Geologic time scale

The geologic time scale, or geological time scale, (GTS) is a representation

of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a system of chronological
dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating strata to time)
and geochronology (scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the
age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists,
paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to
describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time
scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the
observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies,
paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardized
international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective[1] is to
precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International
Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC)[2] that are used to define divisions of
geologic time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define
geochronologic units.[2] Geologic time scale with proportional
representation of eons/eonothems and
While some regional terms are still in use,[3] the table of geologic time eras/erathems. Cenozoic is abbreviated to Cz. The
presented in this article conforms to the nomenclature, ages, and color codes image also shows some notable events in Earth's
set forth by the ICS as this is the standard, reference global geologic time history and the general evolution of life.
scale – the International Geological Time Scale.[1][4]

Contents
Principles
Terminology
Divisions of geologic time
Naming of geologic time
History of the geologic time scale
Early history
Establishment of primary principles
Formulation of a modern geologic time scale
The advent of geochronometry
Modern international geologic time scale
Major proposed revisions to the ICC
Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch
Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline
Shields et al. 2021
Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012)
Table of geologic time
Non-Earth based geologic time scales
Lunar (selenological) time scale
Martian geologic time scale
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Principles
The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time
span of about 4.54  ±  0.05  Ga (4.54 billion years).[5] It chronologically organizes strata, and subsequently time, by observing
fundamental changes in stratigraphy that correspond to major geological or paleontological events. For example, the Cretaceous–
Paleogene extinction event, marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System/Period and thus the boundary between the
Cretaceous and Paleogene Systems/Periods. For divisions prior to the Cryogenian, arbitrary numeric boundary definitions
(Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages, GSSAs) are used to divide geologic time. Proposals have been made to better reconcile
these divisions with the rock record.[6][3]

Historically, regional geologic time scales were used[3] due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time
equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardizing globally significant and
identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. Defining
chronostratigraphic units in such a manner allows for the use of global, standardised nomenclature. The ICC represents this
ongoing effort.

The relative relationships of rocks for determining their chronostratigraphic positions use the overriding principles of:

Superposition – Newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned.
Horizontality – All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally.[note 1]
Lateral continuity – Originally deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all directions until either thinning out or
being cut off by a different rock layer.
Biologic succession (where applicable) – This states that each stratum in a succession contains a distinctive
set of fossils. This allows for correlation of stratum even when the horizon between them is not continuous.
Cross-cutting relationships – A rock feature that cuts across another feature must be younger than the rock it
cuts.
Inclusion – Small fragments of one type of rock but embedded in a second type of rock must have formed first,
and were included when the second rock was forming.
Relationships of unconformities – Geologic features representing periods of erosion or non-deposition,
indicating non-continuous sediment deposition.

Terminology
The GTS is divided into chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding geochronologic units. These are represented on the
ICC published by the ICS; however, regional terms are still in use in some areas.

Chronostratigraphy is the element of stratigraphy that deals with the relation between rock bodies and the relative measurement
of geological time.[7] It is the process where distinct strata between defined stratigraphic horizons are assigned to represent a
relative interval of geologic time.

A chronostratigraphic unit is a body of rock, layered or unlayered, that is defined between specified stratigraphic horizons which
represent specified intervals of geologic time. They include all rocks representative of a specific interval of geologic time, and
only this time span.[7]
Eonothem, erathem, system, series, subseries, stage, and substage are the hierarchical chronostratigraphic
units.[7]
Geochronology is the scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments either
through absolute (e.g., radiometric dating) or relative means (e.g., stratigraphic position, Paleomagnetism, stable isotope
ratios).[8]

A geochronologic unit is a subdivision of geologic time. It is a numeric representation of an intangible property (time).[8] Eon,
era, period, epoch, subepoch, age, and subage are the hierarchical geochronologic units.[7] Geochronometry is the field of
geochronology that numerically quantifies geologic time.[8]

A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic
section which defines the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale.[9] (Recently this has been used to define the
base of a system)[10]

A Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)[11] is a numeric only, chronologic reference point used to define the base of
geochronologic units prior to the Cryogenian. These points are arbitrarily defined.[7] They are used where GSSPs have not yet
been established. Research is ongoing to define GSSPs for the base of all units that are currently defined by GSSAs.
The numeric (geochronometric) representation of a geochronologic unit can, and is more frequently subject to, change when
geochronology refines the geochronometry, while the equivalent chronostratigraphic unit remains the same, and their revision is
less common. For example, in early 2022 the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian Periods (geochronologic units)
was revised from 541 Ma to 538.8 Ma but the rock definition of the boundary (GSSP) at the base of the Cambrian, and thus the
boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian Systems (chronostratigraphic units) has not changed, merely the
geochronometry has been refined.

The numeric values on the ICC are represented by the unit Ma (megaannum) meaning "million years", i.e., 201.3 ± 0.2 Ma, the
lower boundary of the Jurassic Period, is defined as 201,300,000 years old with an uncertainty of 200,000 years. Other SI prefix
units commonly used by geologists are Ga (gigaannum, billion years), and ka (kiloannum, thousand years), with the latter often
represented in calibrated units (before present).

Divisions of geologic time

An eon is the largest (formal) geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic eonothem.[12] As of
April 2022 there are three formally defined eons/eonothems: the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic.[2] The Hadean is an
informal eon/eonothem, but is commonly used.[12]

An era is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic erathem.[7][12] As of
April 2022 there are currently ten defined eras/erathems.[2]

A period is a major rank below an era and above an epoch. It is the geochronologic equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
system.[7][12]As of April 2022 there are currently 22 defined periods/systems.[2] As an exception two subperiods/subsystems are
used for the Carboniferous Period/System.[7]

An epoch is the second smallest geochronologic unit, between a period and an age. It is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
series.[7][12] As of April  2022 there are currently 37 defined and one informal epochs/series. There are also 11
subepochs/subseries which are all within the Neogene and Quaternary.[2] The use of subseries/subepochs as formal ranks/units
in international chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022.[13]

An age is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic stage.[7][12] As of
April 2022 there are currently 96 formal and five informal ages/stages.[2]

A chron is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
chronozone.[7] These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or biostratigraphic units as they are based on
previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features.

The Early and Late subdivisions are used as the geochronologic equivalents of the chronostratigraphic Lower and Upper, e.g.,
Early Triassic Period (geochronologic unit) is used in place of Lower Triassic Series (chronostratigraphic unit).

In essence, it is true to say that rocks representing a given chronostratigraphic unit are that chronostratigraphic unit, and the time
they were laid down in is the geochronologic unit, i.e., the rocks that represent the Silurian Series are the Silurian Series and they
were deposited during the Silurian Period.

Formal, hierarchical units of the geologic time scale (largest to smallest)

Chronostratigraphic unit (strata) Geochronologic unit (time) Time span[note 2]

Eonothem Eon Several hundred millions of years
Erathem Era Tens to hundreds of millions of years
System Period Millions of years to tens of millions of years
Series Epoch Hundreds of thousands of years to tens of millions of years
Subseries Subepoch Thousands of years to millions of years
Stage Age Thousands of years to millions of years

Naming of geologic time

The names of geologic time units are defined for chronostratigraphic units with the corresponding geochronologic unit sharing
the same name with a change to the latter (e.g. Phanerozoic Eonothem becomes the Phanerozoic Eon). Names of erathems in the
Phanerozoic were chosen to reflect major changes of the history of life on Earth: Paleozoic (old life), Mesozoic (middle life), and
Cenozoic (new life). Names of systems are diverse in origin, with some indicating chronologic position (e.g., Paleogene), while
others are named for lithology (e.g., Cretaceous), geography (e.g., Permian), or are tribal (e.g., Ordovician) in origin. Most
currently recognised series and subseries are named for their position within a system/series (early/middle/late); however, the ICS
advocates for all new series and subseries to be named for a geographic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type locality.
The name of stages should also be derived from a geographic feature in the locality of its stratotype or type locality.[7]

Informally, the time before the Cambrian is often referred to as the pre-Cambrian or Precambrian (Supereon).[6][note 3]

Time span and etymology of eonothem/eon names

Name Time Span Etymology of name
From the Greek words φανερός (phanerós) meaning 'visible' or 'abundant', and ζωή
Phanerozoic 538.8 to 0 million years ago
(zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
From the Greek words πρότερος (próteros) meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zoḯ)
Proterozoic 2,500 to 538.8 million years ago
meaning 'life'.
Archean 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago From the Greek word αρχή (arche), meaning 'beginning, origin'.
Hadean ~4,600 to 4,000 million years ago From Hades, the Greek god.

