0.397 0.93 0.76 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38
1.00 0.530 1.13 0.92 0.80 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46
1.25 0.662 1.31 1.07 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.53
1.50 0.795 1.48 1.21 1.04 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60
1.75 0.927 1.64 1.34 1.16 1.03 0.94 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
2.00 1.060 1.79 1.46 1.26 1.13 1.03 0.96 0.89 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.73
2.25 1.192 1.93 1.58 1.37 1.22 1.12 1.03 0.97 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.79
2.50 1.325 2.08 1.69 1.47 1.31 1.20 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.93 0.88 0.85
2.75 1.457 2.21 1.81 1.56 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.11 1.04 0.99 0.94 0.90
3.00 1.590 2.34 1.91 1.66 1.48 1.35 1.25 1.17 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.96
Side slope = 2:1
0.25 0.118 0.48 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.20
0.50 0.236 0.71 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.29
0.75 0.354 0.93 0.76 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38
1.00 0.472 1.13 0.92 0.80 0.71 0.65 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46
1.25 0.590 1.31 1.07 0.92 0.83 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.53
1.50 0.708 1.48 1.21 1.04 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60
1.75 0.826 1.64 1.34 1.16 1.03 0.94 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
2.00 0.944 1.79 1.46 1.26 1.13 1.03 0.96 0.89 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.73
2.25 1.062 1.93 1.58 1.37 1.22 1.12 1.03 0.97 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.79
2.50 1.180 2.08 1.69 1.47 1.31 1.20 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.93 0.88 0.85
2.75 1.298 2.21 1.81 1.56 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.11 1.04 0.99 0.94 0.90
3.00 1.416 2.34 1.91 1.66 1.48 1.35 1.25 1.17 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.96