For bucket capacities up to 35 m3, ramp gradients arc limited to 10 percent and up to 7.

5 percent for larger

machines. While walking, die transverse slope should not exceed 5 percent

The walking mechanism consists of an eccentric connected to the walking shoe through a connecting rod.
Oaring walking, dragline tub is partially lifted off die ground (70 to 85 percent of machine weight) and is dragged
forward with the help of traction provided by walking pads. A walking step generally takes about 40 seconds. The
machine body can be rotated on the tub to walk in any direction.

Kl FACTORS AFFECTING THE DRAGLINE PIT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Key parameters influencing mine design can be divided into three distinct groups: geologic, mechanical (equipment
specifications), and operational parameters.

2.2.1 Dragline Parameters

The important dragline parameters for design of dragline pit are given below and illustrated in Fig 2.
(i) Operating radius or reach
(ii) Tub diameter
(iii) Tail radius
(iv) boom angle
(v) Maximum height of dumping
(vi) maximum depth of digging.

2.2.2 Cut Parameters

The success of dragline operation is primarily dictated by its cut profile vis-a-vis equipment parameters. The
important cut profile parameters are:
 (i) bench height
(ii) cut width
(iii) strip length
(iv) cut length
(v) face slope

(vi) highwall slope and

(vii) toe clearances.

Bench Height: The limiting overburden bench height is equal to the maximum digging depth phis
maximum chop down height of dragline. The limiting height may again be restricted by maximum
drilling depth of drill machine (38m - 40m) and maximum height of dumping.
The maximum depth to which a dragline can theoretically dig is limited by its reach and
stability of digging face. Beyond a critical depth the cycle time increases due to greater hoist height.
However, beyond a depth of 40-42m, bucket starts floating causing difficulties in controlling its placement
on the face (Rai, l989).

Cut Width; Cut width is the measurement across the pit at right angles to the line of advance. A
minimum cut width is decided considering coal bench width required for shovel requirement for a
targeted production. The maximum cut width is designed such that the material from the Keycut can be
thrown in to the previous cut without need for rehandling. Normal cut width is in between two ranges. ‘

Wider cut widths are generally preferred due to following reasons:

1. The pit is safer since less work is done immediately under walls.

2. Mining equipment has more room to man oeuvre resulting in faster cycle tunes and safer

operation.

3. Scheduling is easier because each strip takes longer time to complete.

4. Dragline deadheading frequency is reduced.

5. Removal of partings within the pit is easier.

6. Higher production can be concentrated in a pit with a shorter strike length.

7. Loss of coal is less where ribs are left.

 Wider pits will increase the swing angle required for the dragline, thus adversely affecting
productivity. However, this adverse effect is mitigated due to the following factors :
1. A measure of work done by the dragline is the distance that the centre of gravity of the spoil
must be moved. Because of the slopes of the highwall and spoil, this is not a direct function of
the pit width. In a 30m high overburden, the centre of gravity must be moved 61.5m for a 30m
wide cut whereas die distance is 84.3m for a 60m wide cut. Moreover, die dragline itself has
only to dump the material slightly past the peak of growing pile and gravity will do the rest.
With wider pit the material will be moved a greater distance by gravity. (Seymour, 1979).

2. Digging the Keycut is the slowest operation in each block since bucket must be lifted to clear the
surface before the machine can start swinging. In a wider pit the Keycut material is a smaller
proportion of the total overburden.
3. While digging deeper overburden cycle time is largely governed by the hoisting time and the
swing angle becomes unimportant. The advantages realised due to wider cut width more than
compensate the disadvantages. Considering all the above factors the optimum pit width should
be selected.
Strip length: The dragline excavates parallel strips. Strip length is the distance between the starting and
ending point in a strip. It depends on the layout, strike length and is restricted by the natural boundaries
of the deposits.

if the strip length is very long, then total tonne-km for coal bench will be t high, but deadheading for
dragline will be less. The total time lost in deadheading will constitute a less percentage of total time.
In case of short strip length deadheading is more but total tonne-km is less. An optimum strip length
is so § chosen that productivity of dragline and total tonne-km are at optimum.

