Importance of the subject

• Open pit mining is a very cost-effective mining

method allowing a high grade of mechanization and
large production volumes. It is therefore possible to
mine mineral deposits of a very low grade which
could not be mined economically using underground
methods.
• Mining depths in open pits have increased steadily
during the last decades, and open pits with mining
depths of up to and exceeding 500 meters are not
unusual.
• Design of open pit slope angles is becoming more
and more important as the mining depths of open
pits continuously increase. Small changes in the
overall pit slope angle have large consequences on
the overall economy of the mining operation.
• A major complication with increasing mining depths
is the increased risk of large scale stability
problems. Large scale failure could potentially
involve the entire height of the final pit slope.
• Maintaining pit slope angles that are as steep as
possible is of vital importance to the reduction of
stripping (mining of waste rock), which will in turn
have direct consequences on the economy of the
mining operation. Design of the final pit limit is thus
governed not only by the ore grade distribution and
the production costs, but also by the overall rock
mass strength and stability.
• In open pit mining, mineral deposits are mined from the
ground surface and downward. Consequently, pit slopes
are formed as the ore is being extracted. It is seldom,
not to say never, possible to maintain stable vertical
slopes, or pit walls, of substantial height even in very
hard and strong rock. The pit slopes must thus be
inclined at some angle to prevent failure of the rock
mass. This angle is governed by the geomechanical
conditions at the specific mine and represent an upper
bound to the overall slope angle.
• The actual slope angles used in the mine depend upon
(i) the presence of haulage roads, or ramps, necessary
for the transportation of the blasted ore from the pit, (ii)
p o s s i b l e b l a s t d a m a g e , ( i i i ) o r e g ra d e s , a n d
(iv)economical constraints
• BENCH SLOPE: It is defined as the
angle with the horizontal of the line to
the crest.
• OVER ALL PIT SLOPE: The angle
with horizontal of the line connecting
the lowest most toe to the upper most
crest is defined as overall pit slope.
Relationships between benches and
overall slope angle
VARIOUS TYPES OF SLOPE
• The various types of slopes which
are encountered during the life of
an opencast mine are as follows:
i) High wall slope.
ii) Back fill slope.
iii) Waste dump slope.
• (i) High wall slope- The slope is formed by
cutting benches. Slope is up of in-situ
material also known as bank slope and in
this case in situ cohesion has not been
disturbed and geological discontinuities are
present.
• (ii) Waste dump slope-
Where the slope material made up of
broken substances for which in-situ
cohesion has been destroyed and it will
form a slope all-round.
• (iii) Back fill slope-
Combination of the high wall & waste
dump slope i.e. waste dump with high wall
in three sides.
Influence of Pit slope on Open pit
Mine Economics

• The geometry, mineralogy and depth of an

ore body are fixed by nature but for any
given set of geo-mining conditions and
techno-economic environment, the
planning engineer must determine the
slope angle precisely to establish the
geometric limits of the pit and profitability
of mine.
• The selection of a slope angle is critical
decision affecting accumulated cash flow
and overall economics of a mining project.
Influence of Pit slope on Open pit
Mine Economics (contd.)

• Stable slopes are essential for uninterrupted ore

production while steep slopes desirable to reduce
Stripping Ratio (S.R.) and to extend the life and to
improve economics of open pit operation. Therefore
a compromise must be achieved in light of these
two conflicting requirement.
• The effect of slope angle on economics of open pit
operation becomes more pronounce with increase in
depth of mine working.
• It is not only the final pit slope that should be
designed as steep as possible but is also equally
important to make steepest possible operating
slopes so long as they remain stable and adequate
working space can be maintained.
• Normally, the interim, or working, slope will be much
flatter than the ultimate pit slope. Increasing the angle
of the working slope can be advantageous from an
economical standpoint since this will increase early
revenues, i.e., delay mining of waste rock . Interim
slopes could also be argued to be less important
financially because they can be located solely in ore,
and may not be as high as the ultimate slopes. In many
cases, it may be worthwhile to conduct an optimization
study also of the interim slopes , but establishing the
mining sequence in an open pit is in itself a formidable
task.
• A major reason for keeping flatter working slope
angles flatter than those planned for the final slopes is
that the risk of failure is substantially reduced. Massive
slope failures at an early stage of mining could prove
disastrous for the entire operation.
• Another aspect of the pit geometry which needs to be
taken into account is the necessary operating width of
the pit. Using the existing equipment in a certain mine,
there is a minimum operating width for efficient ore
extraction.
Influence of Pit slope on Open pit
Mine Economics (contd.)

