Concept of development, underdevelopment, and poverty

Development is the use of both natural and human resources to improve the living standard
of the nation. That is the means by which a traditional low technology society is changed into
a modern high technology society with a corresponding increase in income

Underdevelopment

This is a situation where the existing resources, of a nation, have not been well exploited
leading to low living standards.

Sustainable development

It is development which meets the needs of the present generations and returns our ability to
meet the needs of our future creation. Sustainable development needs ecological and
environmental dimensions ways of promoting sustainable development
● Through conservation
● Resources substitution
● Recycling of waste
● Using appropriate technology
● Lower consumption of energy

Indicators or characteristics of least industrialized countries or underdevelopment.

Low per capita income

The per capita income of the least industrialized countries is very low while that of the
advanced industrialized countries is high. For example, the per capita income of the least
industrialized countries such Cameroon is s850 and Zaire is s 160 while that of advanced
countries such the USA, is about s 16300 and Japan s1050 this indicates the great disparity
between per capita income of the least industrialized and advanced industrialized countries.

High dependency on primary production; there is a high dependency on primary production

such as agriculture, fishing, and forestry in the least industrialized countries. for example in
Africa, about 75% to 80% of the pop depends on primary production but in the more
economically developed countries such as Britain and France only about 5% of the total
population is engaged in the primary sector

High birth rate; there is a high birth rate in the Least Industrialised Countries (LICs) when
compared with the advanced industrialized countries (AICs) for example Cameroon with a
birth rate of 45% per thousand pop, while in the AICs such as Britain, birth is 18 per
thousand of pop. LICs have their HBR due to early marriages, no birth control policy,
inadequate family planning, and less use of contraceptives such as pills and condoms.

High death rate LIC such as Zira, have a high death rate with 24 per thousand of pop per
year. while in the advanced industrialized countries such as Britain, it is 10 per thousand of
pop per year. High death in the LICs is caused by inadequate medical facilities, malnutrition,
poor sanitation poverty, and high illiteracy.
High pop growth rate. Is very rapid in the LICs while that of the AICs is very slow for example
Nigeria has about 2.5% per year while in Britain growth rate is 1.8% per year. The high birth
rate is caused by a high birth rate, fall in death rate, and immigration.

The high rate of illiteracy; LICs have a high rate of illiteracy for example in Chad the illiteracy
rate is still about 80% due to inadequate schools, poverty of the pop, and the unwillingness
of the children to go to school, and inadequate teachers in the school.

Poor sanitation. Some countries of the LICs are still poor with poor ventilation of the house
and very filthy sounding mosquitoes. These poor conditions lead to poor health conditions
and consequently health condition

High level of malnutrition. In most LICs because of unbalancing diets leading to low life
expectancy, the high mortality rate
The high rate of unemployment LICs for example in Zaire more than 60% of the active pop is
unemployed leading to economic growth. Due to low industrialization, lack of skill, high rate
of illiteracy.

Low level of industrialization

High dependency ratio

The poor transport network is a result of inadequate capital and equipment for road
construction, hilly and rough nature of the area, and low level of technology.

Political instability

Reason for the emergence of the newly industrialized countries

Sustain fast development spreading to most parts of the country. strong capital investment
from foreign countries

Increase in technology and growth in manufacturing industries

Rapid transport development facility

High living standard and high per capita incomes

Reduction in the percentage of pop involved in agriculture

An increasingly open market economy allowing free trade with other nations of the world

The theory of economic development by WW Rostow

He formulated a theory of economic development, which shows the different stages of

economic development. His theory explains that development is a process that passes
through five different stages in time and space. According to him, development is a process
that has beginning points and endpoints.
The five different stages of Rostov models of development include;
● The traditional society
● Pre-conditions to take off
● Take off stage transitional period
● Drive toward maturity and high mass consumption.

Stage one
The traditional society
This stage is dominated by agricultural activities. It is at the subsistence level and no
exploitation of rescuers in this stage, the society is stratified with strong conditional
institutions not dominated by any religious norm and value. This stage is characterized by
low per capita income, high rate of illiteracy, high unemployment, and low production

Stage 2
Pre-condition for takeoff; here there is the serious transformation of economic and none
economic activities and the economy begins to grow up. There is an expansion of trade and
increase in external affairs there is also the introduction of the modern method of production.
People now develop skilled labor for specializing productions there is an increase in capital
accumulation and an improvement in agricultural output and an increase in agricultural
development

Stage 3
Take off stage transitional period; here there is a transitional stage between the traditional
and modern industries society. In this stage, there is preparation for proper development,
and the investment rate increases from 5 % to about 10%. More industry emerges, political
and social institutions are transformed.