Cut length and Face Slope: Each strip is worked in a series of cut blocks. The length of each block is
the cut length. This is determined by the physical capabilities of the dragline and geology of the
deposit.

A longer cut length is more productive than a shorter one. Although the average bucket swing
angle increases, the average cycle time will decrease. Primary factors are that more bucket loads are
picked up farther away from fairlead and dragline spends less time walking per meter of overburden
removed. Lifting the full bucket near the fairlead adds several seconds to cycle time. In one instance,
increasing the cut length from 25m to 30m led to a 4 percent increase in the stripping rate. In another
case increasing die cut length from 16m to 40m increased the overall dragline stripping rate by 12.9
percent (from 2855 to 3224 m3/hr) (Chironis, 1978).

Face slope is the angle between the horizontal and dragline face. The maximum possible slope
that can be formed from limiting safe position is calculated from the dimensions of the dragline and the
safety margin required between the brow and the edge of the tub as shown in Fig.3 (Chatteijee , 1976).
 If ϴ is the angle of slope, the
V
tan ϴ=
H
where, V = Cab or fairlead height
H = Safety margin + tub radiu
ϴ = arctan (V/H).

If this angle is less than the maximum allowable, it is then opted as the maximum
possible slope; It is obvious that, too low a slope on die digging face could eventually
result in the dragline not being able to reach the toe of the face.

Highwall Slope: Highwall slope is the angle between the horizontal and the highwall face.
Stable slopes are essential for safe working of pits. Flatter slopes are safer.

Increased slope of highwall reflects in the reduced reach requirements and

rehandling quantities.

Toe Clearances: Distance between toe of the spoil dump and that of the coal bench kept
for drainage facility is the toe clearance. Generally a distance of 10.5 m is kept for this
purpose. This causes decrease in available spoil room capacity due to reduction in dump
heights. Wherever a sufficient dragline reach is not available to spoil material clear off the
coal bench, it is common for the toe of the new spoil pile to abut against coal seam. In
such a case, the triangular or trapezoidal coal wedge or rib is left unextracted against spoil
pile, often resulting in 5 to 10 percent loss of coal.

For safety of men and machinery, normally a distance of 5m is kept as berm

between toe of overburden bench and crest of coal bench. This also causes reduction in
dragline reach.
 1
5

2.2.3 Spoil Parameters

The important spoil parameters in the design of dragline operations are I swell
factor and angle of repose.

£ Swell Factor: It describes the increase in volume experienced by the spoil being
displaced from the bank to deposition on the spoil pile. This increase in volume
is the result of increased air pockets in the spoil produced by blasting and the
digging and dumping action of dragline.
V2
s= −1.0
V1
V\
| where, S = Swell factor ,
V2 = the volume occupied in the spoil
V1 = bank volume.
It is generally expressed as percentage. It varies from 25 percent to 40 percent
for different rocks.

Angle of Repose: The angle of repose of dry material may be taken as representative of
angle of internal friction of the material. The particle size and shape influence the angle of
repose. An angles of 37 degrees can be reasonably | assumed for normal spoil materials
(Khandelwal and Mozumdar, 1987).

23 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF DRAGLINES

Site conditions, mine plan and production goals dictate the machine
requirements. In preparing the detail dragline specifications the following must be
considered :
(i) Bucket size
(ii) Tub diameter in relation to bearing pressures (or track length and width)
 (iii) Maximum suspended load at required reach factor.
(iv) Maximum digging depth required.
(v) Maximum dumping height required.

2.3.1 Graphical Technique for Selection of Dragline Parameters

Dragline selection for simple sidecasting method is explained with a graphical

method. Range diagram is a cross-sectional view of the dragline operation (Fig. 4). This
particular cross section illustrates an operation with spoils just up to coal.

Reach Considerations

Calculation of the required reach for a given set of deposit and design
characteristics in a side casting situation (Fig. 4) can be accomplished using a reach and
operating radius equation (Hrebar, 1987).

