Limit equilibrium analysis

•In the LEM, for the analysis of stability of a

slope, incipient failure along a potential slip
surface is assumed and the material above
the slip surface is considered to be a free
body .A potential slip surface may be –
(I) Planer discontinuity surface.
(II) Surface formed by intersection of two
planer discontinuities (wedge failure).
(III) A curved surface in case of rotational
sliding.
• Once the potential slip surface is assumed,
equation concerning force equilibrium or
moment equilibrium of the potential sliding
mass are formulated .The solution of these
equation provide the estimate of (i) the
total force available to resist sliding and
(ii) the total force tending to induce sliding
of the free body, for which the stability
condition of slope can be ascertained.
• To ascertain the stability condition of a
slope quantitatively under a state other
than that of limiting equilibrium, some
form of index is required. The most
commonly used index is factor of safety of
the slope.
Limitation of LEM
• (1) A mode of failure must be assumed
before a stability analysis can be carried
out and this mean a judgment has to
mode on the position and properties of the
surface or surface upon which sliding will
take place.
• (2) Limit equilibrium calculation are
restricted only to the surface upon which
sliding takes place and do not include any
consideration of behavior of the mass of
mass of material resting on this surface.
• 3) In calculating the FS by means of LEM,
incipient failure is assumed which is
justified only for a real factor of safety of
one, that is for the condition of limiting
equilibrium .yet these method s are used
in problem in which the calculated Fs is not
equal to one.
• (4) In almost all LEM, the FS is considered
or implied to be constant all along the
failure surface.
• (5) The choice of the method of analysis
may have an influence on the calculated
factor of safety.
• (6) The phenomenon of progressive failure
of the surface and the changing stress
distribution on the failure surface are not
taken into account in analysis.
• (7) Time dependent slope failure resulting
from creep or weathering process cannot
be incorporated directly in to a limit
equilibrium analysis.
Popularity of LEM
• How ever, in spite of the above limitation
s, this concept is most popular due to fact-
• (I) The limit equilibrium approach is much
simpler in comparison to other
approaches.
• (ii) The result obtained by LEM shows
remarkable close agreement with those
obtained by the methods based on
different numerical technique such as FEM,
DEM
Limit equilibrium analysis
• For all shear type failures, the rock can be assumed to
be a Mohr–Coulomb material in which the shear strength
is expressed in terms of the cohesion c and friction angle
φ. For a sliding surface on which there is an effective
normal stress σ acting, the shear strength τ developed
on this surface is given by:
τ = c + σ tan φ
• Equation is expressed as a straight line on a normal
stress—shear stress plot in which the cohesion is defined
by the intercept on the shear stress axis, and the friction
angle is defined by the slope of the line. The effective
normal stress is the difference between the stress due to
the weight of the rock lying above the sliding plane and
the uplift due to any water pressure acting on this
surface.
• Figure shows a slope containing a continuous joint
dipping out of the face and forming a sliding block.
Calculation of the factor of safety for the block shown
in Figure involves the resolution of the force acting on
the sliding surface into components acting
perpendicular and parallel to this surface. That is, if
the dip of the sliding surface is ψp, its area is A, and
the weight of the block lying above the sliding surface
is W, then the normal and shear stresses on the
sliding plane are
Shear strength of discontinuity
• In analyzing the stability of a rock
slope, the most important factor to
be considered is the geometry of the
rock mass behind the face.
• A f t e r g e o l o g y, t h e n e x t m o s t
important factor governing stability
is the shear strength of the potential
sliding surface.
• The sliding surface in a slope may consist of a single
plane continuous over the full area of the surface, or
a complex surface made up of both discontinuities
and fractures through intact rock.
• Determination of reliable shear strength values is a
critical part of slope design because, as will be
shown in later chapters, small changes in shear
strength can result in significant changes in the safe
height or angle of a slope.
• The choice of appropriate shear strength values
depends not only on the availability of test data, but
also on a careful interpretation of these data in light
of the behavior of the rock mass that makes up the
full-scale slope.
Definition of cohesion and friction