• Another important aspect of steep stable slopes is

effects on the cost of management of an
environment to get the same amount of ore from a
deposit. The maintenance of steeper slopes will
result into excavation of less quantity of waste
volume causing less land area to be effected, both
by direct excavation and area required for formation
of outside dump.
• This will reduce the cost of abatement measures to
be taken against environment degradation during
the phases of development and active mine as well
as post mining phase further more availability of
land for mining and waste disposal are becoming
more and more restricted
 • Reduction in waste
removal =
(H2/2TanӨ1 -H2/2TanӨ2)

Ө1
Pit depth, Steepened Reduction Saving in Saving in
m the slope in quantity cost of cost of waste
from of waste waste removal per
removal removal Km length of
(m3/m (Let Rs. 50/ slope face
length of m3 )
slope)
100m 30o-35o 1520 Rs. 75100 Rs. 7.51
Crores

100m 35o-40o 1182 Rs. 59100 Rs. 5.91

Crores

100m 40o-45o 959 Rs. 47950 Rs. 4.79

Crores

200 m 30o-35o 6080 Rs. 304000 Rs. 30.40

Crores
Important terms
• Slope failure in an open pit mine may be defined as that
rate of displacement of the rock mass surrounding the
open pit which would render the recovery of ore
uneconomic if the pit was being actively mined". This
definition emphasizes the rate of displacement and the
time of failure as design considerations for an open pit
slope.
• Failure occurs when the loads or stresses acting on the
rock material (intact rock or discontinuity) exceed the
strength (compressive or tensile) of the rock.
• Failure mode is a macroscopic description of the manner
in which failure occurs, for example the shape and
appearance of the resulting failure surface. The failure
mode can be regarded as a geometric description of the
failure development.
• Failure mechanism is a description of
the physical process that takes place
in the rock mass as the load increases
and failure initiates and propagates
through the rock.
• Fa i l u r e k i n e m a t i c s i s s i m p l y a
geometrical description of the motion
or movements which results from a
failure.
Factors Influencing Slope Stability
• The ultimate objective of the design process is to
develop a pit which will yield the most attractive
investment opportunity. For the purpose, selected slope
must optimize the economy of the pit commensurate
with the competence of the rock to remain stable over a
desired period. In the selection of optimum slope for an
open pit, a careful assessment of site specific
geotechnical parameters is required as these parameter
greatly influence the stability of slope
The important geotechnical parameters influencing the
stability of slope are
• Discontinuity in Rock mass
• Shear Strength of Rock.
• Ground Water Condition.
• Short term Stress Field.
 Role of Discontinuity Planes
• Discontinuities or weakness planes are those
structural features which separate intact rock blocks
with in rock mass.
• In competent rocks, the significant physical and
mechanical property of the rock mass are function
of the altitude, geometry and spatial distribution of
joint sets and other discontinuity planes.
• In relation to any stability problem in rock, of all the
property of the discontinuity planes, the orientation
with respect to the slope face is most important.
• The orientation and continuation of discontinuity
also influence ground water flow pattern
significantly
Shear Strength
• If the slope is on weak or soft rocks or in
very high slopes where the failure process
involves shearing of intact rock, the slope
stability is largely controlled by the shear
strength characteristic of the intact rock.
• If the slope is in a competent rock having
well defined discontinuity plane, then the
discontinuity planes present in the rock
mass, their characteristics such as
aperture, status of infilling material,
surface roughness, wall strength etc play a
dominating role in controlling the shear
strength along this plane.
Effect of Ground Water
• A rock material exhibits two distinct types of
permeability – primary permeability due to
water flow through the intact rock material
and secondary permeability due to water
flow through the open joints and fissures
present in the rock.
• Permeability of intact rock is generally very
low and hence a low discharge is expected.
On the other hand permeability of jointed
rock will be higher as these discontinuity
acts as channels for water flow.
• In terms of stability in hard rocks, water
pressure rather then moisture content is of
greater importance. The presence of
volume of water at high pressure, trapped
with in the rock mass due to erosion of
fissure infilling and subsequent sitting in
drainage channels by ground water flow, is
more important then a large volume of
water discharging from a free drainage
aquifer.
• In hard rock slope, the water pressure
reduce the stability by reducing shear
strength of potential failure surface as a
result of reduction of effective normal
stress and by increasing the forces tending
to reduce sliding.
• On the other hand, in case of slope in soft
rock, such as mud stone, shale, the
moisture content is important.
Influence of Short term Stress Field