Stage 4
Drive to maturity; this stage of absolute development could last for many decades. At this
stage, there is steady consolidation of the newly industrialized society investment continues
to grow and some industries fade out while others expand

Stage 5
High mass consumption
This is the optimum stage of economic development where there is high mass production
and consumption of goods. Increase in materialism and the growth of quaternary activities
such as research and exchange of information in the society. There is also the allocation of
resources to social welfare, there is mass consumption of luxury goods such as cars,
television, and refrigerators.

Topic

Economic activities

Meaning
Economic activities are those undertakings for which an income is derived and through
which man earns a living.

Classification of economic activities

They can be classified under primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Primary activities: These are mainly concerned with the direct extraction of the raw
materials from the natural environment without changing their form. Primary economic
activities are very dominant in the least industrialized countries where raw materials are
highly available. These activities include; farming, fishing, forestry, mining, and hunting.

Secondary activities: these are activities mainly concerned with the transformation or
processing of the raw materials into semi-finished or finished goods for consumption.
Secondary activities include the automobile industry, textile industry, chemical industry, food
processing industry, iron, and steel industry, shipbuilding industry

Tertiary activities: they are mostly concerned with the provision of services for the
population. They include; transport, communication, banking, domestic service professions
(driving, teaching, trading, health services), and advertisement.
Quaternary activities: These are activities mostly concerned with research, transfer of
information, and communications technology. These activities are important because they
help companies to function. E.g. research, arts, science, and law.

Chapter 2: Agriculture as an economic activity

BASIC CONCEPTS

Agriculture is the systematic or careful cultivation of crops or rearing of animals for human
consumption or commercial purposes. The main types of agriculture include; market
gardening, cattle ranging, mixed farming, intensive commercial farming, intensive
mechanized farming, livestock rearing, plantation agriculture, and subsistence farming.

Agriculture as a system

A system is a set of objects or parts linked together and functioning as a united. It involved
inputs, processes, and outputs with a feedback mechanism. The system works at a
continuing cycle. It can be termed as an agricultural cycle note should be taken that farming
in any region is a system that involves input, processes, and outputs.

Inputs; involves physical, human, and economic inputs that determine the type of farming
activities in any particular place
Processes i.e. farming methods) will vary from place to place according to the inputs and
level of technology presents or available in an area

Output; are mainly the crops produced and animals produced, obtained from any reared.
Feedback is simply what has been invested into the farm, such as waste product recycled
into manure and revenue used for purchasing input such as seeds, chemicals, fertilizers,
equipment, and paying wages for the labor put in the farm.

Types of agriculture: Intensive commercial farming

There are two types of agricultural systems. they include intensive commercial farming,
extensive

Intensive commercial farming is a system of farming whereby the farmers apply heavy
capital and labor on a relatively small size farm in order to get maximum yield ( output) for
the market. For Eg, intensive farming is polders of Holland and the central valley of
California( USA)

Characteristic of intensive commercial farming

● the farmers are relatively small in size
● there is less use of machinery for spraying and harvesting of crops
● farming labor is intensive with the labor supplied by the farmer and his family
● output per unit area is high while output per person is low
● the farmers give close attention to the crops cultivated in the farmers
● these are high use of fertilizer in the farm to maintain soil fertility and obtain high
yields

method
● the farmers use hoes and cutlasses, practiced irrigation especially in areas of low
rainfall

Factors Include
- ideal climate condition
- supply of water from the rivers
- efficient means of transport
- presence of a large market
- availability of capital

Importance
- its provide direct employment
- sources of raw material for development industries eg food processing
- It brings foreign exchange earnings from the sale of crops.

Problem faced
- Poor climatic conditions such as severe winters in temperate regions with very low
temperatures hinder the growth of crops.
- Farm sizes are very small and require a lot of inputs.

Solutions
- Poor weather condition in winter are controlled by the use of glasshouse for the
growing crops
- The risk of competition is solved by diversification of farming activities.
 - The problem of water pollution caused by the use of fertilizer is solved by increasing
the use of organic manure.

Extensive commercial farming

Are large-scale cultivation of a single crop on a large piece of land with greater use of
machinery and less labor force for commercial purpose. Eg Canada and the steppes of
central Russia.