Time span and etymology of erathem/era names

Name Time Span Etymology of name
Cenozoic 66 to 0 million years ago From the Greek words καινός (kainós) meaning 'new', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
Mesozoic 251.9 to 66 million years ago From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
Paleozoic 538.8 to 251.9 million years ago From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
From the Greek words νέος (néos) meaning 'new' or 'young', πρότερος (próteros)
Neoproterozoic 1,000 to 538.8 million years ago
meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', πρότερος (próteros)
Mesoproterozoic 1,600 to 1,000 million years ago
meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', πρότερος (próteros)
Paleoproterozoic 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago
meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zoḯ) meaning 'life'.
From the Greek words νέος (néos) meaning 'new' or 'young', and ἀρχαῖος
Neoarchean 2,800 to 2,500 million years ago
(arkhaîos) meaning 'ancient'.
From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos)
Mesoarchean 3,200 to 2,800 million years ago
meaning 'ancient'.
From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos)
Paleoarchean 3,600 to 3,200 million years ago
meaning 'ancient'.
From the Greek words Ηώς (Iós) meaning 'dawn', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos) meaning
Eoarchean 4,000 to 3,600 million years ago
'ancient'.
 Time span and etymology of system/period names
Name Time Span Etymology of name
First introduced by Jules Desnoyers in 1829 for sediments in France's Seine Basin
Quaternary 2.6 to 0 million years ago
that appeared to be younger than Tertiary[note 4] rocks.[14]
Derived from the Greek words νέος (néos) meaning 'new', and γενεά (geneá)
Neogene 23 to 2.6 million years ago
meaining 'genesis' or 'birth'.
Derived from the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', and γενεά (geneá)
Paleogene 66 to 23 million years ago
meaining 'genesis' or 'birth'.
Derived from Terrain Crétacé used in 1822 by Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in reference to
Cretaceous 145 to 66 million years ago extensive beds of chalk within the Paris Basin.[15] Ultimately derived from the Latin
crēta meaning (chalk).
Named after the Jura Mountains. Originally used by Alexander von Humboldt as 'Jura
Jurassic 201.3 to 145 million years ago Kalkstein' (Jura limestone) in 1799.[16] Alexandre Brongniart was the first to publish
the term Jurassic in 1829.[17][18]
From the Trias of Friedrich August von Alberti in reference to a trio of formations
Triassic 251.9 to 201.3 million years ago
widespread in southern Germany.

Permian 298.9 to 251.9 million years ago Named after the historical region of Perm, Russian Empire.[19]

Carboniferous 358.9 to 298.9 million years ago Means 'coal-bearing', from the Latin carbō (coal) and ferō (to bear, carry).[20]

Devonian 419.2 to 358.9 million years ago Named after Devon, England.[21]

Silurian 443.8 to 419.2 million years ago Named after the Celtic tribe, the Silures.[22]

Ordovician 485.4 to 443.8 million years ago Named after the Celtic tribe, Ordovices.[23][24]

Cambrian 538.8 to 485.4 million years ago Named for Cambria, a latinised form of the Welsh name for Wales, Cymru.[25]
Named for the Ediacara Hills. Ediacara is possibly a corruption of the Kuyani words
Ediacaran 635 to 538.8 million years ago
'Yata Takarra' meaning hard or stony ground.[26][27]
From the Greek words κρύος (krýos) meaning 'cold', and, γένεσις (génesis) meaning
Cryogenian 720 to 635 million years ago
'birth'.[3]

Tonian 1,000 to 720 million years ago From the Greek word τόνος (tónos) meaning 'stretch'.[3]