• Short term stress field are

generated in a slope affecting its
stability in an adverse way during
earthquakes and during large scale
blasting.
• The dynamic forces cause decreased
shear stress within slope and
sometimes also a reduction in shear
strength of slope material.
Other factors:
• Loading of slopes:
• Equipment: Where factors such as elevated water
pressures and adverse structures have already
reduced stability to a marginal level, equipment
loading can contribute to slope failure. Where slopes
are high, the increase in static loading of the overall
slope due to equipment is generally very low and
the effect on stability is minimal. However, on bench
slopes where heavy excavating equipment or laden
dump trucks are operating, the effects can be
marked and should be considered in the designs.
• Spoil dumps: A significant increase in loading of a
slope can occur when spoil dumps are formed near
the crest of excavations. The location of such
features adjacent to slopes should always be
considered in detail in any design.
• Slope geometry:In general, flatter slopes are more
stable and in quarry excavations, the overall slope is
usually reduced by the inclusion of benches.
• Time:Most of the factors affecting slope stability are
to some extent time dependent. Prior to slope
failure, rearrangement of blocks, dilation of joints
and deformation of intact material may take place.
The degree to which creep and other slow
phenomena develop is related to the speed with
which loading takes place. If a critical load is applied
suddenly (e.g. earthquake), failure may occur
quickly. Other time dependent controls include
weathering, groundwater response to dewatering or
recharge and the rate at which slope excavation
proceeds relative to dissipation of adverse water
pressures.
Slope Stability Assessment
•Three major analytical approaches for
stability analysis and design of open
pit slope
1. Finite Element Method (FEM) based
on continuum theories.
2. Distinct Element Method based on
discontinum theories.
3. Limit Equilibrium Method based on
concept of Limit equilibrium.
Limit equilibrium analysis
•In the LEM, for the analysis of stability of a
slope, incipient failure along a potential slip
surface is assumed and the material above
the slip surface is considered to be a free
body .A potential slip surface may be –
(I) Planer discontinuity surface.
(II) Surface formed by intersection of two
planer discontinuities (wedge failure).
(III) A curved surface in case of rotational
sliding.
• Once the potential slip surface is assumed,
equation concerning force equilibrium or
moment equilibrium of the potential sliding
mass are formulated .The solution of these
equation provide the estimate of (i) the
total force available to resist sliding and
(ii) the total force tending to induce sliding
of the free body, for which the stability
condition of slope can be ascertained.
• To ascertain the stability condition of a
slope quantitatively under a state other
than that of limiting equilibrium, some
form of index is required. The most
commonly used index is factor of safety of
the slope.
Limitation of LEM
• (1) A mode of failure must be assumed
before a stability analysis can be carried
out and this mean a judgment has to
mode on the position and properties of the
surface or surface upon which sliding will
take place.
• (2) Limit equilibrium calculation are
restricted only to the surface upon which
sliding takes place and do not include any
consideration of behavior of the mass of
mass of material resting on this surface.
• 3) In calculating the FS by means of LEM,
incipient failure is assumed which is
justified only for a real factor of safety of
one, that is for the condition of limiting
equilibrium .yet these method s are used
in problem in which the calculated Fs is not
equal to one.
• (4) In almost all LEM, the FS is considered
or implied to be constant all along the
failure surface.
• (5) The choice of the method of analysis
may have an influence on the calculated
factor of safety.
• (6) The phenomenon of progressive failure
of the surface and the changing stress
distribution on the failure surface are not
taken into account in analysis.
• (7) Time dependent slope failure resulting
from creep or weathering process cannot
be incorporated directly in to a limit
equilibrium analysis.
Popularity of LEM
• How ever, in spite of the above limitation
s, this concept is most popular due to fact-
• (I) The limit equilibrium approach is much
simpler in comparison to other
approaches.
• (ii) The result obtained by LEM shows
remarkable close agreement with those
obtained by the methods based on
different numerical technique such as FEM,
DEM
Limit equilibrium analysis
• For all shear type failures, the rock can be assumed to
be a Mohr–Coulomb material in which the shear strength
is expressed in terms of the cohesion c and friction angle
φ. For a sliding surface on which there is an effective
normal stress σ acting, the shear strength τ developed
on this surface is given by:
τ = c + σ tan φ
• Equation is expressed as a straight line on a normal
stress—shear stress plot in which the cohesion is defined
by the intercept on the shear stress axis, and the friction
angle is defined by the slope of the line. The effective
normal stress is the difference between the stress due to
the weight of the rock lying above the sliding plane and
the uplift due to any water pressure acting on this
surface.
• Figure shows a slope containing a continuous joint
dipping out of the face and forming a sliding block.
Calculation of the factor of safety for the block shown
in Figure involves the resolution of the force acting on
the sliding surface into components acting
perpendicular and parallel to this surface. That is, if
the dip of the sliding surface is ψp, its area is A, and
the weight of the block lying above the sliding surface
is W, then the normal and shear stresses on the
sliding plane are
Effect of water on stability of slopes
• Limit equilibrium analysis can be applied to a wide
range of conditions and can incorporate forces such as
water forces acting on the sliding surface, as well as
external reinforcing forces supplied by tensioned rock
anchors. Figure shows a slope containing a sliding
surface with area A and dip ψp, and a vertical tension
crack. The slope is partially saturated such that the
tension crack is half-filled with water, and the water
table exits where the sliding surface daylights on the
slope face. The water pressures that are generated in
the tension crack and on the sliding surface can be
approximated by triangular force diagrams where the
maximum pressure, p at the base of the tension crack
and the upper end of the sliding surface is given by
p = γw .hw
where γw is the unit weight of water and hw is the
vertical height of water in the tension crack.
• Based on this assumption, the water
forces acting in the tension crack,
V , and on the sliding plane, U, are
as follows:
• Similarly, an equation can be developed for
a reinforced slope in which a tensioned
rock anchorhas been installed with the
anchor below the sliding plane. If the
tension in the anchor is T and it is installed
at an angle ψT below the horizontal, then
the normal and shear forces acting on the
sliding plane due to the anchor tension are
respectively:
• and the equation defining the factor
of safety of the anchored, partially
saturated slope is:
Shear strength of discontinuity
• In analyzing the stability of a rock
slope, the most important factor to
be considered is the geometry of the
rock mass behind the face.
• A f t e r g e o l o g y, t h e n e x t m o s t
important factor governing stability
is the shear strength of the potential
sliding surface.
• The sliding surface in a slope may consist of a single
plane continuous over the full area of the surface, or
a complex surface made up of both discontinuities
and fractures through intact rock.
• Determination of reliable shear strength values is a
critical part of slope design because, as will be
shown in later chapters, small changes in shear
strength can result in significant changes in the safe
height or angle of a slope.
• The choice of appropriate shear strength values
depends not only on the availability of test data, but
also on a careful interpretation of these data in light
of the behavior of the rock mass that makes up the
full-scale slope.
Definition of cohesion and friction