Characteristic
- farm size are very large ranging from 250 to 6.000 hectares
- Involves cultivation of a single crop( monoculture)
- crops are cultivated mainly for sell
- Farming is highly mechanized by the use of plowing and combined harvester
- The yield per hectares of land is low, and per person is high.

Factors
- suitable climate conditions
- The nature of the relief
- Nature of soils
- Use of machines
- Availability of transport means
- The availability of vast market

Importance
● It raises the standard of living
● create direct employment
● encourages the development of infrastructure
● sources of raw material for development industries eg food processing
● It brings foreign exchange earnings from the sale of crops.

Problems
● Monoculture is dangerous because of attack of blight
● Failing prices in the world market will lead to loss of income
● Monoculture will result in lots of soil exhaustion

Pastoral Nomadism
It is the large-scale rearing of livestock where the herders move with their animals from
place to place in search of pasture and water. It is practiced in Northern Nigeria by Oromos
and Fulanis, in Kenya by the Masai in Sudan by the suddenness and the Lapps of Sweden.

Characteristic
- Herds men move from place to place with animals in search of pasture and water
- No scientific methods of eraring is applied and therefore animals are occasionally
attacked by pest and diseases
- The rearer live in temporal homes
- Animals are a source of life as the herdsmen depend on the animals for their food
and clothing.
Factors
- Availability of vast land for pasture
- The skill of the animal rearer
- Government policy
- Presence of associated industries
- The absence of tsetse flies and animals diseases

Livestock rearing

It is the rearing of animals in enclosed areas for the production of beef, hides, and skin for
sale. Cattle ranching is practiced in the midwest of the USA, northern Australia, and
Canterbury plains of New Zealand, and the upland areas of Britain. Areas in the advanced
countries include; Denmark and Australia NICS include Central America and Pampas.

Characteristics

● cattle are confined in a large area for the production of beef for sale.
● There is little or no migration of cattle
● Periodic vaccinations are carried out against infestations of disease
● The ranches are scientifically managed through the crossbreeding of different
species.

Impact of agriculture on the environment

The impact may be positive or negative; some agricultural practices degrade while others
improve.

Positive
- Agroforestry, which is the practice of some farmers, is friendly to the environment.
- The farmers cultivate crops and plant natural trees at the same time.
- Organic farming cultivate with the use of organic manure improved the soil and
reduces chemical pollution
- The fallow system of agriculture is also important positively on the environment. This
is because farmers are allowed to regain their fertility naturally.

Negative
- The use of chemicals in the farm leads to pollutions of land, air, and water
- Agriculture can also lead to soil erosion. Vegetation is destroyed by grazing or to
create new farms, thereby accelerating soil erosion
- In areas where irrigation is practiced, the accumulations of salt in the soil and
waterlogging of the soil are very common.

problems of tropic agriculture

The farmers in the LICs encounter many difficulties as far as agriculture is concerned. These
difficulties can be examined into three parts that are naturally human and economic
problems
Natural problems

● Harsh climatic conditions of the tropics; the warm and humid climatic conditions,
encourages rapid growth of plant diseases and insects which destroy the crops
cultivated; the intense heat in the tropics causes rapid decompositions of perishable
crops, and meat damage to crops cultivated.
● The existence of insects and pests; the presence of pests such as weevils destroying
the grains produces and tsetse fly causes diseases such as trypanosomiasis (
sleeping sickness) to animals. Mosquitoes also cause diseases such as malaria to
the farmers in the tropics.
● The existence of plant diseases such as the swollen shoot and black pod damage
crops such as coffee, cocoa, and potatoes in the tropics leading to falling in
productions
● The poor, radish soil in the tropics which are mostly made up of literate who are
infertile for agriculture .they are seriously leached by heavy rainfall, rendering the soil
infertile

Human problems
● High level of malnutrition of farmers; the feeding habit in the tropics is generally poor
leading to an unbalanced diet. This causes constant illnesses of farmers which retard
the efficiency in the farms.
● The high rate of illiteracy of farmers; most of the farmers are illiterate believing much
in superstition rather than in scientific research. They believe that certain days are
not farming days which reduces production.
● Conservative nature of farmers; most farmers in LIcs, are conservative and do not
like to change from the traditional method of farming to the modern methods of
farming such as the use of fertilizers in the farm to increase outputs.
● The existence of a land-use tenure system; the communal holding of land is a
problem to agriculture in the tropics. Land belonging to each community is preserved
as the property of the dead, living people, and unborn. This land tenure system has
resulted in small farm sizes in the tropics.