H H (1+ s)
EDR= + … … … … … … … … … …..( 1)
tan A tan B
¿=EDR+ P … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ...(2)
Where,
EDR = Effective dragline reach (m)
H = Overburden height (m)
A = Overburden highwall angle (degrees)
S = Percent Swell/100
B = Spoil angle of repose (degrees)
W = Pit width (m)
OR = Operating radius (m)
C/L = Center Line of dragline rotation
P = Positioning or distance from C/L to highwall crest (P= OR - EDR)
 Bucket capacity

BC= [ Q × c × ( 1+ S ) ] / ( O × A ×U × BF ) . … …(3)

Where,
BC = bucket capacity, m3
Q = yearly stripping requirement m5
C = cycle time, seconds
S = Swell factor, percentage decimal fraction
O = scheduled yearly operating time, seconds
A = dragline availability, percentage decimal fraction
BF = bucket fill factor, percentage decanal fraction.
U = Utilization of Dragline, percentage decanal fraction

Maximum Usefulness Factor (MUF)

It is defined as the product of die nominal bucket size and die dumping reach of the
dragline (Rumfelt 1961X From the graphs drawn for gross machine weight vs. MUF for
standard models the machine with sufficient weight for required MUF is selected. With the
introduction of rehanding, chopdown, extended bench etc., the basic principles must be
enlarged, In the case of multiple draglines it is important to balance production between the
machines to ensure a continuous and orderly operation.

Since graphical method is a tedious process for various offices with different
parameters, computational methods have been developed for selection of draglines with
computer models (Hrebrar. 1990; Shanna and Singh. 1990; Etaniop and Jacobs. 1955).

Apart from the technical considerations the following factors influence the dragline

selection:
 • Standardisation of equipment
• Economic considerations
• Availability
• Government policies regarding foreign
exchange etc.

Being a highly capital - intensive equipment, a rigorous analysis is required for

proper selection.

2.4 METHODS OF ENTERING THE DRAGLINE PIT

The number and location of entries to a dragline pit depend on the length of the
pit along the strike direction of the deposit and the mode of transport. The main entry
types are -
• Single entry at one end
• Double entries at both the ends
• Central entry system
• Combination of the above.

For strike lengths up to 800 to 1000 meters a single entry may be sufficient on one
side of the pit" (Mishra, 1978). Beyond this length a central entry is preferable since it
minimises the distance of haul of mineral within the pit and hence reduces the cost of
mineral transportation. Double multiple faces simultaneously.

First a boxcut is developed and then a series of cuts are worked parallel to it. The
boxcut overburden is generally spoiled, on top of the highwall on the spoil side (and non-
coal bearing area). To make this cut the dragline is positioned at the end of the cut along
the axis of the boxcut and strips the overburden. The swing angles are generally about 60
degrees.
MM*
HH I
 ?
?
2.5 Methods OF SIDECASTING BY DRAGLINE

The draglines tire deployed to strip both single seams and multiple seams. The
overburden may be excavated either by a single dragline or two or more draglines in
tandem operation. The most commonly used sidecasting methods are-
(I) Simple sidecasting
(II) Extended bench method
(III) Pull-back method
(IV) Intermediate extended bench method
(V) Double pass method.
Pull-back and intermediate extended bench methods are used for dragline tandem
operation. Double pass method is deployed for multiple, seam stripping.

Simple Sideeasting : It is the most convenient mode of dragline operation. In this method,
the dragline operates from the top of the ground surface, strips down to coal and spoils
overburden into the previous cut from where the coal has been mined out. The stripping
consists of removing the ‘keycut’ first and stripping die final cut.

Keycut excavates wedge-shaped material along the highwall of new cut. The
minimum width at the bottom of Keycut is generally such as to allow the bucket to dig
bottom-most part of the Keycut easily. The width is approximately equal to bucket width
plus two meters. Some planners keep this width equal to twice the bucket width.

Keycut is the only way to establish a highwall slope as shown in Fig.5. A neat
highwall is affected by starting the cut with the dragline in line with the crest and moving it
as the cut gets deeper, ending with the machine in line with toe of the new highwall. By this
way the slope angle of the new highwall can be closely controlled (Seymour, 1979). It also
produces a third digging surface for the rest of the cut and excavating of the Keycut
initially helps to reduce the overall swing angles for the cut. Upon completion of Keycut
the dragline is repositioned to excavate remaining of the block as shown in Fig.6.