• In rock slope design, rock is assumed to be a

Coulomb material in which the shear strength of the
sliding surface is expressed in terms of the cohesion
(c) and the friction angle (φ).
• Assume a number of test samples were cut from a
block of rock containing a smooth, planar
discontinuity. Furthermore, the discontinuity
contains a cemented infilling material such that a
tensile force would have to be applied to the two
halves of the sample in order to separate them.
• Each sample is subjected to a force at right
angles to the discontinuity surface (normal
stress, σ), and a force is applied in the
direction parallel to the discontinuity
(shear stress, τ) while the shear
displacement (δs) is measured.
• For a test carried out at a constant normal
stress, a typical plot of the shear stress
against the shear displacement is shown in
Figure.
• At small displacements, the specimen behaves
elastically and the shear stress increases linearly
with displacement. As the force resisting movement
is overcome, the curve become non-linear and then
reaches a maximum that represents the peak shear
strength of the discontinuity. Thereafter, the stress
required to cause displacement decreases and
eventually reaches a constant value termed the
residual shear strength.
• If the peak shear strength values from tests carried
out at different normal stress levels are plotted, a
relationship shown in Figure (c) is obtained; this is
termed a Mohr diagram.
• The features of this plot are first, that it is
approximately linear and the slope of the line is equal
to the peak friction angle φp of the rock surface.
Second, the intercept of the line with the shear stress
axis represents the cohesive strength c of the
cementing material. This cohesive component of the
total shear strength is independent of the normal
stress, but the frictional component increases with
increasing normal stress. Based on the relationship
illustrated on Figure (c), the peak shear
strength is defined by the equation:
τ = c + σ tan φp
•If the residual shear stress values at each applied normal
stress are plotted on the Mohr diagram, the residual
shear strength line is obtained as shown on Figure 4.8(d),
and is defined by the equation:
τ = σ tan φr
where φr is the residual friction angle.