Economic problems
● The poor farm-to-market roads; the farm-to-market roads are poor hindering the
transportations of farm products to the market at the right time. The few roads
available are often muddy and impassable in the rainy season and very dusty in the
dry season.
● The absence of a stable market; there is the absence of a stable market for tropical
crops such as maize, beans, potatoes, rice, coffee, and cocoa. The prices of these
crops are subject to fluctuation which makes the farmers uncertain of the income.
● Poor storage facilities. The farmers have poor storage facilities which lead to loss of
foodstuff such as corn and needs which are being destroyed by pests such as
weevils.
● The low market price of crops; the prices of crops are constantly low in the market
especially in the world market which has caused some of the farmers to abandon
their farms and engage in other lucrative activities such as commerce and fishing.
 ● Poverty of the farmers; most of the farmers in the LICs are poor and unable to
purchase farm equipment, and fertilizer to improve on tropical soil. Hence farm sizes
and crops have remained small.

AGRICULTURAL LAND USE MODELS

A) The theory of agricultural land use by von thunen;

The theory of agricultural location was postulated by Heinrich Von Thunen in the 19th
century. He wanted to know how and why agricultural land use varied with distance from a
market. He, therefore, published his ideas in a book titled ‘’ the isolated state ‘’ in 1826. Von
Thunen makes several assumptions to support his theory.

diagram

His assumptions
- He assumed that only one large urban market exists and all farmers for a particular
product at any time.
- He assumed that the estate occupied a broad, flat, featureless plain which was
uniform in soil fertility and climate.
- He also assumed that transport was equally easy in all directions over the broad
plain.
- there was only one form of transport available to the farmers ( that is the horse and
cart by 1926)
- He also assumed that the cost of transport increases directly proportional to the
distance from the city.

In his model, he tried to show that with increasing distance from the market the intensity of
production falls and the type of land use also varies.

He uses the principle of economic rent to show the model. Economic rent is the difference
between the revenue received by farmers for crops sold and the total cost of producing and
transporting those crops to the market. Economic rent is therefore the profit received from
the crops sold. economic rents reduce as the distance from the market increases. If
economic rent falls to zero, farmers may stop the production of crops because no is realized.
In his models, he uses different crops to illustrate the model :

Bulky and heavy crops such as potatoes with high transport costs should be grown closer to
the market. This is because income from it falls sharply away from the market. Therefore, for
this crop to be profitable, it should be cultivated around the urban fringes. Perishable crops
such as vegetable tomatoes, lettuce, and fresh milk should be located near the market or
urban center because of high demand and perishability- crops such as wheat should be
grown away from the market because it is perishable and heavy but cheaper transport and
still profitable.

He, therefore, comes out with types of land use in a concentric pattern
Market gardening and dairy were located nearest to the city market because of their
perishability and required quick transportation to the market.
Wood located within the city because it is fuel and also as timber for building in the town. It
was also expensive to transport.
An area with crop rotation for 6 years was practiced based on intensive crop cultivation such
as potatoes, barley, and clover.

Cereal farming was less intensive as the crop rotation system relied much on animal grazing
for manure.
Extensive livestock rearing was practiced at the periphery beyond the margin of cultivation
considered as wasteland.

Forest and forest management.

What is a forest; a forest is an area where different species of trees are growing. The forest
has resources that are exploited and used by man. These resources from the forest include
fuelwood, medical plant fruit timber, etc.

Types of forest:

a) Tropical forest

Forest can be classified into two main types namely the Tropical and temperate forest.

Tropical forest. The tropical forest is classified into the tropical rainforest ( equatorial
rainforest) and the tropical monsoon forest.

Location of the equatorial rainforest

It is found in the following areas of the tropics: Amazon and Zaire basins, west Africa
coastlands, Malaysia coastal region of Burma, Cambodia, and Vietnam, most of Indonesia
and New Guinea.

Location of the tropical monsoon forest.

It is found in the following areas: Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, North Vietnam, part of India,
East Java, and north Australia.

General characteristic of the tropical rainforest.