Advance Stripping (Chopdown Method): In this technique the dragline operates from a
bench below the ground surface. The dragline working from the bench for the present cut
excavates the advance bench for the next cut. This method is utilised where -
 ?
?
(i) The surface topography is gently rolling and some cutting and filling is necessary
for preparing a pad for dragline operation.

(ii) The immediate surface materials of insufficient bearing strength for stable dragline
operation and

(iii) The advance strip bench height is not ideal for productive development of shovel of
available capacity. The height of bench varies from 3-15m, the average being four
meters.

The action is a ‘chop’ in as much as the bucket teeth are dropped into the material
thus giving bucket penetration. The bucket is then dragged down and towards the
dragline. The swing angles during advance stripping range between 130 to 160 degrees.
The chopdown operation causes more bucket wear and teeth wear resulting in
higher maintenance time and cost. There is some production loss since dragline is
operated at wider swing angles (Chugh, 1979).

Extended Bench Method: This method is well adopted to deeper cover, where simple
sidecasting is not feasible. The other applications of extended bench ■ method are
multiple seam stripping, uncovering .highly dipping seams, I stabilisation of spoil bank
and easier cleaning of coal edge as the machine can sit in line with the toe of the old
highwall and reducing dilution.
 2
8

This method involves extending the edge of the highwall towards the spoil by
dumping overburden from the Keycut and/or advance strip bench (Chopdown). The
dragline operating from the extended bench can spoil overburden farther away and thus
extend the reach of the dragline resulting in the increase of available dumping room.
About 70 percent of this spoil in extended bench is rehandled in the next cut. An
important feature of this method is that as the pit width increases the percent rehandling
decreases.

Pull-Back Method: The pull-back method is adopted when the percentage rehandling is
prohibitive with extended bench method and the draglines are operated in tandem. In this
method dragline operating on highwall bench digs the overburden and casts it as far as
possible. But it is not able to spoil all overburden clear off coal. Consequently this material
rills over the coal seam at the toe of the spoil pile and this material must be rehandled later
to completely uncover the coal.

The rehandling is performed with another dragline sitting on a prepared pad on the
spoil itself. The spoil pile is dug back away from the highwall and spoiled behind the
dragline on the top of previous spoil. The pull-back machine is almost always operating at
or near a swing angle of 180 degrees.

In some cases to match the work load of both the machines to effectively operate as
a team, the machine on spoil pile partly excavates the highwall bench.

Intermediate Extended Bench Method: In tandem operation using an intermediate extended

bench, first dragline forms the bench for the second dragline at a lower level as it excavates
the upper portion of the overburden.

The second dragline follows the first by an appropriate distance in order to

eliminate machine interference and to allow time for dozer preparation of second dragline
working level. The second dragline is the one which actually exposes the coal. Dragline
swing angles range in the order of 90-120 degrees for both machines.

Double Pass Dragline Method (Horse Shoe Mining Method): In this, two draglines in
tandem operation carry out the double pass routine. In the first pass the overburden is
 2
9

dumped allowing the spoil pile to rise up the highwall face to a position between the two
seams. In the second pass the dragline on the spoil removes the parting and rehandles the
material to expose the lower seam. The coal extraction of upper seam follows the first pass
dragline excavation. The swing angles for the overburden above upper coal seam can be
kept to approximately 90 degrees. The parting can usually be spoiled at angles in the range
of 120 to 150 degrees.

2.6 METHODS OF OVERCASTING BY DRAGLINE

Dragline Overcasting Method

The application of technological complexes for overcasting overburden rock into
the worked-out space is very economical and is desirable in all cases where possible, in
particular, under the following conditions :

(i) when the deposit is horizontal or gently dipping (the angle of dip usually not more
than 10-12° or sometimes upto 15-17°);
(ii) with a low capacity of the deposit (upto 20-30m, in some cases upto 50- 60m) and of
the overburden (upto 40-45m and sometimes upto 60m).