For the residual strength condition, the cohesion is lost
once displacement has broken the cementing action; on
the Mohr diagram this is represented by the strength line
passing through the origin of the graph. Also, the residual
friction angle is less than the peak friction angle because
the shear displacement grinds the minor irregularities on
the rock surface and produces a smoother, lower friction
surface.
Effect of Ground water
• The presence of ground water in a rock slope can
have a detrimental effect upon stability for the
following reasons:
• Water pressure reduces the stability of the slopes by
diminishing the shear strength of potential failure
surfaces. Water pressure in tension cracks or similar
near vertical fissures reduces stability by increasing
the forces that induce sliding.
• Changes in moisture content of some rock,
p a r t i c u l a r l y s h a l e s , c a n c a u s e a c c e l e ra t e d
weathering and a decrease in shear strength.
• Freezing of ground water can cause wedging in
water-filled fissures due to temperature dependent
volume changes in the ice. Also, freezing of surface
water on slopes can block drainage paths resulting
in a build-up of water pressure in the slope with a
consequent decrease in stability.
• Erosion of weathered rock by surface water, and of
low strength infillings by ground water can result in
local instability where the toe of a slope is
undermined, or a block of rock is loosened.
• By far the most important effect of ground water in
a rock mass is the reduction in stability resulting
from water pressures within the discontinuities.
• In examining rock or soil slopes, it may be a
mistake to assume that ground water is not present
if no seepage appears on the slope face.
• T h e s eep ag e rat e may b e l o w er t h an t h e
evaporation rate, and hence the slope surface may
appear dry and yet there may be water at
significant pressure within the rock mass. It is water
pressure, and not rate of flow, which is responsible
for instability in slopes and it is essential that
measurement or calculation of this water pressure
forms part of site investigations for stability studies.
• Where ground water effects are to be included in
slope design, there are two possible approaches to
obtaining data on distributions of the water pressures
within a rock mass:
(a) Deduction of the ground water flow pattern from
consideration of the hydraulic conductivity of the rock
mass and sources of ground water.
(b) Direct measurement of water levels in boreholes
or wells, or of water pressure by means of
piezometers installed in boreholes.
Plane failure
• A plane failure is a comparatively rare sight in
rock slopes because it is only occasionally that
all the geometric conditions required to produce
such a failure occur in an actual slope.
• Figure shows a typical plane failure in a rock
slope where a block of rock has slid on a single
plane dipping out of the face. In order for this
ty p e o f f a i l u r e t o o c c u r, t h e f o l l o w i n g
geometrical conditions must be satisfied.
• (a) The plane on which sliding occurs must strike
parallel or nearly parallel (within approximately ±20◦) to
the slope face.
• (b) The sliding plane must “daylight” in the slope face,
which means that the dip of the plane must be less than
the dip of the slope face, that is, ψp < ψf .
• (c) The dip of the sliding plane must be greater than the
angle of friction of this plane, thatis, ψp > φ.
• (d) The upper end of the sliding surface either intersects
the upper slope, or terminates in a tension crack.
• (e) Release surfaces that provide negligible resistance to
sliding must be present in the rock mass to define the
lateral boundaries of the slide. Alternatively, failure can
occur on a sliding plane passing through the convex
“nose” of a slope.
•The slope geometries and ground water
conditions considered in this analysis are
defined in Figure 6.3, which shows two
geometries as follows:
(a) Slope without any tension crack
(b) slopes having a tension crack in the
upper surface; and
(c) slopes with a tension crack in the face.
•The following assumptions are made in plane failure
analysis:
(a) Both sliding surface and tension crack strike
parallel to the slope.
(b) The tension crack is vertical and is filled with
water to a depth zw.
(c) Water enters the sliding surface along the base of
the tension crack and seeps alongthe sliding surface,
escaping at atmospheric pressure where the sliding
surface daylights in the slope face. The pressure
distributions induced by the presence of water in the
tension crack and along the sliding surface.
• The forces W (the weight of the sliding
block), U (uplift force due to water pressure
on the sliding surface) and V (force due to
water pressure in the tension crack) all act
through the centroid of the sliding mass. In
other words, it is assumed that there are no
moments that would tend to cause rotation
of the block, and hence failure is by sliding
only.
• The shear strength τ of the sliding surface
is defined by cohesion c and friction angle
φ that are related by the equation:
τ = c + σ tan φ,
(f) It is assumed that release surfaces are present so
that there is no resistance to sliding at the lateral
boundaries of the failing rock mass.
(g) In analyzing two-dimensional slope problems, it is
usual to consider a slice of unit thickness taken at
right angles to the slope face. This means that on a
vertical section through the slope, the area of the
sliding surface can be represented by the length of
the surface, and the volume of the sliding block is
represented by the cross-section area of the block.
•The factor of safety for plane failure is calculated by
resolving all forces acting on the slope into
components parallel and normal to the sliding plane.
The vector sum of the shear forces, S acting down
the plane is termed the driving force. The product of
the total normal forces, N and the tangent of the
friction angle φ, plus the cohesive force is termed the
resisting force. The factor of safety FS of the sliding
block is the ratio of the resisting forces tothe driving
forces, and is calculated as follows:
FS = Resisting force/Driving force
 Slope without a tension crack
α= angle of internal • σ= W cosθ
friction A
U= up lift force Z= C +σ tanα
σ= normal stress Z= C + Wcosθ tanα
A= area of sliding • A
surface • Z.A= C.A + W cosθ . Tanα
• F= C.A + W cosθ tanα
• W sinθ
• When it has been established that a slope is
potentially Unstable, reinforcement may be an
effective method of improving the factor of safety.
Methods of reinforcement include the installation
of tensioned anchors or fully grouted, untensioned
dowels, or the construction of a toe buttress.
• A tensioned anchor installation involves drilling a
hole extending below the sliding plane, installing a
rock bolt or strand cable that is bonded in to the
stable portion of the slope, and then tensioning
the anchor against the face.
• The tension in the anchor T modifies
the normal and shear forces acting
on the sliding plane, and the factor