• In rock slope design, rock is assumed to be a

Coulomb material in which the shear strength of the
sliding surface is expressed in terms of the cohesion
(c) and the friction angle (φ).
• Assume a number of test samples were cut from a
block of rock containing a smooth, planar
discontinuity. Furthermore, the discontinuity
contains a cemented infilling material such that a
tensile force would have to be applied to the two
halves of the sample in order to separate them.
• Each sample is subjected to a force at right
angles to the discontinuity surface (normal
stress, σ), and a force is applied in the
direction parallel to the discontinuity
(shear stress, τ) while the shear
displacement (δs) is measured.
• For a test carried out at a constant normal
stress, a typical plot of the shear stress
against the shear displacement is shown in
Figure.
Plane failure
• A plane failure is a comparatively rare sight in
rock slopes because it is only occasionally that
all the geometric conditions required to produce
such a failure occur in an actual slope.
• Figure shows a typical plane failure in a rock
slope where a block of rock has slid on a single
plane dipping out of the face. In order for this
ty p e o f f a i l u r e t o o c c u r, t h e f o l l o w i n g
geometrical conditions must be satisfied.
• (a) The plane on which sliding occurs must strike
parallel or nearly parallel (within approximately ±20◦) to
the slope face.
• (b) The sliding plane must “daylight” in the slope face,
which means that the dip of the plane must be less than
the dip of the slope face, that is, ψp < ψf .
• (c) The dip of the sliding plane must be greater than the
angle of friction of this plane, thatis, ψp > φ.
• (d) The upper end of the sliding surface either intersects
the upper slope, or terminates in a tension crack.
• (e) Release surfaces that provide negligible resistance to
sliding must be present in the rock mass to define the
lateral boundaries of the slide. Alternatively, failure can
occur on a sliding plane passing through the convex
“nose” of a slope.
•The slope geometries and ground water
conditions considered in this analysis are
defined in Figure 6.3, which shows two
geometries as follows:
(a) Slope without any tension crack
(b) slopes having a tension crack in the
upper surface; and
(c) slopes with a tension crack in the face.
•The following assumptions are made in plane failure
analysis:
(a) Both sliding surface and tension crack strike
parallel to the slope.
(b) The tension crack is vertical and is filled with
water to a depth zw.
(c) Water enters the sliding surface along the base of
the tension crack and seeps alongthe sliding surface,
escaping at atmospheric pressure where the sliding
surface daylights in the slope face. The pressure
distributions induced by the presence of water in the
tension crack and along the sliding surface.
• The forces W (the weight of the sliding
block), U (uplift force due to water pressure
on the sliding surface) and V (force due to
water pressure in the tension crack) all act
through the centroid of the sliding mass. In
other words, it is assumed that there are no
moments that would tend to cause rotation
of the block, and hence failure is by sliding
only.
• The shear strength τ of the sliding surface
is defined by cohesion c and friction angle
φ that are related by the equation:
τ = c + σ tan φ,
(f) It is assumed that release surfaces are present so
that there is no resistance to sliding at the lateral
boundaries of the failing rock mass.
(g) In analyzing two-dimensional slope problems, it is
usual to consider a slice of unit thickness taken at
right angles to the slope face. This means that on a
vertical section through the slope, the area of the
sliding surface can be represented by the length of
the surface, and the volume of the sliding block is
represented by the cross-section area of the block.
•The factor of safety for plane failure is calculated by
resolving all forces acting on the slope into
components parallel and normal to the sliding plane.
The vector sum of the shear forces, S acting down
the plane is termed the driving force. The product of
the total normal forces, N and the tangent of the
friction angle φ, plus the cohesive force is termed the
resisting force. The factor of safety FS of the sliding
block is the ratio of the resisting forces tothe driving
forces, and is calculated as follows:
FS = Resisting force/Driving force
• When it has been established that a slope is
potentially Unstable, reinforcement may be an
effective method of improving the factor of safety.
Methods of reinforcement include the installation
of tensioned anchors or fully grouted, untensioned
dowels, or the construction of a toe buttress.
• A tensioned anchor installation involves drilling a
hole extending below the sliding plane, installing a
rock bolt or strand cable that is bonded in to the
stable portion of the slope, and then tensioning
the anchor against the face.