● The forest contains a variety of trees that are close to each other.
● The forest consists of 3 layers, that is the top, middle, and bottom layers
● Most of the trees have broad evergreen leaves because of high temperature and
evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year.
● The absence of seasonal changes results in some plants ( trees) being in flowers,
fruit, and leaf-fall at the same time.
● The leaves of tall trees from the almost continuing canopy disturbed the sunlight from
reaching the ground.
● There is little or no undergrowth in some forest areas.
 ● Mangrove trees with stilt roots from dense forest in coastal swamps. An example of
trees found in the equatorial rainforest is hardwood such as Mahogany. Ebony,
Rosewood, Ironwood, and Greenheart.

Chapter 3: MANAGING RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPMENT THROUGH ECONOMIC

ACTIVITIES:

a) Fish resources and management

Meaning
Fishing is the exploitation of aquatic life and it is one of the main economic activities in most
developing and developed countries. Fish resources are of immense importance to the
population because they serve as food and as an industrial raw material for chemical
industries, especially the manufacturing of fertilizers.

Global stock and Distribution of fishing grounds

The major fishing grounds of the world are those areas whose waters have a lot of fish.
These major fishing grounds are found mostly in temperate waters especially in the Northern
hemisphere between latitude 30o and 60o. These areas are;
● Northeast of North America extending from Florida to Newfoundland
● Northwest of North America extending from California to Alaska
● North-East Asia including the sea around Japan, Korea, and China.
● Northwest Europe
● Peru

The major fishing grounds are shown on the map below;

Major producers of fish resources in the world

The statistics below show the world’s leading fishing nations in 2018, based on capture
production.

Factors influencing fish exploitation

● Fish food availability: In oceans where fish food called plankton is readily available,
such water bodies will contain much fish for exploitation.
● Indented coastline: some coastlines provide natural harbors through which fishing
ports could easily be developed.
● Continental shelf coastlines: shallow water bodies with sand and silt deposits
facilitate the penetration of sunlight which favors the growth of fish food called
plankton.
 ● Available market: The rapidly growing world population has led to an increase in the
demand for fish resources hence increasing exploitation.
● Technology: The implementation of modern methods of fishing (fish equipment) such
as large ships equipped with big fishing vessels with refrigerators and radar facilities
has greatly influenced fishing activity.
● Fishing is becoming an increasing economic activity due to infertility of soils of
coastal areas which are always marshy and swampy. Hence cannot support farming.
Therefore, the inhabitants divert to fishing as an economic activity to sustain their
livelihood.

Importance of fishing to the economy

● It is a source of employment. Many people in developing countries, newly

industrialized countries, and advanced countries are involved in fishing. In Norway for
example, about 40000 people are employed in the fishing sector and about 35000 in
South America.
● Industrial development: Fish products are a source of raw materials to many
manufacturing industries, especially those that manufacture animal feed, fertilizers,
glue, and cod liver oil. Other industrial-related jobs to fishing include; the manufacture
of nets, boats, and storage containers.
● Foreign exchange earnings: fishing brings in revenue to fishing countries. This raises
the country's GNP (Gross National Product). E.g. The export of fish accounts for 10%
of foreign exchange earnings in Norway.
● Source of protein: fish consumed in all its forms like salted, fresh, dried, and canned
is a source of protein food to the world thereby reducing protein deficiency.

Problems of fish exploitation

● Overfishing: fishing companies use sophisticated equipment such as Eco sounders
which catch a lot of fish more than the rate at which fisheries regulate and reproduce.
This has led to overfishing e.g. in Norway, Eco sounders and floating factories are
used.
● Indiscriminate fishing: The fish companies exploit and catch fisheries including the
young ones. This could lead to exhaustion and depletion of fish stock. e.g. in
Cameroon, fishermen use nets with small holes that gather all the small fishes called
“nganga” or “die no cover eye”
● Pollution: Manufacturing companies have greatly affected fish stock as they dump
toxic substances into major seas, rivers, oceans, etc. In Europe, great industrial
countries like Germany, and Britain dump waste into the North Sea which reduces
fish stock.
● Competition: Many fishing grounds of the world face competition with other countries
carrying out the same activities. They over-exploit the fisheries to meet up the
demand. This affects regeneration as exploitation far exceeds reproduction. E.g
Norway faces competition with Britain, Germany, Russia, and Spain while South
Africa faces competition with Morocco.
● Illegal and unregulated fishing: There exists a lot of illegal fishing especially small
boats which are unregistered with the fishery department. They don’t respect fishing
laws hence they destroy immature fish, overfish, and poach (steal).
Chapter 4: Mineral resources and management

Definition

Minerals are inorganic substances that have definite chemical composition. Minerals are of
three types;

Minerals that can be used to provide power e.g. coal and petroleum

Metallic minerals are divided into 2 groups;

Non-ferrous mineral; that is minerals containing metal e.g. aluminum, tin, copper, etc.