of safety of the anchored slope is
given by:
Question
• The geometry of the slope is illustrated in given Figure
which shows a 60 m high slope with three 20 m high
benches. The overall slope angle is 50° and the
individual bench faces are inclined at 70° to the
horizontal. An exfoliation joint surface dips at 35° and
undercuts the slope as shown in the figure. The slope
face strikes parallel to the underlying exfoliation
surface. It is impossible to determine whether or not
tension cracks is present and hence it is desired to
carry out two sets of analyses - one with and one
without tension cracks.
Factor of Safety calculation for a slope
with no tension crack
Factor of Safety calculation for a slope
with a water-filled tension crack
Wedge Failure
• This type of failure is concerned with the
failure of slopes containing discontinuities
striking obliquely to the slope face where
sliding of a wedge of rock takes place
along the line of intersection of two such
planes.
• Wedge failures can occur over a much
wider range of geologic and geometric
conditions than plane failures, so the study
of wedge stability is an important
component of rock slope engineering.
Conditions
• The dip of the line of intersection must be
greater than angle of internal friction.
• The dip of the line of intersection is
smaller than dip of slope face.
• The two sets of discontinuities must
intersect each other.
• The sliding will take place along the dip of
intersection of two discontinuities if the
dip of the line of intersection daylights
into the slope face and less than dip of
the slope face.
• The geometry of the wedge for analyzing the basic
mechanics of sliding is defined in Figure.
• Based on this geometry, the general conditions for
wedge failure are as follows:
1. Two planes will always intersect in a line . On the
stereonet, the line of intersection is represented by
the point where the two great circles of the planes
intersect, and the orientation of the line is defined by
its trend (αi) and its plunge (ψi).
2 The plunge of the line of intersection must be flatter
than the dip of the face, and steeper than the
average friction angle of the two slide planes, that is
ψfi > ψi > φ
3. The line of intersection must dip in a
direction out of the face for sliding to be
feasible; the possible range in the trend of
the line of intersection is between αi and α.
• In general, sliding may occur if the
intersection point between the two great
circles of the sliding planes lies within the
shaded area on figure (b). That is, the
stereonet will show if wedge failure is
kinematically feasible.
Circular failure
• In the previous two types of failures , it has been
assumed that the failure of rock slopes is controlled
by geological features such as bedding planes and
joints that divide the rock into a discontinuous
mass. Under these conditions, one or more of the
discontinuities normally defines the slide surface.
• However, in the case of a closely fractured or highly
weathered rock, a strongly defined structural
pattern no longer exists, and the slide surface is
free to find the path of least resistance through the
slope.
• Observations of slope failures in
these materials suggest that this
slide surface generally takes the
form of a circle, and most stability
theories are based upon this
observation.
• Figure shows a typical circular
failure in a highly weathered rock
slope above a highway.
• The conditions under which circular failure will occur
arise when the individual particles in a soil or rock
mass are very small compared with the size of the
slope. Hence, broken rock in a fill will tend to
behave as a “soil” and fail in a circular mode when
the slope dimensions are substantially greater than
the dimensions of the rock fragments.
• Similarly, soil consisting of sand, silt and smaller
particle sizes will exhibit circular slide surfaces, even
in slopes only a few meters in height.
• Highly altered and weathered rocks, as well as rock
with closely spaced, randomly oriented
discontinuities such as some rapidly cooled basalts,
will also tend to fail in this manner. It is appropriate
to design slopes in these materials on the
assumption that a circular failure process will
develop.
Shape of slide surface
• The actual shape of the “circular”
slide surface is influenced by the
geological conditions in the slope. For
example, in a homogenous weak or
weathered rock mass, or a rock fill,
the failure is likely to form as a
s h a l l o w, l a r g e ra d i u s s u r f a c e
extending from a tension crack close
behind the crest to the toe of the
slope. (Figure (a)).
 Types of circular failure
• Circular failure is classified in three types depending on the area that
is affected by the failure surface. They are:-
• (a) Slope failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface
meets the slope above the toe of the slope. This happens when the
slope angle is very high and the soil close to the toe posses the high
strength.
• (b) Toe failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface
meets the slope at the toe.
• (c) Base failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the failure passes
below the toe and in to base of the slope. This happens when the
slope angle is low and the soil below the base is softer and more
plastic than the soil above the base.
• This contrasts with
failures in high
cohesion, low friction
materials such as
clays where the
surface may be
deeper with a smaller
radius that may exit
beyond the toe of the
slope. Figure (b)
shows an example of
conditions in which
the shape of the slide
surface is modified by
the slope geology.
Stability Analysis
• For each combination of slope parameters
there will be a slide surface for which the
factor of safety is a minimum—this is
usually termed the “critical surface.” The
procedure to find the critical surface is to
run a large number of analyses in which
the center co-ordinates and the radius of
the circle are varied until the surface with
the lowest factor of safety is found. This is
an essential part of circular slope stability
analysis.
• The stability analysis of circular failure is carried out
using the limit equilibrium procedure similar to that
described for plane and wedge failures.
• This procedure involves comparing the available
shear strength along the sliding surface with the
force required to maintain the slope in equilibrium.
• The application of this procedure to circular failures
involves division of the slope into a series of slices
that are usually vertical, but maybe inclined to
coincide with certain geological features. The base
of each slice is inclined at angle ψb and has an area
A. In the simplest case, the forces acting on the
base of each slice are the shear resistance S due to
the shear strength of the rock (cohesion c; friction
angle φ), and forces E (dip angle ψ; height h above
base) acting on the sides of the slice
• The factor of safety of the circular failure
based on limit equilibrium analysis is defined
as and rearranging this equation, we have