Stenian 1,200 to 1,000 million years ago From the Greek word στενός (stenós) meaning 'narrow'.[3]

Ectasian 1,400 to 1,200 million years ago From the Greek word ἔκτᾰσῐς (éktasis) meaning 'extension'.[3]

Calymmian 1,600 to 1,400 million years ago From the Greek word κάλυμμᾰ (kálumma) meaning 'cover'.[3]

Statherian 1,800 to 1,600 million years ago From the Greek word σταθερός (statherós) meaning 'stable'.[3]

Orosirian 2,050 to 1,800 million years ago From the Greek word ὀροσειρά (oroseirá) meaning 'mountain range'.[3]

Rhyacian 2,300 to 2,050 million years ago From the Greek word ῥύαξ (rhýax) meaning 'stream of lava'.[3]

Siderian 2,500 to 2,300 million years ago From the Greek word σίδηρος (sídiros) meaning 'iron'.[3]

History of the geologic time scale

Early history

While a modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911[28] by Arthur Holmes, the broader concept that rocks and
time are related can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE)
observed rock beds with fossils of shells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to
imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed.[29] This
view was shared by a few of Xenophanes' contemporaries and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322  BCE) who
(with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of
deep time was also recognised by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo[30] (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the
Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in their treatises.[29] Their work likely
inspired that of the 11th-century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ, 980–1037) who wrote in The Book of Healing (1027) on
the concept of stratification and superposition, pre-dating Nicolas Steno by more than six centuries.[29] Avicenna also recognised
fossils as "petrifications of the bodies of plants and animals",[31] with the 13th-century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (c.
1200–1280) extending this into a theory of a petrifying fluid.[32] These works appeared to have little influence on scholars in
Medieval Europe who looked to the Bible to explain the origins of fossils and sea-level changes, often attributing these to the
'Deluge', including Ristoro d'Arezzo in 1282.[29] It was not until the Italian Renaissance when Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
would reinvigorate the relationships between stratification, relative sea-level change, and time, denouncing attribution of fossils
to the 'Deluge':[33][29]

Of the stupidity and ignorance of those who imagine that these creatures were carried to such places distant from the
sea by the Deluge...Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between the different layers of stone
unless they had been upon the shore and had been covered over by earth newly thrown up by the sea which then
became petrified? And if the above-mentioned Deluge had carried them to these places from the sea, you would
find the shells at the edge of one layer of rock only, not at the edge of many where may be counted the winters of
the years during which the sea multiplied the layers of sand and mud brought down by the neighboring rivers and
spread them over its shores. And if you wish to say that there must have been many deluges in order to produce
these layers and the shells among them it would then become necessary for you to affirm that such a deluge took
place every year.

These views of da Vinci remained unpublished, and thus lacked influence at the time; however, questions of fossils and their
significance were pursued and, while views against Genesis were not readily accepted and dissent from religious doctrine was in
some places unwise, scholars such as Girolamo Fracastoro shared da Vinci's views, and found the attribution of fossils to the
'Deluge' absurd.[29]

Establishment of primary principles

Niels Stensen, more commonly known as Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), is credited with establishing four of the guiding principles
of stratigraphy.[29] In De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus Steno states:[34][35]

When any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting on it was fluid and, therefore, when
the lowest stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed.
...strata which are either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to it were at one time parallel to the
horizon.
When any given stratum was being formed, it was either encompassed at its edges by another solid
substance or it covered the whole globe of the earth. Hence, it follows that wherever bared edges of
strata are seen, either a continuation of the same strata must be looked for or another solid
substance must be found that kept the material of the strata from being dispersed.
If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.

Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships.
From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from
Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging.[29] These basic
principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining
correlation of strata relative geologic time.

Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that:

Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition
Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances
The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history

Formulation of a modern geologic time scale

The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced by Thomas Burnet who applied
a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger
"monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii".[36][29] This attribution to the 'Deluge', while questioned
earlier by the likes of da Vinci, was the foundation of Abraham Gottlob Werner's (1749–1817) Neptunism theory in which all
rocks precipitated out of a single flood.[37] A competing theory, Plutonism, was developed by Anton Moro (1687–1784) and
also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units.[38][29] In this early version of the Plutonism theory, the interior of Earth
was seen as hot, and this drove the creation of primary igneous and metamorphic rocks and secondary rocks formed contorted
and fossiliferous sediments. These primary and secondary divisions were expanded on by Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti (1712–
1783) and Giovanni Arduino (1713–1795) to include tertiary and quaternary divisions.[29] These divisions were used to describe
both the time during which the rocks were laid down, and the collection of rocks themselves (i.e., it was correct to say Tertiary
rocks, and Tertiary Period). Only the Quaternary division is retained in the modern geologic time scale, while the Tertiary
division was in use until the early 21st century. The Neputism and Plutonism theories would compete into the early 19th century
with a key driver for resolution of this debate being the work of James Hutton (1726–1797), in particular his Theory of the
Earth, first presented before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1785.[39][40][41] Hutton's theory would later become known as
uniformitarianism, popularised by John Playfair[42] (1748–1819) and later Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his Principles of
Geology.[43][44][45] Their theories strongly contested the 6,000 year age of the Earth as suggested determined by James Ussher
via Biblical chronology that was accepted at the time by western religion. Instead, using geological evidence, they contested
Earth to be much older, cementing the concept of deep time.

During the early 19th century William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart pioneered
the systematic division of rocks by stratigraphy and fossil assemblages. These geologists began to use the local names given to
rock units in a wider sense, correlating strata across national and continental boundaries based on their similarity to each other.
Many of the names below erathem/era rank in use on the modern ICC/GTS were determined during the early to mid-19th
century.

The advent of geochronometry

During the 19th century, the debate regarding Earth's age was renewed, with geologists estimating ages based on denudation
rates and sedimentary thicknesses or ocean chemistry, and physicists determining ages for the cooling of the Earth or the Sun
using basic thermodynamics or orbital physics.[5] These estimations varied from 15,000 million years to 0.075 million years
depending on method and author, but the estimations of Lord Kelvin and Clarence King were held in high regard at the time due
to their pre-eminence in physics and geology. All of these early geochronometric determinations would later prove to be
incorrect.

The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie laid the ground work for radiometric
dating, but the knowledge and tools required for accurate determination of radiometric ages would not be in place until the mid-
1950s.[5] Early attempts at determining ages of uranium minerals and rocks by Ernest Rutherford, Bertram Boltwood, Robert
Strutt, and Arthur Holmes, would culminate in what are considered the first international geological time scales by Holmes in
1911 and 1913.[28][46][47] The discovery of isotopes in 1913[48] by Frederick Soddy, and the developments in mass
spectrometry pioneered by Francis William Aston, Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, and Alfred O. C. Nier during the early to mid-20th
century would finally allow for the accurate determination of radiometric ages, with Holmes publishing several revisions to his
geological time-scale with his final version in 1960.[5][47][49][50]

Modern international geologic time scale

The establishment of the IUGS in 1961[51] and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965)[52] to become a
member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment,
publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological
Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions".[1]

Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982,[53] 1989,[54] 2004,[55] 2008,[56]
2012,[57] 2016,[58] and 2020.[59] However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC
citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack oversight of the by ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS
books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS.[2] Subsequent Geologic Time
Scale books (2016[58] and 2020[59]) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to
the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one
new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since the prior version.

The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the
Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most
recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth
timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.
 Millions of Years (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th)

Thousands of years (5th)

Major proposed revisions to the ICC

Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch

First suggested in 2000,[60] the Anthropocene is a proposed epoch/series for the most recent time in Earth's history. While still
informal, it is a widely used term to denote the present geologic time interval, in which many conditions and processes on Earth
are profoundly altered by human impact.[61] As of April 2022 the Anthropocene has not been ratified by the ICS; however, in
May 2019 the Anthropocene Working Group voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS for the establishment of
the Anthropocene Series/Epoch.[62] However, the definition of the Anthropocene as a geologic time period rather than a
geologic event remains controversial and difficult.[63][64][65][66]

Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline

Shields et al. 2021

An international working group of the ICS on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphic subdivision have outlined a template to
improve the pre-Cyrogenian geologic time scale based on the rock record to bring it in line with the post-Tonian geologic time
scale.[6] This work assessed the geologic history of the currently defined eons and eras of the pre-Cambrian,[note 3] and the
proposals in the "Geological Time Scale" books 2004,[67] 2012,[3] and 2020.[68] Their recommend revisions[6] of the pre-
Cryogenian geologic time scale were (changes from the current scale [v2022/02] are italicised):

Three divisions of the Archean instead of four by dropping Eoarchean, and revisions to their geochronometric
definition, along with the repositioning of the Siderian into the latest Neoarchean, and a potential Kratian
division in the Neoarchean.
Archean (4000–2450 Ma)
Paleoarchean (4000–3500 Ma)
Mesoarchean (3500–3000 Ma)
Neoarchean (3500–2450 Ma)
Kratian (no fixed time given, prior to the Siderian) – from Greek word κράτος (krátos), meaning
strength.
Siderian (?–2450 Ma) – moved from Proterozoic to end of Archean, no start time given, base of
Paleoproterozoic defines the end of the Siderian
Refinement of geochronometric divisions of the Proterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, repositioning of the Statherian
into the Mesoproterozoic, new Skourian period/system in the Paleoproterozoic, new Kleisian or Syndian
 period/system in the Neoproterozoic.
Paleoproterozoic (2450–1800 Ma)
Skourian (2450–2300 Ma) – from the Greek word σκουριά (skouriá), meaning 'rust'.
Rhyacian (2300–2050 Ma)
Orosirian (2050–1800 Ma)
Mesoproterozoic (1800–1000 Ma)
Statherian (1800–1600 Ma)
Calymmian (1600–1400 Ma)
Ectasian (1400-1200 Ma)
Stenian (1200–1000 Ma)
Neoproterozoic (1000–538.8 Ma)[note 5]
Kleisian or Syndian (1000–800 Ma) – respectively from the Greek words κλείσιμο (kleísimo) meaning
'closure', and σύνδεση (sýndesi) meaning 'connection'.
Tonian (800–720 Ma)
Cryogenian (720–635 Ma)
Ediacaran (635–538.8 Ma)

Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (Shield et al. 2021, ICS working group on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphy), shown to
scale:[note 6]

Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2022/02), shown to scale:

Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012)

The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was
closely associated with the ICS.[2] It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important
events such as the formation of the solar system and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time
maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.[69] As of April  2022 these
proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes were (changes from the current scale [v2022/02]
are italicised):

Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma)

Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic
phase of planet formation.[57][70][71]
Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone
Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons.[57][70]
Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma)
Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma)
Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved
pieces of continental crust.[57][70]
Isuan Period (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt.[57]
Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780 Ma)
 Vaalbaran Period/System (3490–3020 Ma) – based on the names of the Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and
Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons, to reflect the growth of stable continental nuclei or proto-cratonic
kernels.[57]
Pongolan Period/System (3020–2780 Ma) – named after the Pongola Supergroup, in reference to the
well preserved evidence of terrestrial microbial communities in those rocks.[57]
Neoarchean Era/Erathem (2780–2420 Ma)
Methanian Period/System (2780–2630 Ma) – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic
prokaryotes[57]
Siderian Period/System (2630–2420 Ma) – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed
within its duration.[57]
Proterozoic Eon/Eonothem (2420–538.8 Ma)[note 5]
Paleoproterozoic Era/Erathem (2420–1780 Ma)
Oxygenian Period/System (2420–2250 Ma) – named for displaying the first evidence for a global
oxidizing atmosphere.[57]
Jatulian or Eukaryian Period/System (2250–2060 Ma) – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–
Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed)[72][73] first fossil
appearance of eukaryotes.[57]
Columbian Period/System (2060–1780 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Columbia.[57]
Mesoproterozoic Era/Erathem (1780–850 Ma)
Rodinian Period/System (1780–850 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable
environment.[57]

Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (GTS2012), shown to scale:

Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2022/02), shown to scale:

Table of geologic time

The following table summarises the major events and characteristics of the divisions making up the geologic time scale of Earth.
This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom. The height of each table
entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time. As such, this table is not to scale and does not accurately
represent the relative time-spans of each geochronologic unit. While the Phanerozoic Eon looks longer than the rest, it merely
spans ~539 million years (~12% of Earth's history), whilst the previous three eons[note 3] collectively span ~3,461 million years
(~76% of Earth's history). This bias toward the most recent eon is in part due to the relative lack of information about events that
occurred during the first three eons compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic).[6][74] The use of subseries/subepochs has
been ratified by the ICS.[13]

The content of the table is based on the official ICC produced and maintained by the ICS who also provide an online interactive
version of this chart. The interactive version is based on a service delivering a machine-readable Resource Description
Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the time scale, which is available through the Commission for the
Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service[75] and at a SPARQL end-point.[76][77]
 Start,
Eonothem/
Erathem/ System/
Series/
Stage/ million
Major events
Eon Era Period Epoch Age years ago

[note 7]

Phanerozoic Cenozoic
Quaternary 4.2-kiloyear event,
[note 4] Austronesian
Meghalayan expansion, 0.0042 *
increasing industrial
CO2.

8.2-kiloyear event,
Holocene climatic
optimum. Sea level
flooding of
Doggerland and
Sundaland. Sahara
becomes a desert.
Northgrippian 0.0082 *
End of Stone Age
and start of
recorded history.
Holocene Humans finally
expand into the
Arctic Archipelago
and Greenland.
Climate stabilizes.
Current interglacial
and Holocene
extinction begins.
Agriculture begins. 0.0117
Humans spread ± 0.000099
Greenlandian
across the wet *
Sahara and Arabia,
the Extreme North,
and the Americas
(mainland and the
Caribbean).
Pleistocene Eemian interglacial,
last glacial period,
ending with Younger
Dryas. Toba
eruption.
Pleistocene
Upper/Late
megafauna 0.129
('Tarantian')
(including the last
terror birds)
extinction. Humans
expand into Near
Oceania and the
Americas.
Mid-Pleistocene
Transition occurs,
high amplitude 100
Chibanian 0.774 *
ka glacial cycles.
Rise of Homo
sapiens.
Further cooling of
the climate. Giant
terror birds go
Calabrian extinct. Spread of 1.8 *
Homo erectus
across Afro-
Eurasia.
Gelasian Start of Quaternary 2.58 *
glaciations and
unstable climate.[78]
 Rise of the
Pleistocene
megafauna and
Homo habilis.
Neogene Greenland ice sheet
develops[79] as the
cold slowly
intensifies towards
the Pleistocene.
Atmospheric O2
and CO2 content
reaches present-
day levels while
landmasses also
reach their current
locations (e.g. the
Piacenzian Isthmus of Panama 3.6 *
joins the North and
South Americas,
while allowing a
faunal interchange).
Pliocene The last non-
marsupial
metatherians go
extinct.
Australopithecus
common in East
Africa; Stone Age
begins.[80]
Zanclean flooding of
the Mediterranean
Basin. Cooling
climate continues
Zanclean from the Miocene. 5.333 *
First equines and
elephantines.
Ardipithecus in
Africa.[80]
Miocene Messinian Event
with hypersaline
lakes in empty
Mediterranean
Basin. Sahara
desert formation
Messinian
begins. Moderate 7.246 *
icehouse climate,
punctuated by ice
ages and re-
establishment of
East Antarctic Ice
Sheet.
Choristoderes, the
last non-crocodilian
crocodylomorphs
and creodonts go
extinct. After
separating from
Tortonian 11.63 *
gorilla ancestors,
chimpanzee and
human ancestors
gradually separate;
Sahelanthropus and
Orrorin in Africa.
Serravallian Middle Miocene 13.82 *
climate optimum
temporarily
 provides a warm
climate.[81]
Extinctions in
middle Miocene
disruption,
decreasing shark
Langhian diversity. First 15.97
hippos. Ancestor of
great apes.
Burdigalian Orogeny in 20.44
Northern
Hemisphere. Start
of Kaikoura
Orogeny forming
Southern Alps in
New Zealand.
Widespread forests
slowly draw in
massive amounts
of CO2, gradually
lowering the level of
atmospheric CO2
from 650 ppmv
down to around 100
ppmv during the
Miocene.[82][note 8]
Modern bird and
mammal families
become
Aquitanian recognizable. The 23.03 *
last of the primitive
whales go extinct.
Grasses become
ubiquitous.
Ancestor of apes,
including
humans.[83][84]
Afro-Arabia collides
with Eurasia, fully
forming the Alpide
Belt and closing the
Tethys Ocean,
while allowing a
faunal interchange.
At the same time,
Afro-Arabia splits
into Africa and West
Asia.
Paleogene Oligocene Grande Coupure
extinction. Start of
widespread
Antarctic
glaciation.[85] Rapid
Chattian 27.82
evolution and
diversification of
fauna, especially
mammals (e.g. first
macropods and
seals). Major
Rupelian evolution and 33.9 *
dispersal of modern
types of flowering
plants.
Cimolestans,
miacoids and
condylarths go
extinct. First
 neocetes (modern,
fully aquatic
whales) appear.
Eocene Moderate, cooling
climate. Archaic
mammals (e.g.
creodonts,
miacoids,
Priabonian "condylarths" etc.) 37.71 *
flourish and
continue to develop
during the epoch.
Appearance of
several "modern"
mammal families.
Primitive whales
and sea cows
diversify after
returning to water.
Birds continue to
diversify. First kelp,
Bartonian 41.2
diprotodonts, bears
and simians. The
multituberculates
and leptictidans go
extinct by the end of
the epoch.
Reglaciation of
Antarctica and
formation of its ice
cap; End of
Laramide and
Sevier Orogenies of
Lutetian the Rocky 47.8 *
Mountains in North
America. Hellenic
Orogeny begins in
Greece and Aegean
Sea.
Ypresian Two transient 56 *
events of global
warming (PETM
and ETM-2) and
warming climate
until the Eocene
Climatic Optimum.
The Azolla event
decreased CO2
levels from 3500
ppm to 650 ppm,
setting the stage for
a long period of
cooling.[82][note 8]
Greater India
collides with
Eurasia and starts
Himalayan Orogeny
(allowing a biotic
interchange) while
Eurasia completely
separates from
North America,
creating the North
Atlantic Ocean.
Maritime Southeast
Asia diverges from
the rest of Eurasia.
First passerines,
 ruminants,
pangolins, bats and
true primates.

