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4D analogue models of extensional fault systems in asymmetric rifts:

3D visualizations and comparisons with natural examples

K. R. MC CLAY, T. DOOLEY, P. S. WHITEHOUSE and S. ANADON-RUIZ

Fault Dynamics Research Group, Geology Department, Royal Holloway University of London,
Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK (e-mail: k.mcclay@gl.rhul.ac.uk)

Abstract: New three-dimensional analogue modelling experiments have been carried out to simulate the
development of offset and segmented asymmetric rift systems. High-resolution digital photography, combined
with animations and 3D reconstructions, has enabled the detailed study of the progressive 4D evolution of these
complex rift fault systems. In particular, this paper focuses upon the growth of faults at the early stages of
development and the formation of accommodation zones where the rift fault architectures change along-strike.
These sandbox analogue models simulate the development of asymmetric oblique rifts where the extension
direction was at an average angle of 608 to the rift axis, controlled by the underlying baseplate configuration.
Segmented rifts were generated by discrete offsets in the baseplates of the sandbox models. In all models the rift
border faults were controlled by the orientations (and offsets) of the baseplates beneath the models whereas the
intra-rift faults generally initiated at high angles to the extension direction. With increased stretching, both the rift
border faults and the intra-rift faults propagated along-strike, producing segmented fault systems separated by
relay ramps that were breached as fault linkage occurred. Kinks along the fault traces indicate these linkage
points. In all models the asymmetric extension produced a dominant border fault system on the static rift margin,
whereas the moving rift margin was characterized by domino-style extensional fault systems dipping into the
centre of the rift basins. In the segmented rift models, zones of offset were characterized by complex
accommodation zones formed by arrays of oppositely dipping faults. In serial cross sections the accommodation
zones consisted of complex conjugate fault systems formed by the overlapping tips of oppositely dipping faults.
Three-dimensional visualizations of the completed models, together with fault displacement analyses using
Traptester, allowed detailed analyses and geometric reconstructions of these accommodation zones. The
asymmetric oblique and segmented rift models display many structural similarities to the segmented rifts of the
Central and Northern North Sea rifts as well as to those in the Northern Ethiopian rift system, and in the Gulf of
Suez, Egypt.

Keywords: analogue modelling, rifts, extensional faults, 3D visualizations

Many rift basins such as those in the Central and Northern North
Sea (Zanella & Coward 2003), the Rhine Graben (Brun et al.
1994), the East African rift system (Bosworth 1985, 1994;
Rosendahl 1987; Rosendahl et al. 1986; Ebinger 1989a, b; Morley
1999) and the Gulf of Suez (e.g. Bosworth & McClay 2001;
Moustafa 2002; Younes & McClay 2002) are distinctly asym-
metric with half-graben geometries and along-strike segmentation
(e.g. Bosworth 1985, 1994; Hayward & Ebinger 1996). Many of
these rift half-graben systems have dominant fault polarities that
change along strike across complex accommodation zones (Fig. 1)
(cf. Bally 1981; Gibbs 1983, 1984; Lister et al. 1986; Etheridge
et al. 1987; Morley et al. 1990; Nelson et al. 1992; Morley 1994;
Faulds & Varga 1998). Many rifts, such as the Red Sea, also have
asymmetric rift flank uplift along their margins (Daradich et al.
2003; Doglioni et al. 2003). In addition to basin segmentation
along the rift axis (cf. Rosendahl et al. 1986; Hayward & Ebinger
1996) rift border faults and intra-rift faults are also segmented with
fault overlaps forming distinct relay ramps (Fig. 1) (Chapman et al.
1978; Griffiths 1980; Kelly 1982; Larsen 1988). However the
detailed 3D geometries and the progressive evolution of
the accommodation zones in natural rift systems such as those in
the North Sea are comparatively poorly understood.
Scaled analogue models have proved to be powerful tools for
the visualization of the progressive evolution of rift fault systems
(e.g. Cloos 1968; Faugere & Brun 1984; Withjack & Jamison
1986; Serra & Nelson 1989; Tron & Brun 1991; McClay & White
1995; McClay 1990a, b; McClay et al. 2001, 2002). Experimental
models have successfully simulated the initiation, growth and
linkages of rift fault systems. Recent research by the Fault
Dynamics Research Group at Royal Holloway has focused upon
the development of accommodation zones between different sub-
basins within the rift system (e.g. McClay et al. 2002). In this
paper we introduce new models that simulate asymmetric rift
systems and in particular show how 3D visualizations and fault
displacement analyses can be used to understand how accommo-
dation zones develop in offset oblique rifts. The results of these
scaled analogue models are compared with natural rift systems
such as those found in the central and northern North Sea and
elsewhere.
Scaled analogue modelling of asymmetric rift systems
Experimental method
The asymmetric rift modelling experiments were carried out in a
deformation rig 120 £ 60 £ 7.5 cm (Fig. 2). A 7.5 cm thick pre-
extension sandpack was formed by mechanically sieving 4 to
5 mm thick layers of white and coloured, dry quartz sand (average
grain size 90 mm) into the deformation rig. The uppermost pre-rift
layer was 2.5 mm thick, consisting of 75% sand and 25% clay. This
layer was added in order to enhance small-scale fault and fracture
development on the surface of the models. The basal detachment
was formed by a 10 cm wide rubber sheet fixed between two
aluminium end sheets (Fig. 2b) and simulates a zone of ductile
stretching at the base of the brittle upper crust. In this paper we
present the results of three representative experiments designed
to investigate the development fault segmentation as well as the
formation of accommodation zones in asymmetric rift systems.