• The method of solution for the factor of
safety is to use an iterative process in which
an initial estimate is made for FS, and this is
refined with each iteration.
circular failure charts
• Circular failure charts are used to determine rapidly
the factor of safety of circular failures.
• These charts have been developed by running many
thousands of circular analyses from which a number
of dimensionless parameters were derived that
relate the factor of safety to the material unit
weight, friction angle and cohesion, and the slope
height and face angle.
• It has been found that these charts give a reliable
estimate for the factor of safety, provided that the
conditions in the slope meet the assumptions used
in developing the charts.
• Use of the stability charts presented here
requires that the conditions in the slope
meet the following assumptions:
(a)The materi al formi ng the sl ope i s
homogeneous, with uniform shear strength
properties along the slide surface.
(b) The shear strength τ of the material is
characterized by cohesion: c and a friction
angle φ, that are related by the equation τ
=c + σ tan φ
(c) Failure occurs on a circular slide surface,
which passes through the toe of the slope.
(d) A vertical tension crack occurs in the
upper surface or in the face of the slope.
(e) The locations of the tension crack and of
the slide surface are such that the factor of
safety of the slope is a minimum for the
slope geometry and ground water conditions
considered.
(f) Ground water conditions vary from a dry
slope to a fully saturated slope under heavy
recharge; these conditions are defined in
Figure.
(g) Circular failure charts are optimized for a
rock mass density of 18.9 kN/m3. Densities
higher than this give high factors of safety,
densities lower than this give low factors of
safety.
Use of the circular failure charts
• In order to use the charts to determine the
factor of safety of a slope, the steps
outlined here should be followed.
• Step 1: Decide upon the ground water
conditions which are believed to exist in
the slope and choose the chart which is
closest to these conditions.
• Step 2: Select rock strength parameters
applicable to the material forming the
slope.
Step 3: Calculate the value of the
dimensionless ratio c/(γ H tan φ) and find
this value on the outer circular scale of the
chart.
Step 4: Follow the radial line from the value
found in step 3 to its intersection with the
curve which corresponds to the slope angle.
Step 5: Find the corresponding value of tan
φ/FS or c/(γ H FS), depending upon which is
more convenient, and calculate the factor of
safety.
 Sequence of steps involved in using circular