Ferrous minerals, i.e. minerals containing iron e.g. iron ore.

Non-metallic minerals include asbestos, sulphur, and salt.

Major producers

Methods of exploitation

There are two main methods used in mineral exploitation; open-cast or strip mining and shaft
or underground mining.

Opencast or strip mining: This method is used for extracting minerals that are closer to the
surface. This is done by using huge mechanical shovels to extract the minerals. They are
then loaded into trucks to be carried to the processing center.

Shaft or underground mining: This is used to extract minerals that occur deep underground.
This involves the excavation of minerals by driving vertical shafts down to the seams and
removing the minerals through the tunnels.

When the mineral lies beneath the sea, marine methods are used. In this case, submarine
dredges are used to extract such minerals.
Factors influencing mineral exploitation

● Availability of mineral deposits: The availability of large deposits of minerals

underground in different parts of the world facilitates mineral exploitation. E.g. iron
ore deposits in China, Australia, and Liberia.
● High demand for minerals: There are largely internal and external markets for the
minerals. Industries using the various minerals as their raw materials provide a high
demand for these minerals. E.g. iron and steel industry using iron ore, the aluminum
industry using bauxite.
● Efficient means of transport: The efficient means of transport such as railways, roads,
and waterways are used for the transportation of minerals from the mining centers to
the processing centers.
● Availability of capital: The extraction of minerals requires huge capital to purchase
the necessary equipment. This capital is provided by the mining companies and
financial institutions such as banks.
● Availability of labor: The labor needed for mineral extraction is either skilled or
unskilled labor. This is provided by the population around the mining areas.
● Nearness of the minerals to the surface: Minerals that are closer to the surface are
cheaper and easier to extract. This reduces the cost of production and encourages
investment in the mining sector.
● The role of governments: Governments play an important role in the extraction of
minerals in their various countries. They provide funds in the form of subsidies or
grants to the companies or investors doing mineral extraction.

Importance of Mineral Exploitation to the Economy

● It provides raw materials for the development of industries. E.g. iron ore for the
manufacture of iron and steel.
● The exploitation of minerals has created direct and indirect employment. Direct
employment involves workers doing mining and indirect employment involves
workers in the processing centers.
● Mining has led to the development of infrastructure such as roads and railways used
for the transportation of minerals. Social facilities such as camps, schools, and
hospitals are also constructed for the workers.
● It improves the standards of living of workers through the availability of the facilities
and the wages paid to the workers.
● Some minerals act as sources of energy for industrial and domestic uses. g. Coal is
burnt to produce energy.
● Mining has also led to the development of settlements. Some of these settlements
have developed into large urban centers. E.g. Kimberley in South Africa.

Problems faced by mineral exploitation

● Mineral exploitation is destroying the natural vegetation. This tends to affect the
water supply sources, especially in areas where mining activities destroy the forest.
● The extraction and processing of minerals cause pollution. This also threatens the
earth’s natural ecosystems.
 ● Mining has caused derelict landscapes due to pits and heaps of waste that are left
after mining. The land surface becomes ugly and cannot support any economic
activity.
● Some mining areas lead to erosion as the surface is exposed to some agents of
erosion.
● Some mining areas need a lot of skilled labor and equipment. This has increased the
cost of production.
● Sometimes, there is a social problem of strikes by mining workers for better working
conditions. This often affects output in the mining area.

Conservation methods
● Some countries conserve their minerals through the importation of minerals from
other countries. This is the case with some advanced industrialized countries (AICs)
such as the USA.
● In some mining centers, the quota system of exploitation is applied, that is, mining
companies are permitted to extract a certain quantity of minerals a year to avoid
overexploitation.
● Governments issue licenses to exploiting companies. This is to limit the number of
companies and reduce the number of minerals extracted at a certain period.
● In some cases, high taxes are levied on exploiting companies in order to discourage
new companies from investing in the mining sector.