• The tension in the anchor T modifies
the normal and shear forces acting
on the sliding plane, and the factor
of safety of the anchored slope is
given by:
Question
• The geometry of the slope is illustrated in given Figure
which shows a 60 m high slope with three 20 m high
benches. The overall slope angle is 50° and the
individual bench faces are inclined at 70° to the
horizontal. An exfoliation joint surface dips at 35° and
undercuts the slope as shown in the figure. The slope
face strikes parallel to the underlying exfoliation
surface. It is impossible to determine whether or not
tension cracks is present and hence it is desired to
carry out two sets of analyses - one with and one
without tension cracks.
Factor of Safety calculation for a slope
with no tension crack
Factor of Safety calculation for a slope
with a water-filled tension crack
Circular failure
• In the previous two types of failures , it has been
assumed that the failure of rock slopes is controlled
by geological features such as bedding planes and
joints that divide the rock into a discontinuous
mass. Under these conditions, one or more of the
discontinuities normally defines the slide surface.
• However, in the case of a closely fractured or highly
weathered rock, a strongly defined structural
pattern no longer exists, and the slide surface is
free to find the path of least resistance through the
slope.
• Observations of slope failures in
these materials suggest that this
slide surface generally takes the
form of a circle, and most stability
theories are based upon this
observation.
• Figure shows a typical circular
failure in a highly weathered rock
slope above a highway.
• The conditions under which circular failure will occur
arise when the individual particles in a soil or rock
mass are very small compared with the size of the
slope. Hence, broken rock in a fill will tend to
behave as a “soil” and fail in a circular mode when
the slope dimensions are substantially greater than
the dimensions of the rock fragments.
• Similarly, soil consisting of sand, silt and smaller
particle sizes will exhibit circular slide surfaces, even
in slopes only a few meters in height.
• Highly altered and weathered rocks, as well as rock
with closely spaced, randomly oriented
discontinuities such as some rapidly cooled basalts,
will also tend to fail in this manner. It is appropriate
to design slopes in these materials on the
assumption that a circular failure process will
develop.
Shape of slide surface
• The actual shape of the “circular”
slide surface is influenced by the
geological conditions in the slope. For
example, in a homogenous weak or
weathered rock mass, or a rock fill,
the failure is likely to form as a
s h a l l o w, l a r g e ra d i u s s u r f a c e
extending from a tension crack close
behind the crest to the toe of the
slope. (Figure (a)).
 Types of circular failure
• Circular failure is classified in three types depending on the area that
is affected by the failure surface. They are:-
• (a) Slope failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface
meets the slope above the toe of the slope. This happens when the
slope angle is very high and the soil close to the toe posses the high
strength.
• (b) Toe failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface
meets the slope at the toe.
• (c) Base failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the failure passes
below the toe and in to base of the slope. This happens when the
slope angle is low and the soil below the base is softer and more
plastic than the soil above the base.
Stability Analysis
• For each combination of slope parameters
there will be a slide surface for which the
factor of safety is a minimum—this is
usually termed the “critical surface.” The
procedure to find the critical surface is to
run a large number of analyses in which
the center co-ordinates and the radius of
the circle are varied until the surface with
the lowest factor of safety is found. This is
an essential part of circular slope stability
analysis.
• The stability analysis of circular failure is carried out
using the limit equilibrium procedure similar to that
described for plane and wedge failures.
• This procedure involves comparing the available
shear strength along the sliding surface with the
force required to maintain the slope in equilibrium.
• The application of this procedure to circular failures
involves division of the slope into a series of slices
that are usually vertical, but maybe inclined to
coincide with certain geological features. The base
of each slice is inclined at angle ψb and has an area
A. In the simplest case, the forces acting on the
base of each slice are the shear resistance S due to
the shear strength of the rock (cohesion c; friction
angle φ), and forces E (dip angle ψ; height h above
base) acting on the sides of the slice
• The factor of safety of the circular failure
based on limit equilibrium analysis is defined
as and rearranging this equation, we have