MC CLAY , K. R., DOOLEY , T., WHITEHOUSE , P. S. & ANADON -RUIZ , S. 2005. Analogue models of extensional fault systems. In: DORÉ , A. G. & VINING , B. A.
(eds) Petroleum Geology: North-West Europe and Global Perspectives—Proceedings of the 6th Petroleum Geology Conference, 1543–1556. q Petroleum
Geology Conferences Ltd. Published by the Geological Society, London.
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1544 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.
Fig. 1. Synoptic conceptual model of an asymmetric rift system with
offset half-grabens.
One model was run with the parallel boundaries of the rubber
section of the baseplate at 608 to the extension direction (608
oblique rift model). The second model was run with a segmented
(offset) rubber baseplate oriented at 608 to the extension direction
(offset 608 oblique rift). In this model the rubber baseplate was
offset by two extension parallel faults cut in the rubber sheet at the
base of the model. The third model presented consisted of
orthogonal rift segments separated by two extension parallel faults
at the base of the model. This produced an overall rift axis oriented
approximately 608 to the extension direction.
Deformation was achieved by moving the right-hand wall with a
motor driven worm screw (Fig. 2) at a constant displacement rate
of 4.16 £ 1023 cm s21. The left-hand side of the model was kept
stationary. The models were extended in 1 mm increments to a
maximum of 100% extension of the basal rubber detachment in the
direction of extension. The top surfaces were recorded by digital
photography. After the first 4 cm of extension the accommodation
space was infilled with coloured sand to simulate syn-rift
sedimentation. After each subsequent 2 cm of deformation the
accommodation space was also infilled with alternating layers of
white and coloured sand. The quartz sand has a linear Navier –
Coulomb behaviour with an angle of friction of 318 (McClay
1990b). The models described in this paper are scaled such that
they simulate brittle deformation of a sedimentary sequence
between 1 and 10 km thick (cf. McClay 1990a). At the end of the
Fig. 2. Analogue modelling rig for asymmetric rift experiments. (a) Plan view showing simple 608 oblique baseplate geometry and orientation with respect
to the extension direction (arrow); (b) Cross-sectional view showing the 7.5 cm thick layered sandpack above the central stretching baseplate.
deformation run the models were sectioned vertically in order to
analyse the internal fault geometries and rift symmetries.
Analysis of the analogue models
Sequential digital photographs of the upper surface of the models
were animated in order to study the progressive evolution of the
rift fault geometries. Closely spaced vertical serial sections
(#4 mm) were also animated in order to evaluate rift fault
geometries, particularly across the accommodation zones. Key
surfaces in the vertical sections were digitized and reconstructed
using 3D visualization software. Three-dimensional fault displa-
cements at the top of the pre-kinematic surface were analysed
using Traptester software.
Analogue model results
The results of the three representative asymmetric rift basin
analogue models are briefly summarized in the following sections.
Attention is focused on the initial stages of fault formation where
the models show strong fault segmentation and subsequent linkage
patterns.
Model 1 – 608 oblique asymmetric rift
In this model the underlying zone of stretching at the base of the
model was oriented at 608 to the extension direction. Figs 3a– c
show the initial development of the model rift system, highlighting
fault initiation, growth and linkage. The first increments of
deformation that displaced the right-hand side of the model
resulted in the formation of arrays of en echelon offset small faults
at the rift borders (Fig. 3a). Greater development of these fault
arrays occurred along the right-hand border fault system. Within
the interior of the model rift arrays of en echelon offset small faults
formed at high angles or nearly orthogonal to the extension
direction (Fig. 3a). Both of these systems of small en echelon faults
appear to be dominantly Mode 1 (dilational) extension fractures.
With further extension, well-developed faults formed by the rapid
along-strike linkage of the originally en-echelon offset small fault
systems (Fig. 3b). At this stage the right-hand rift border consists
of a well-developed array of slightly offset extensional faults
whereas the left-hand rift border consists of an outer, segmented
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ANALOGUE MODELS OF EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1545