Chapter 5: Forest resources and management

Meaning

A forest is an area where different species of trees are growing. The forest has resources
that are exploited and used by man. These resources include fuelwood, medicinal plants
fruits, timber, etc

Global stock and distribution

The distribution of the world’s forest

The various types of forest and how they are distributed in the world include;

The tropical rainforest: is located between latitudes 0o to 5o north and south of the equator.
It is found in the Amazon Basin in Brazil (Latin America), Congo Basin in Central Africa, and
Southeast Asia.
This region experiences high rainfall of 2500 mm and high temperatures of 28o. It contains
hardwood species of trees such as mahogany, Iroko, Sapele, Obeche, and Ironwood.
These tropical hardwood species of trees are found in Africa (Congo Basin, South East
forested zones of Cameroon and Coastal plains of tropical east Africa), Latin America (The
Amazon basin of Brazil, Central America from Panama to Mexico, and Pacific Coast of
Columbia), South East Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, India, Burma, and
Thailand) and Northern Australia.

Temperate coniferous forest:

It is located between latitude 45o to 65o north of the equator. They contain mainly softwood
species growing on podzolic soil such as pines, spruce, and larch. They have needle-shaped
leaves.

Temperate deciduous hardwood forest:

This forest is located between latitudes 30o and 40o north and south of the equator. Tree
species are oak, ash, beech, and poplar. They are found in Eastern South America, Central
Europe, and Northern China

Method of forest exploitation

● Timber exploitation is carried out in various stages as seen below;
● Preparation and surveying:
● This involves surveying the area to be exploited and constructing temporal
settlements for workers.
● Felling with powered engine saws: felling is then carried out with engine saws,
though some remote rural areas use hand saws. After felling, the trees are stripped
off their branches and cut into the required logs.
● Extraction and transportation: The logs are loaded on heavy trucks or trailers, which
are transported through an access road to the processing centers or the export port.
Some of the logs are equally transported through rivers with navigable courses.
● Replanting: This is the process of replanting tree species that are being felled so as
to provide for future sustainability. Therefore, companies involved in exploitation are
required to replant or replace the species of logs exploited.

Factors influencing exploitation

● Extensive forest: Large extensive forests exist with numerous tree species that have
influenced its exploitation. E.g. the tropical rainforest has a variety of tree species
such as mahogany, ebony, and Sapele while the coniferous forest has birch, pine,
and spruce, etc.
● Transportation: the availability of navigable rivers for the floating of logs, well-tarred
roads, and railways have encouraged lumbering activities that ease the
transportation to the processing centers.
● Market or demand: the high demand for timber by industries and house furniture has
encouraged forest exploitation. Industries that use timber resources such as plywood
furniture, newsprint and safety match greatly influence forest exploitation.

Economic importance of forest

● Forest is a source of a variety of food and forest products such as timber, medicinal
plants, and fruits.
● It is also a source of direct and indirect employment.
● The forest contributes to the Gross National Product from the wood exported.
 ● It helps in the development of road infrastructure used for forest exploitation.
● The forest is a source of raw materials for some industries such as paper and pulp.
● The forest supplies fuelwood which is a source of energy.

Environmental impact of forest

● Forest helps to prevent soil erosion because the roots of the trees bind soil particles
together.
● It helps in the conservation of water resources.
● Forest also influence local climatic conditions through transpiration
● It also acts as a habitat for animals.
● It promotes ecotourism.

Current problems of the exploitation of the resource

● Overexploitation due to the high demand for timber. Exploitation is higher than the
way the trees can replace themselves. Some exploiters destroy and even exploit
young trees.
● Bush fires especially in temperate and tropical forests. This has led to the loss of
several thousands of hectares of forest each year.
● Diseases and pests destroy many of the tree species by feeding on the leaves and
trunks. E.g. The spruce budworm causes a lot of damage to the coniferous forest.
● Difficulty and high cost of exploitation. This is common in the tropical rainforest where
species of the same trees hardly grow together but are scattered all over the forest.
This makes exploitation difficult.

Conservation methods
● Forest reserves have been created where exploitation of timber is prohibited or
regulated. These forest reserves are preserved for future use.
● Licenses or authorization are granted by the state to persons or companies willing to
exploit the forest. This is to check the number of exploiters per forest so as not to
overexploit.
● The state has spelled out the number of trees and the species to be exploited so as
to avoid over exploitation. She also makes sure that trees are replaced after
exploitation.
● Fire tracks and traces are cleared and established round the forest to control
bushfires.
● Afforestation and reafforestation is equally being carried out by the state to ensure
that exploitation does not exceed regeneration. New or virgin areas are planted with
trees (Afforestation) while areas where trees have been felled are replaced
immediately with new ones (reafforestation)

Chapter 6: Energy and power resources

Meaning of energy

Energy is the ability or the capacity to do work.