failure charts to find the factor of safety of a slope.
Circular failure chart number 1—fully drained slope.
Circular failure chart number 2—ground water condition 2
Circular failure chart number 3—ground water condition 3
Circular failure chart number 4—ground water condition 4
Circular failure chart number 5—fully saturated slope
Example of using circular failure charts

• A 15.2-m high cut with a face angle

of 40◦ is to be excavated in
overburden soil with a density γ =
15.7 kN/m3, a cohesion of 38 kPa
and a friction angle of 30◦. Find the
factor of safety of the slope,
assuming that there is a surface
water source 61m behind the toe of
the slope.
• The ground water conditions
indicate the use of chart number 3
(61/15.2 = 4).
• The value of c/(γ H tan φ) = 0.28
and the corresponding value of tan
φ/FS, for a 40◦ slope, is 0.32.
Hence, the factor of safety of the
slope of 1.80.
Toppling failure
• Toppling involves rotation of columns or
blocks of rock about a fixed base.
• Figure shows a computer model of a
toppling failure in which the solid blocks
are fixed and the open blocks are free to
move. When the fixed blocks at the face
are removed, the tallest columns of blocks
topple because their center of gravity lies
outside the base. The model illustrates a
typical feature of toppling failures in which
the tension cracksare wider at the top than
at the base.
Computer generated model of toppling failure; solid blocks are
fixed in space while open blocks are free to move
 W

• Whenever the resultant weight of a block, W, projects

beyond the downslope outside corner of a rectangular
shaped blocks, toppling can result, as sketched here.
• Toppling usually occurs when low friction
discontinuities dip between 50 and 70 degrees from
horizontal. These can be joints, bedding, or foliation
planes
Slope Stablization Techniues
•Methods of slope stabilization fall into
three categories:
(a) Reinforcement;
(b) Rock removal; and
(c) Protection
• The following are examples of the factors
that will influence the selection of
appropriate stabilization methods.
• Where the slope is steep and the toe is
close to the highway or railway, there will
be no space to excavate a catch ditch or
construct a barrier. Therefore, alternative
stabilization measures may be to remove
loose rock, secure it in place with bolts, or
to drape mesh on the slope.
• If the source of the rock falls is a zone of
boulders in an erodible soil matrix that
cannot be stabilized by bolting of
effectively scaled, then a combination
ditch–containment structure may be more
suitable. If there is limited space at the toe
of the slope for this work, there may be no
alternative but to relocate or realign the
facility.
• The various methods are
• Prevent surface water from entering the
slope through open tension cracks and
fissures.
• Reduce water pressure around potential
failure surface by selective sub surface
drainage.
• Position the drainage so that only the
water in the immediate vicinity of the
slope is drained.
• Horizontal drain holes drilled into the slope
face can be very effective in reducing
water pressure near the base of a
suspected tension crack or along a
potential failure surface. The spacing and
positioning of these holes depends upon
t h e s l o p e g e o m e t r y a n d s t r u c t u ra l
discontinuity in the rock mass.
• C o l l e c t o r d ra i n s t o l e a d t h e wa t e r
discharge from horizontal drain are
important otherwise this water will simply
find its way into the next bench down.
• Vertical drainage well drilled from
slope surface and filted with down
hole pump can be effective in slope
drainage and the can be in
operation before slope excavated.
• Drainage galleries with or without
fans of radial holes are probably
means of such surface drainage, but
it is most expensive.
 Planning of slope stability
investigation

• Preliminary collection of geological data

from air photos, surface mapping and
borehole cores.
• Preliminary analysis of geological data to
establish major geological patterns.
Examination of these patters in relation to
proposed pit slopes to assess probability
of slides developing.
• Slopes in which no unfavorable
discontinuities exist or slopes in which
failure would not matter identified. No
further stability analysis of these slopes is
required. Slope angles determined from
operational consideration.
• Slopes in which unfavorable discontinuities
exist identified and those slopes in which
failure would be critical at any stage of
mining operation marked for detailed study.
1. Detailed geological investigation of
surface mapping and drill core logging.
Special drilling or adits outside ore body
may be required.
2. Shear testing of discontinuity surfaces –
particularly if clay covered or slickensided.
3. Installation of piezometers in drill holes to
establish ground water patterns and
pressure levels during mining.
• Reanalyzes critical slope areas on basis of
detailed information from above steps using
LEM techniques for circular, plane or wedge
failure slides. Examine possibility of other
types of failure induced by weathering,
toppling or damage due to blasting
• Examine slopes in which risk of failure is
high in terms of open pit design. Options
are.
a). Flattens slopes
b). Stabilize slopes by drainage, rock bolts or
shotcreting.
c). Accept risk of failure and implement
monitoring program.
• Stabilization of slopes by drainage or
reinforcement feasible if Cost saving
resulting from steepening of slopes
exceeds cost of Designing and constructing
stabilization system.
• Accepting risk of failure on basis of ability
to predict and accommodate slide without
endangering men and equipment.