Fig. 3. Analogue model 1. 608 Asymmetric oblique rift. (a) Overhead view of the analogue model after 1 cm extension. Illumination is from the right.
Dark bands are faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right; (b) Overhead view of the analogue model after 2 cm extension.
Note the increased displacement on the fault systems with fault overlaps producing relay ramps and breaching of relay ramps; (c) Overhead view of the
analogue model after 4 cm extension. Relay ramps have become breached by along-strike propagation of overlapping faults; (d) Overhead view of the
analogue model after 11.5 cm extension (end of the experiment). Local accommodation zones are highlighted.

fault system as well as a second, less well-developed, interior fault
system (Fig. 3b). Intra-rift faults at high angles to the extension
direction were formed by linked arrays of smaller faults (Fig. 3b).
The oblique rift system is strongly asymmetric with predominantly
left-dipping domino faults within the central sectors of the model
(Fig. 3b). Only a few right-dipping faults were formed in the
central section of the model.
Continued deformation to 4 cm of extension resulted in both
increased displacement on individual faults as well as along-strike
propagation and linkage across overlapping fault segments (Fig.
3c). At this stage both rift border fault systems are formed by long,
nearly linear, linked faults at 608 to the extension direction. Shorter
left-dipping intra-rift faults are well developed. Kinks along the
traces of the left-dipping faults show where original segmented
faults have linked. In many places small breached relay ramps may
still be seen along the intra-rift faults (Fig. 3c).
After 4 cm of extension coloured sand layers were added
incrementally to infill the accommodation space and to simulate
syn-kinematic sedimentation (Fig. 3d). Continued extension
resulted in increased displacement on the major faults and
upwards propagation through the syn-kinematic sand layers. The
smaller fault arrays did not propagate upwards and are not
observed on the top surface of the model in the later stages of
extension. The final model consisted of a well-developed oblique
rift system with continuous, linked border faults and dominantly
left-dipping intra-rift faults (Fig. 3d). Relay ramps, splays and
kinks along the surface traces of individual faults indicate
positions of initial fault segmentation and overlaps.
Interpretation of fault patterns at the end of extension shows the
dominant left-dipping intra-rift domino fault arrays as well as
the long, near-linear rift border fault systems (Fig. 4a). Relay ramps
are well developed between the overlapping tips of left-dipping
extensional faults with linkage points shown by kinks in the fault
trace and splays typically in the hanging walls. No extension
parallel strike-slip transfer faults developed in this model.
Serial cross sections were cut parallel to the extension direction
through the central section of the completed model at 4 mm
intervals. They show the strongly asymmetric nature of the oblique
rift system (Fig. 4b). In the model the left-hand rift margin is
formed by a terraced planar fault system whereas the right-hand
margin consists of a left-dipping fault that is part of the domino
array that extends into the centre of the rift (Fig. 4b).
Model 2 – offset 608 oblique rift
In this model the 608 oblique zone of stretching at the base of the
model was offset by two discrete sinistral basement faults parallel
to the extension direction. The patterns of faults in this model
(Fig. 5) are markedly different to those described for Model 1
above (Fig. 3). At the initial stages of extension, strongly
segmented, curved en echelon offset extensional fault arrays are
developed (Fig. 5a). Above the offsets in the zone of stretching at
the base of the model, the fault arrays step to the left. With
increased extension, offset small faults became linked by along-
strike propagation and breaching of the relay ramps between
overlapping fault tips. The rift border faults formed parallel to the
underlying 608 oblique zone of stretching at the base of the model
and were stepped to the left above the basement offsets (Fig. 5b).
Intra-rift faults grew at high angles to the extension direction
and formed distinct panels of like-dipping faults separated by
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1546 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.