Sources of energy
The general sources of energy are classified into traditional and modern.
Traditional sources: The traditional sources include firewood and charcoal.
The modern sources of power are coal, natural gas, petroleum. Solar energy, waterfall
(Hydroelectric power, HEP), tides, winds, biogas, and biotic waves.

Forms of energy resources:

a) Non-renewable energy sources

Energy can be classified into two forms namely, renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.

b) Non-renewable energy sources

This can be defined as finite resources as their exploitation can lead to exhaustion of supply.
The main examples of non-renewable energy resources are coal, natural gas, and
petroleum, and nuclear energy.

Coal: This is a very old source of energy that was used in the past, especially in the heaviest
industrial regions in the midlands in Great Britain, Rhur in Germany as well as Pittsburgh in
the USA. Coal consists of Carbon formed from the accumulation of organic compounds.

Petroleum: It is formed from the decay of minute marine organisms within the floors of seas.
Petroleum is also called crude oil and is greatly available in the Middle East, Venezuela and
Russia.

Natural gas: This is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, with a greater percentage of

methane in it making up to 80-90%. Other gases include ethane, propane, and butane.
Natural gas often occurs together with petroleum at times or may occur alone.

Nuclear energy: This is the energy that is gotten from the fusion of radioactive elements like
uranium which generates electricity.

Renewable energy sources

These resources are a “flow” of nature that can be used over and over again. The main
renewable energy resources include solar energy, hydro-electric power, tides and wind
energy, geothermal, biotic waves, biogas, and forest (wood)

Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P): this is the most available source of energy and the cleanest
as well and very flexible. It is derived from flowing rivers where dams are constructed,
storing water in large reservoirs to turn hydro-turbines. Hydro-power plants convert the
energy of flowing water into electricity.

Advantages of Hydro-electricity over other forms of energy

● It is a very clean source of energy.
● It can last for as long as the water is available to supply the energy.
● It is equally very flexible and easy to use.
● It is very easy and convenient to transport just with the use of wires.
 ● It is the cheapest source of energy as compared to other sources.

Disadvantages
● Dam construction is often very expensive.
● It involves the displacement of people.
● Climatic changes may reduce the volume of water in the reservoirs, especially during
the dry season.

Wind energy: This is energy developed in areas where the wind is blowing so as to rotate
the rotor blades thereby generating electricity. Wind farms are only located in regions where
fast, strong and steady winds are blowing.

Solar energy: solar energy is generated by a panel containing light sensitivity cells exposed
to sunlight, which immediately converts it to electricity.

Geothermal energy: this is energy generated far below the earth’s surface, as a result of
great heat and pressure. Such areas of high pressure and temperature are often hot spots,
geysers, and tectonic zones.

Biomass: Biomass as a source of energy consists of organic matter such as agricultural

waste, wood, and bark. Biomass can be burned directly in specially designed power plants
or used to replace up to 15% of coal as fuel in ordinary power plants. Biomass burns cleaner
than cold because it has less sulphur.

Forms of energy resources:

a) Non-renewable energy sources
Energy can be classified into two forms namely, renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.
Non-renewable energy sources
This can be defined as finite resources as their exploitation can lead to exhaustion of supply.
The main examples of non-renewable energy resources are coal, natural gas, petroleum,
and nuclear energy.

Coal: This is a very old source of energy that was used in the past, especially in the heaviest
industrial regions in the midlands in Great Britain, Rhur in Germany as well as Pittsburgh in
the USA. Coal consists of Carbon formed from the accumulation of organic compounds.
Petroleum: It is formed from the decay of minute marine organisms within the floors of seas.
Petroleum is also called crude oil and is greatly available in the Middle East, Venezuela and
Russia.
Natural gas: This is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, with a greater percentage of
methane in it making up to 80-90%. Other gases include ethane, propane, and butane.
Natural gas often occurs together with petroleum at times or may occur alone.
Nuclear energy: This is the energy that is gotten from the fusion of radioactive elements like
uranium which generates electricity.

Problems associated with energy resources

Air, and water pollution
Damage to public health
Wildlife and habitat loss
Global warming emissions

Energy conservation methods

Use public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.
By switching off electricity when not in use.
By using power-saving devices.
By using non-conventional sources of energy.