• The method of solution for the factor of
safety is to use an iterative process in which
an initial estimate is made for FS, and this is
refined with each iteration.
circular failure charts
• Circular failure charts are used to determine rapidly
the factor of safety of circular failures.
• These charts have been developed by running many
thousands of circular analyses from which a number
of dimensionless parameters were derived that
relate the factor of safety to the material unit
weight, friction angle and cohesion, and the slope
height and face angle.
• It has been found that these charts give a reliable
estimate for the factor of safety, provided that the
conditions in the slope meet the assumptions used
in developing the charts.
• Use of the stability charts presented here
requires that the conditions in the slope
meet the following assumptions:
(a)The materi al formi ng the sl ope i s
homogeneous, with uniform shear strength
properties along the slide surface.
(b) The shear strength τ of the material is
characterized by cohesion: c and a friction
angle φ, that are related by the equation τ
=c + σ tan φ
(c) Failure occurs on a circular slide surface,
which passes through the toe of the slope.
(d) A vertical tension crack occurs in the
upper surface or in the face of the slope.
(e) The locations of the tension crack and of
the slide surface are such that the factor of
safety of the slope is a minimum for the
slope geometry and ground water conditions
considered.
(f) Ground water conditions vary from a dry
slope to a fully saturated slope under heavy
recharge; these conditions are defined in
Figure.
(g) Circular failure charts are optimized for a
rock mass density of 18.9 kN/m3. Densities
higher than this give high factors of safety,
densities lower than this give low factors of
safety.
Use of the circular failure charts
• In order to use the charts to determine the
factor of safety of a slope, the steps
outlined here should be followed.
• Step 1: Decide upon the ground water
conditions which are believed to exist in
the slope and choose the chart which is
closest to these conditions.
• Step 2: Select rock strength parameters
applicable to the material forming the
slope.
Step 3: Calculate the value of the
dimensionless ratio c/(γ H tan φ) and find
this value on the outer circular scale of the
chart.
Step 4: Follow the radial line from the value
found in step 3 to its intersection with the
curve which corresponds to the slope angle.
Step 5: Find the corresponding value of tan
φ/FS or c/(γ H FS), depending upon which is
more convenient, and calculate the factor of
safety.
 Sequence of steps involved in using circular

failure charts to find the factor of safety of a slope.
Circular failure chart number 1—fully drained slope.
Circular failure chart number 2—ground water condition 2
Circular failure chart number 3—ground water condition 3
Circular failure chart number 4—ground water condition 4
Circular failure chart number 5—fully saturated slope
Example of using circular failure charts

• A 15.2-m high cut with a face angle

of 40◦ is to be excavated in
overburden soil with a density γ =
15.7 kN/m3, a cohesion of 38 kPa
and a friction angle of 30◦. Find the
factor of safety of the slope,
assuming that there is a surface
water source 61m behind the toe of
the slope.
• The ground water conditions
indicate the use of chart number 3
(61/15.2 = 4).
• The value of c/(γ H tan φ) = 0.28
and the corresponding value of tan
φ/FS, for a 40◦ slope, is 0.32.
Hence, the factor of safety of the
slope of 1.80.
• The following are examples of the factors
that will influence the selection of
appropriate stabilization methods.
• Where the slope is steep and the toe is
close to the highway or railway, there will
be no space to excavate a catch ditch or
construct a barrier. Therefore, alternative
stabilization measures may be to remove
loose rock, secure it in place with bolts, or
to drape mesh on the slope.
• If the source of the rock falls is a zone of
boulders in an erodible soil matrix that
cannot be stabilized by bolting of
effectively scaled, then a combination
ditch–containment structure may be more
suitable. If there is limited space at the toe
of the slope for this work, there may be no
alternative but to relocate or realign the
facility.
Stabilization by rock reinforcement