Fig. 4. Analogue Model 1. 608 asymmetric oblique rift. (a) Line diagram interpretation of the surface fault pattern at the end of 11.5 cm extension. Dark
bands are faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right. Intra-basin accommodation zones are highlighted. (b) Serial sections through the
orthogonal rift model. Syn-kinematic strata are the red and white layers infilling the upper part of the graben system whereas the pre-kinematic strata are the
blue, white and black layers. Note the relative homogeneity of cross-sections along strike.

accommodation zones. These accommodation zones consisted of
overlapping oppositely dipping fault arrays with curved fault tips
(Fig. 5b). At 4 cm extension of the right-hand side of the model,
extremely strongly developed arrays of domino faults separated by
two prominent complex accommodation zones were established
(Fig. 5c). As in Model 1, kinks along the traces of the major faults
and fault splays indicated where along-strike linkage of older fault
segments had occurred.
Syn-kinematic sand layers were added incrementally after 4 cm
of extension in order to infill the accommodation space developed
in the interior parts of the model rifts. In these subsequent stages
of extension the fundamental fault pattern was unchanged with
well-developed panels of right-dipping domino fault arrays
developed along the left-hand side of the model and left-dipping
domino fault arrays formed along the right-hand side of the model
(Fig. 5d). Accommodation zones formed by arrays of overlapping
fault tips continued to develop, becoming depositional lows
infilled with syn-kinematic sand layers. As in Model 1, the major
extensional faults accumulated displacement and propagated
upwards through the syn-kinematic layers (Fig. 5d). Small
displacement faults were not observed at the surface of the
model after syn-kinematic sand layers were added. The final
geometry of model 2 consisted of oppositely dipping fault arrays
separated by well-developed accommodation zones centred
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ANALOGUE MODELS OF EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1547

Fig. 5. Analogue model 2. Offset 608 asymmetric oblique rift. (a) Overhead view of the analogue model after 1 cm extension. Illumination is from the
right. Dark bands are faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right. Note the strong en echelon offset extensional faults along the
border fault system; (b) Overhead view of the analogue model after 2 cm of extension. The border fault system has become linked with longer fault traces
and breached relay ramps. Note the development of intra-basin accommodation zones (highlighted); (c) Overhead view of analogue model after 4 cm of
extension. The intra-basin accommodation zones are more prominently developed; (d) Overhead view of the analogue model after 11.5 cm of extension
(end of the experiment). The border fault system is now strongly linked and the intra-basin accommodation zone is breached by a left-dipping segmented
fault system.

mainly above the sinistral offsets in the underlying zone of basal
stretching (Fig. 5d). At these offsets the rift border fault systems
were stepped by a series of prominent relay ramps. No strike-slip
faults developed above the basement offsets.
The line diagram interpretation of the model at the end of
extension clearly highlights the oppositely dipping fault panels and
the well developed accommodation zones located above the offsets
in the underlying stretched rubber sheet (Fig. 6a). The fault tips are
strongly curved as they pass into the accommodation zones. In
many places the faults also show splays at their tips (Fig. 6a).
Serial cross-sections were cut at 4 mm intervals across the
completed model. Key sections are shown in Figure 6b. Sections 1
and 5 (Fig. 6b) show dominant left-dipping domino fault arrays
that define the dominant asymmetry associated with fault panels on
the right-hand side of the model. Parts of sections 2, 3 and 4 show
right-dipping domino faults associated with the left-hand margin
of the rift system (Fig. 6b). Section 6 as well as 2 and 4 show
symmetric regions where interlocking arrays of both right- and
left-dipping faults form accommodation zones between the panels
of oppositely dipping domino faults (Fig. 6b). The fault polarity
changes are also associated with an increase in the number smaller
displacement faults and are marked depositional lows.
Model 3 – offset orthogonal rift
Model 3 consisted of orthogonal rift segments offset in such a
fashion to produce a segmented rift with an overall trend of 608 to
the extension direction. At the initial stages of extension many small
displacement, en echelon offset fault arrays were observed at the
surface of the model (Fig. 7a). Within the three main sections of
the model between the basement offsets, both the rift border and
the intra-rift fault systems formed at high angles or 908 to the
extension direction. With increased extension, both the rift border
and the intra-rift faults became longer through linkage of offset as
well as in-line fault segments (Figs 7b and c). Intra-rift fault along-
strike growth was inhibited by the presence of the two accommo-
dation zones such that overlapping fault tips became curved into the
accommodation zone, thus limiting further fault growth.
After 4 cm of extension the dominant rift architecture was
established. Two discrete, extension-parallel accommodation
zones separated three rift segments where both the rift border and
the intra-rift faults were at high angles to the extension direction
(Fig. 7c). Well-developed relay ramps were formed at the offset
segments of the rift border fault systems. In the accommodation
zones the tips of the intra-rift faults became highly curved as they
overlapped to form interlocking conjugate arrays. As in the other
models after this stage additional sand layers were added
incrementally to simulate syn-kinematic sedimentation.
Figure 8a shows the interpreted fault pattern at the end of
extension. Both the rift border and intra-rift faults are dominantly
at high angles to the extension direction except where they step
to the left above the two offsets in the basement. Here the tips
of the faults are strongly curved and overlap to form prominent
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1548 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.