These technological complexes are also employed for the working of the Putcrops
of dipping and steep deposits or narrow stretched and shallow-bedded lenses of the mineral.
In that case, direct (Simple) or multiple overcasting of the overburden rock onto the quarry
flanks is employed. An important condition for .correct calculation and construction of the
stripping and mining technological complexes is that the width of cut for the mineral
should be equal to, or be a multiple of the width of cut in the overburden, this is essential
for the uniform advance of the stripping and mining work lines. The method of simple
overcasting, in which all the overburden is excavated only once (from the massive) and is
placed directly into the waste dump, is principally possible with any height of stripping
bench. If the capacity of overburden in large, multiple overcasting is employed in which the
overburden from a stripping cut in volumes (sequence wise) is dumped into the waste dump
in the same sequence as above.

Merits and Demerits of Overcasting

1) Overcasting requires a level seam under a shallow overburden. Pit geometry is

 3
0

rigidly fixed by the geometry of the dragline.

2) During reclamation, overburden layers (fertile and toxic) can not be put in the
desired order by overcasting.
3) In overcasting, operation of the pit depends on just one machine. If that is out of
order, the pit stops.

4) In overcasting, initial investment may be high.

5) High bench poses danger in overcasting.

6) In overcasting, selective mining is not possible.

7) Coal wedge may have to be left unmined.

8) In overcasting, there is only one face in the overburden, rate of overburden removal
can’t be increased.
9) Possibilities of blending is less, since there is only one coal face in overcasting
method.
10) In overcasting, the mining of even two seam close together is not easy.
11) A separate set of equipment is to be employed for the removal of the top soil.
12) Where overcasting is feasible, transport cost is saved (it may be 18-30% of the
mining cost).

2.7 PRODUCTIVITY OF DRAGLINES

The productivity of draglines depends on the following factors like

• Planning and layout of dragline pit.
• Muckpile profile and fragmentation.
• Stripping methods.
• Innovations in dragline design to reduce weight (boom, bucket, etc.) (Jonson, 1974).

In a particular survey conducted in U.S.A. it was claimed that planning affected dragline
productivity to the extent of 50 to 60 percent (Goodman and Page, 1989).

The muckpile profile after blasting decides the extent of levelling (by dozers or by
dragline) height of levelled bench and rehandling to some extent. Muckpile profile depends
 3
1

on a number of factors, there are:

• Rock characteristics,
• Explosive charge and their arrangement with respect to bench slope, and
• Firing sequence.

Well fragmented muckpile also increases the bucket fill factor.

Suitable stripping methods coupled with blast casting improves dragline

productivity significantly (Tracy, 1985; Chironis, 1988; Pilshaw, 1987; Dupree. 1987). These
factors also affect dragline productivity by influencing the swing angle and cycle of
operation

2.8 OPERATING CYCLE OF DRAGLINE

The operating cycle of the dragline consists of five basic steps :

1. The empty bucket is positioned, ready to be filled.

2. The bucket is dragged toward the dragline to fill it

3. The filled bucket is simultaneously hoisted and swing over to the spoil pile.
If the swing motion must be slowed to permit hoisting, the dragline is said to be hoist
critical. When hoisting to the dump position is completed before the boom is in position
to dump, the dragline is said to be swing critical.

4. The material is dumped on the spoil.

5. The bucket is swing back to the cut while simultaneously being lowered and retrieved to the
digging position.
Efficient dragline operation is realized by minimizing the time required to position, drag
and dump while synchronizing the swing and hoisting motions. Synchronization of hoisting and
swinging is dependent on the time the boom is in motion (Philip G. Morey, 1990).

The time for each operational element is a function of machine capacity, material
conditions, swing angles and overburden digging depth. Of these dements, there is not much
variation in swinging out and swinging back time and is almost constant for a given dragline
position. Dumping time is also constant with very little variation, in time, but it is the digging
 3
2

operation that has maximum variation from one cycle to another (Dhar and Reddy. 1988).

2.9. OPERATION OF DRAGLINES IN TANDEM

With increasing stripping ratios planned in our opencast mines, one of the most important
pieces of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery to be used will be the dragline for overburden stripping.
The efficiency and high productivity of the