1. Shear Keys:
• Reinforced shear keys provide support for
blocks of rock up to about a meter thick, as
well as zones of loose and weathered rock
at the crest of the slope.
• Shear keys comprise lengths of reinforcing
steel about 25–32mm diameter and about
1000mm long fully grouted into holes
about 500–750mm deep drilled into stable
rock.
• Shear keys on a much larger scale have
been used for the stabilization of dam
foundations and abutments.
• The support provided by the shear
key is equal to the shear strength of
the vertical steel bars, and possibly
the cohesion of the rock-concrete
surface.
• The shear key acts as a resisting
force in the limit equilibrium
equations and if the magnitude of
this shear force is Rk, then the
factor of safety for a block with
weight W is
2. Rock anchors:
• Rock anchors, as shown in Figure, items 2
and 3, are to prevent sliding of blocks or
wedges of rock on discontinuities dipping
out of the face.
• The primary function of rock anchors is to
modify the normal and shear forces acting
on the sliding planes.
• The term “rock anchor” refers to both rigid
bars and flexible cables
3. Reaction wall:
• In above Figure, item 3 shows an example
where there is potential for a sliding type
failure in closely fractured rock. If tensioned
rock bolts are used to support this portion of
the slope, the fractured rock may degrade
and ravel from under the reaction plates of
the anchors, and eventually the tension in
the bolts will be lost.
• In these circumstances, a reinforced
concrete wall can be constructed to cover
the area of fractured rock, and then the
holes for the rock anchors can be drilled
through sleeves in the wall.
• Finally, the anchors are installed and
tensioned against the face of the wall. The
wall acts as both a protection against
raveling of the rock, and a large reaction
plate for the rock anchors.
4. Shotcrete:
• Shotcrete is a pneumatically applied, fine aggregate
mortar that is usually placed in a 50–100mm layer,
and is often reinforced for improved tensile and
shear strength
• Zones and beds of closely fractured or degradable
rock may be protected by applying a layer of
shotcrete to the rock face.
• However, shotcrete provides little support against
sliding for the overall slope; its primary function is
surface protection.
• Another component of a shotcrete installation is the
provision of drain holes to prevent build-up of water
pressures behind the face.
5. Reinforcement:
• For permanent applications, shotcrete
should be reinforced to reduce the risk of
cracking and spalling.
• The two common methods of reinforcing
a r e w e l d e d -w i r e m e s h , o r s t e e l o r
polypropylene fibers.
• Welded-wire mesh is fabricated from light
gauge (3.5mmdiameter) wire on 100mm
centers, and is attached to the rock face on
about 1–2m centers with steel pins,
complete with washers and nuts, grouted
into the rock face.
• An alternative to mesh reinforcement is to
use steel or polypropylene fibers that are a
component of the shotcrete mix and form
a reinforcement mat throughout the
shotcrete layer.
• The steel fibers are manufactured from
high strength carbon steel with a length of
30–38mm and diameter of 0.5 mm.
• The principal function of fibers is to
significantly increase the shear, tensile and
postcrack strengths of the shotcrete
compared to non-reinforced shotcrete.
Buttresses
• Where a rock fall or weathering has
formed a cavity in the slope face, it
may be necessary to construct a
concrete buttress in the cavity to
prevent further falls.
• The buttress fulfills two functions:
first, to retain and protect areas of
weak rock, and second, to support
the overhang.
Drainage
• Water pressure reduces the stability of
slops by increasing the disturbing force
tending to induce sliding and decreasing
the frictional force resisting sliding.
However the water force involve are
relatively small but they act over large
area and hence the water forces can be
very large since the water pressure
reduces the stability of slopes. It follow
that drainage will increase the stability of
slope.
• The various methods are
• Prevent surface water from entering the
slope through open tension cracks and
fissures.
• Reduce water pressure around potential
failure surface by selective sub surface
drainage.
• Position the drainage so that only the
water in the immediate vicinity of the
slope is drained.
• Horizontal drain holes drilled into the slope
face can be very effective in reducing
water pressure near the base of a
suspected tension crack or along a
potential failure surface. The spacing and
positioning of these holes depends upon
t h e s l o p e g e o m e t r y a n d s t r u c t u ra l
discontinuity in the rock mass.
• C o l l e c t o r d ra i n s t o l e a d t h e wa t e r
discharge from horizontal drain are
important otherwise this water will simply
find its way into the next bench down.
• Vertical drainage well drilled from
slope surface and filted with down
hole pump can be effective in slope
drainage and the can be in
operation before slope excavated.
• Drainage galleries with or without
fans of radial holes are probably
means of such surface drainage, but
it is most expensive.
Stabilization by rock removal
• Stabilization of rock slopes can be
accomplished by the removal of
potentially unstable rock.
• Typical removal methods includes