Fig. 6. Analogue model 2. Offset 608 asymmetric oblique rift. (a) Line diagram interpretation of the surface fault pattern at the end of extension. Dark
bands are faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right. Segmentation and linkages along the right-hand border fault system are
clearly seen together with the intra-basin accommodation zones; (b) Serial sections through the oblique rift model. Syn-kinematic strata are the red and
white layers that infill the graben system whereas pre-kinematic strata are the blue, black and white layers. Intra-basin accommodation zones are characterized
by conjugate fault arrays.

accommodation zones above the basement offsets. At the rift
borders and within the rift overlapping faults form relay ramps
(Fig. 8a). Vertical serial cross sections (Fig. 8b) through the
completed models show the distinct changes in dip polarities
(sections 1, 3, 4 and 6) with two prominent accommodation zones
characterized by symmetric graben geometries consisting of
interlocking, conjugate, fault arrays (sections 2 and 5; Fig. 8b).
As in Models 1 and 2 described above no strike-slip or oblique-slip
transfer faults were developed in this offset rift models despite the
presence of discrete sinistral strike-slip offsets in the zone of
basement stretching. However, as in the offset 608 rift Model 2, the
accommodation zones are typically characterized by fault tip
rotation and elongation into the accommodation regions that, if
poorly exposed or imaged, could be misinterpreted as strike-slip
systems (Figs 7d and 8a).
3D visualization and analysis of the analogue models
The models presented in this paper were analysed using both 3D
reconstructions and visualizations (Fig. 9) as well as quantitative
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ANALOGUE MODELS OF EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1549

Fig. 7. Analogue model 3. Offset asymmetric orthogonal rift. (a) Overhead view of the analogue model after 1 cm extension. Illumination is from the
right. Dark bands are faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right. Intra-basin accommodation zones develop above the basement offsets;
(b) Overhead view of the analogue model after 2 cm of extension. Intra-basin accommodation zones are well developed and consist of overlapping and
interlocking fault arrays. Overlapping faults at the rift borders produce well developed relay ramps; (c) Overhead view of the analogue model after 4 cm extension.
At the borders of the rift relay ramps are breached by propagation of overlapping faults; (d) Overhead view of the analogue model after 10 cm extension (end of the
experiment). Two well developed accommodation zones (highlighted) separate different domains of like-dipping faults.

fault displacement analyses using Traptester (Fig. 10). This has
permitted a better understanding of the rift geometries and in
particular of the fault architectures in the accommodation zones at
the rift offsets. The visualization of the simple 608 oblique rift
model highlights the dominant rift asymmetry with extension
normal arrays of left-dipping domino faults (Fig. 9a). The border
faults in this model are linked across its entire width with small
hanging wall splays showing where segments have linked. Intra-
rift faults do not extend across the whole model but show variable
displacements along their lengths and well developed splays where
originally separate segments have linked (Fig. 9a). In contrast,
the 3D visualizations of the two offset rift models show both
significant segmentation of the border fault systems as well as the
intra-rift fault systems (Figs 9b, c). The accommodation zones are
distinct topographic lows with complex interlocking fault arrays
(Figs 9b, c). Variable displacements along individual faults can be
clearly seen as well as relay ramps between overlapping like-
dipping faults.
Fault displacement variations were analysed by Traptester and
are plotted as colour contour plots showing along-strike variations
in fault displacement in map view (Fig. 10). The rift border
faults in the simple oblique rift show little variation in fault
displacement along-strike, probably reflecting their rapid along-
strike propagation and linkage during the early stages of extension
(Fig. 10a). In contrast, the shorter, more segmented intra-rift faults
show mainly cm-scale throws along most of their length, except at
their tips where the displacements die to zero (Fig. 10a). In the
offset models where the rift was segmented by accommodation
zones, the intra-rift fault displacement patterns were more variable
(Figs 10b, c). Here the intra-rift faults displayed very high dis-
placement gradients where the fault tips curved into the accom-
modation zones (Figs 10b, c).
Discussion
Summary of the asymmetric analogue models
The new analogue models presented in this paper characteristically
produce linked rift border fault systems, the orientation of which is
controlled by the boundaries of the underlying ductile basal
detachment sheet (cf. Figs 3 – 8; also see McClay & White 1995;
McClay et al. 2002). Classic synthetic relay ramps (Chapman et al.
1978; Griffiths 1980; Kelly 1982; Larsen 1988; Peacock &
Sanderson 1991, 1994; Walsh & Watterson 1991; Childs et al.
1995) were formed between overlapping, like-dipping extensional
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1550 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.

Fig. 8. Analogue Model 3. Offset asymmetric orthogonal rift. (a) Line diagram interpretation of the surface fault pattern at the end of extension. Dark bands are
faults dipping to the left and light bands are faults dipping to the right. Border fault segmentation and accommodation zones formed by overlapping fault
arrays are clearly seen; (b) Serial sections through the offset oblique rift model. Syn-kinematic strata are the red and white layers that infill the graben system
whereas pre-kinematic strata are the blue, black and white layers. Well developed intra-basin accommodation zones are marked by conjugate fault arrays.

fault segments (e.g. Figs 3 –8). In the simple 608 oblique rift model
asymmetric extension produced by moving only the right-hand
side wall of the deformation rig produced a distinctly asymmetric
rift system where the majority of the intra-rift faults dipped
towards the left (opposite to the displacement direction at the right-
hand boundary of the model) (Fig. 4b). The asymmetry is
particularly well displayed in the 3D visualization (Fig. 9a). The
asymmetry in this model contrasts with the more symmetrical
grabens produced when both side walls were displaced in the
models described by McClay et al. (2002). In this simple 608
oblique rift model the rift border fault systems are controlled by
the underlying basal stretching zone whereas the intra-rift faults
form at high angles to the extension direction.
In contrast, Models 2 and 3 where the rifts were offset by two
discrete sinistral faults in the basal zone of stretching produced
distinctly different fault patterns (Figs 5 and 7). In these models
well-developed, extension-parallel accommodation zones separ-
ated discrete panels of oppositely dipping domino fault arrays.
Despite asymmetric stretching, these rift models were characterized
by interlocking conjugate fault arrays across the accommodation
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ANALOGUE MODELS OF EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS 1551

Fig. 9. 3D visualizations of the analogue models. (a) Analogue model 1,

608 asymmetric oblique rift; (b) Analogue model 2, Offset 608 asymmetric
oblique rift; (c) Analogue model 3, offset asymmetric orthogonal rift.

zones (Figs 6b and 8b). The accommodation zones produced

depositional lows that were infilled by syn-kinematic sand layers.
Three-dimensional reconstructions and visualizations of the
models at the top of the pre-kinematic layer dramatically reveal
the architecture of these accommodation zones (Figs 9b, c). Rift
border faults were controlled by the underlying basal stretching
zone and were stepped to the left via relay ramps above the offset
zones (Figs 6a and 8a). The intra-rift faults formed at high angles
to nearly orthogonal to the extension direction. However, in the
accommodation zones, the tips of the intra-rift faults became
strongly curved with high displacement gradients (Fig. 10).
Overlapping fault tips from oppositely dipping domino fault
arrays produced symmetrical conjugate fault architectures in the
accommodation zones. The accommodation zones formed by Fig. 10. Fault analyses of the analogue models. (a) Analogue model
overlapping fault arrays are ‘soft-linked’ and no discrete strike-slip 1, 608 asymmetric oblique rift; (b) Analogue model 2, offset 608
transfer fault systems were formed at any level within the models. asymmetric oblique rift; (c) Analogue model 3, offset asymmetric
Such interlocking extensional fault arrays in accommodation orthogonal rift.
zones have also been observed in seismic data (Nicol et al. 1996;
Kornsawan & Morley 2002) with the conjugate fault zones being
photography show how fault initiation, growth and linkage
regions of significant fault damage necessary to accommodate the
developed in these asymmetric rift models.
displacements on the oppositely dipping faults.
At the initial stages of extension all three models described
above were characterized by the development of numerous small
discrete faults typically offset in en echelon arrays (Figs 3a, 5a
Fault growth and linkage
and 7a). At the rift borders these faults were controlled by
The new models presented in this paper focused both on the the orientation of the basal stretching zone but the initially
development of accommodation zones as discussed above and also highly segmented intra-rift faults formed at high angles
on the fault growth and linkages at the early stages of extension. (predominantly.808) to the extension direction. With increased
Small deformation increments and the presence of the mixed extension individual faults became linked by along-strike
sand-clay uppermost pre-kinematic layer combined with detailed propagation and breaching of relay ramps. This resulted in
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1552 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.