• resloping zones of unstable rock;

• trim blasting of overhangs;
• scaling of individual blocks of rock.
• In general, rock removal is a preferred
method of stabilization because the work
will eliminate the hazard, and no future
maintenance will be required. However
rock removal is a preferred method of
stabilization because the work will
eliminate the hazard, and no future
maintenance will be required.
• Rock removal should only be used where it
is certain that the new face will be stable,
and there is no risk of undermining the
upper part of the slope.
• Removal of loose rock on the face of a
slope is not effective where the rock is
highly degradable, such as shale. In these
circumstances, exposure of a new face will
just start a new cycle of weathering and
instability.
Resloping and unloading:
• Where overburden or weathered rock occurs in the
upper portion of a cut, it is often necessary to cut
this material at an angle flatter than the more
competent rock below
Trimming:
• Failure or weathering of a rock slope may form an
overhang on the face. In these circumstances,
removal of the overhang by trim blasting (Controlled
blasting) may be the most appropriate stabilization
measure.
Scaling:
• Scaling describes the removal of
loose rock, soil and vegetation on the
face of a slope using hand tools such
as scaling bars, shovels and chain
saws.
Ditches
• Catch ditches at the toe of slopes
are often a cost effective means of
stopping rock falls, provided there is
adequate space at the toe of the
slope.
• The required dimensions of the
ditch, as defined by the depth and
width, are related to the height and
face angle of the slope.
• Preliminary collection of geological data
from air photos, surface mapping and
borehole cores.
• Preliminary analysis of geological data to
establish major geological patterns.
Examination of these patters in relation to
proposed pit slopes to assess probability
of slides developing.
• Slopes in which no unfavorable
discontinuities exist or slopes in which
failure would not matter identified. No
further stability analysis of these slopes is
required. Slope angles determined from
operational consideration.
• Slopes in which unfavorable discontinuities
exist identified and those slopes in which
failure would be critical at any stage of
mining operation marked for detailed study.
1. Detailed geological investigation of
surface mapping and drill core logging.
Special drilling or adits outside ore body
may be required.
2. Shear testing of discontinuity surfaces –
particularly if clay covered or slickensided.
3. Installation of piezometers in drill holes to
establish ground water patterns and
pressure levels during mining.
• Reanalyzes critical slope areas on basis of
detailed information from above steps using
LEM techniques for circular, plane or wedge
failure slides. Examine possibility of other
types of failure induced by weathering,
toppling or damage due to blasting
• Examine slopes in which risk of failure is
high in terms of open pit design. Options
are.
a). Flattens slopes
b). Stabilize slopes by drainage, rock bolts or
shotcreting.
c). Accept risk of failure and implement
monitoring program.
• Stabilization of slopes by drainage or
reinforcement feasible if Cost saving
resulting from steepening of slopes
exceeds cost of Designing and constructing
stabilization system.
• Accepting risk of failure on basis of ability
to predict and accommodate slide without
endangering men and equipment.
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR SLOPE
STABILITY ANALYSIS

• Geological Data:
1. Regional geological structural pattern of
the area from air photo interpretation
2. Surface mapping of exposed structures
3. Geological discontinuities:
(a) Orientation and position in space and in
relation to pit slope.
(b) Continuity of discontinuity
(c) I n t e n s i t y, f r e q u e n c y & s p a c i n g o f
discontinuity
(d) Width and opening of discontinuities
• Gauge and infilling material
• Shear strength of intact rock
between discontinuities
• Ground water and hydrology
• Study of natural profiles
• Regional stresses
• Blasting Damage