longer, more continuous, but irregular, fault traces with very

Fig. 11. Central Graben, North Sea. Fault map at Cretaceous level
showing an oblique offset graben (after Erratt et al. 1999).
small kinks developed at the linkage positions. The rift border
faults rapidly became linked forming long faults which in the
simple 608 oblique rift crossed the entire model (Fig. 3c). In
contrast the offset rifts produced overlapping faults and well-
developed relay ramps above the sinistral steps in the basal zone of
stretching (Figs 5c and 7c). In all models the intra-rift faults grew
at high angles to the extension direction by along-strike linkage. In
the 608 oblique rift the intra-rift faults propagated across the rift
until they impinged on the border fault arrays (Fig. 3c), whereas in
the offset rifts these faults propagated until they entered an
accommodation zone above the baseplate offsets (Figs 5c and 7c).
These accommodation zones are characterized by very high
displacement gradients at the curved fault tips (Fig. 10). In all three
models the addition of syn-kinematic sedimentation suppressed
the vertical propagation of the small displacement faults and only
the large displacement faults continued to develop (Figs 3d, 5d
and 7d).

Fig. 12. Fault map of the North Viking Graben (modified after Nottvedt et al. 2000) showing along-axis changes in fault systems and asymmetry of
the central part of the rift system.
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ANALOGUE MODELS OF EXTENSIONAL FAULT SYSTEMS
Fault displacement analyses carried out using Traptester show
the finite fault throws at the top of the pre-kinematic layer
(Fig. 10). The long rift border faults show uniform displacement
along most of their lengths, reflecting their early stage linkage. In
contrast, the intra-rift faults show more variable displacement
profiles as a result of slower growth and linkage as they
propagated across the model rifts. Within the accommodation
zones in Models 2 and 3, very high fault displacement gradients
occur at the curved tips of interlocking and overlapping
faults (Fig. 10). These appear to be the geometrically and
kinematically necessary result of the high strain gradients across
the rift offsets.
These oblique and offset rift models show similar fault growth
and linkage characteristics to those found by Cowie and co-
workers in numerical stress feedback fault models (Cowie 1998;
Gupta et al. 1998). In the numerical models initially isolated,
optimally positioned fault segments rapidly link to form long,
continuous high displacement fault zones, or soft-linked high
displacement segmented rift border faults (cf. Cartwright et al.
1995). Along-strike propagation and linkage is promoted initially
by this stress feedback mechanism and associated stress shadows
(cf. Gupta et al. 1998) and is illustrated by the rift margin fault
systems that develop above the linear discontinuities in the
basement fabric. In the offset oblique rift model, rift border fault
zones are initially not continuous but consist of like-dipping fault
segments linked by major relay ramps parallel to the rift axis
(Fig. 7). Further extension in this offset rift system produced
breaching and linkage of the relay ramps between offsets in the
border fault system (Figs 7 and 8a).
In all of the rift models, changes in displacement along the
strike of individual fault systems was usually accommodated by
overlapping fault segments that produced ‘soft-linked’ relay
ramps. Where faults had joined (linked) along-strike this
generally occurred by breaching of relay structures (cf. Childs
et al. 1995) such that distinct kinks in the fault trace were formed
at these linkage points. Changes in the dip polarity of arrays
of extensional faults were accomplished across the complex
intra-basin accommodation zones that were controlled by the
basement discontinuities parallel to the extension direction.
Discrete strike-slip transfer faults were not developed at any
level in any of the analogue models carried out during this
research programme.
Natural rift systems
The results from the analogue models are briefly compared to fault
architectures in natural rift systems including the central and
northern North Sea and the Gulf of Suez rift.
Central and Northern North Sea
The fault map at Cretaceous level of the central North Sea (Erratt
et al. 1999) shows the fundamental geometry of an oblique rift
with significant sinistral offsets along-strike (Fig. 11). These zones
of offset are marked by complex overlapping fault arrays and are
similar in character to the idealized accommodation zones
developed in the offset oblique rift model (Fig. 5).
In the northern North Sea, the N– S-trending Viking Graben
shows distinct E –W offsets producing segmentation between the
south, central and northern sectors (cf. Zanella & Coward 2003).
Seismic sections and maps show complex fault geometries with
half-graben geometries and arrays of like-dipping faults changing
to arrays of oppositely dipping faults along-strike (Fig. 12). Tilted
fault blocks such as the Gulfaks and Snorre blocks (Fig. 12) show
domino style arrays and fault curvatures similar to those found in
the offset orthogonal rift model (Fig. 7).
1553
Gulf of Suez, Egypt
The Northwestern Red Sea– Gulf of Suez rift system was
initiated during the Late Oligocene and underwent significant
N658E extension during the Early Miocene (Moustafa 1993;
Bosworth 1994; Patton et al. 1994; McClay et al. 1998;
Bosworth & McClay 2001; Younes & McClay 2002). The
Gulf of Suez rift is characterized by dominant NNW and N – S
trending extensional faults that form a distinct rhomboidal
map pattern (Fig. 13). Khalil (1998); Younes & McClay (2002)
showed that these fault orientations were controlled by pre-
existing Precambrian basement fabrics in the crystalline base-
ment of the rift system. The Gulf of Suez has long been
recognized as one of the best examples of along-axis segmenta-
tion into sub-basins with different dip polarities (Moustafa 1976;
Moustafa 1993, 1997; Bosworth 1994; Patton et al. 1994;
Colleta et al. 1998; McClay et al. 1998; Bosworth & McClay
2001; Younes & McClay 2002). In the north the dominant rift
border fault occurs on the SW rift margin (Fig. 13). In the
central Gulf of Suez, the dominant rift faults occur on the NE
rift margin whereas further south they switch to the SW margin
(Fig. 13). Diffuse, poorly defined, accommodation zones
separate these different dip domains (Fig. 13). They are oblique
to the extension direction and are characterized by overlapping
fault arrays similar to the accommodation zones developed in the
analogue models (Fig. 7). Individual faults were initially strongly
segmented and offset across ‘soft-linked’ relay structures
(McClay & Khalil 1998; Khalil 1998). With increased extension
these faults became linked by breaching of relay structures with
the development of local ‘hard-linked’ transfer faults, thus
giving rise to the rhomboidal fault pattern of the rift system. No
cross-basin strike-slip transfer faults have been identified in the
Gulf of Suez.
Conclusions
The new analogue models presented in this paper characteristi-
cally produce linked rift border fault systems, the orientation of
which was controlled by the boundaries of the underlying ductile
basal detachment sheet. Synthetic relay ramps were formed
between overlapping, like-dipping extensional fault segments. In
the models different domains of like dipping faults were
separated by intra-basin accommodation zones, both parallel
(basement controlled) and oblique to the regional extension
direction. In cross section these intra-basin accommodation zones
consist of conjugate fault arrays formed by interlocking tips of
domino-style fault systems that dip in opposite directions. In the
physical models of oblique rifts, accommodation zones form
early in the evolution of the rift and persist throughout the life of
the rift. Basement offsets in the models generate intra-basin
accommodation zones that remain active throughout the model
run and control sub-basin development along the length of the
segmented rift. Accommodation zones in the models strongly
influence the ability of faults to propagate along-strike due to the
interlocking nature of the conjugate fault systems within them.
Anomalous fault displacement/length relationships are typically
found at the tips of these interlocking fault arrays.
In the models presented here, attention was focused on the early
stages of fault development. In all models, en echelon offset arrays
of small displacement faults became linked with increased
extension to produce longer fault systems. Fault growth continued
with along-strike propagation and linkage until either the rift
boundary or an accommodation zone was reached – these
prevented further fault growth. Continued extension increased
displacement on individual faults. With increased sedimentation
the small faults found in the early stages of extension did not
propagate up through the syn-kinematic layers.
The analogue models, their visualizations and the natural
examples show that the architectures of rifts and in particular
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1554 K. R. MC CLAY ET AL.

Fig. 13. Natural example. Gulf of Suez Rift, Egypt. Map of the principal extensional faults within the Cenozoic Gulf of Suez rift showing the major
sub-basins and changes in fault polarities across oblique, poorly defined accommodation zones (Galala-Abu Zenima AZ and the Morgan AZ) (after
Khalil & McClay 2001).

along-strike switches in basin polarities and dominant fault dips References

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The analogue model fault geometries of orthogonal, oblique and
offset rift systems make powerful templates for the interpretation
of rift fault systems in the subsurface, particularly where seismic
data is sparse or of poor quality due to imaging problems of
sections below salt layers.
Shell Expro UK are thanked for funding part of this work. Badley
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analyses. Critical reviews by C. Morley and M. Keep were greatly
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