Thanetian Starts with 59.2 *

Chicxulub impact
Selandian and the K-Pg 61.6 *
extinction event,
wiping out all non-
avian dinosaurs and
pterosaurs, most
marine reptiles,
many other
vertebrates (e.g.
many Laurasian
metatherians), most
cephalopods (only
Nautilidae and
Coleoidea survived)
and many other
invertebrates.
Climate tropical.
Mammals and birds
(avians) diversify
rapidly into a
Paleocene number of lineages
following the
Danian extinction event 66 *
(while the marine
revolution stops).
Multituberculates
and the first rodents
widespread. First
large birds (e.g.
ratites and terror
birds) and
mammals (up to
bear or small hippo
size). Alpine
orogeny in Europe
and Asia begins.
First proboscideans
and
plesiadapiformes
(stem primates)
appear. Some
marsupials migrate
to Australia.
Mesozoic Cretaceous Flowering plants 72.1 ± 0.2
Maastrichtian *
proliferate (after
developing many
Campanian features since the 83.6 ± 0.2
Carboniferous),
along with new 86.3 ± 0.5
Santonian *
Upper/Late types of insects,
while other seed
Coniacian 89.8 ± 0.3
plants
Turonian (gymnosperms and 93.9 *
seed ferns) decline.
Cenomanian More modern 100.5 *
teleost fish begin to
Lower/Early Albian appear. ~113 *
Ammonoids,
Aptian belemnites, rudist ~121.4
bivalves, sea
Barremian urchins and ~129.4
sponges all
Hauterivian
common. Many ~132.6 *
Valanginian new types of ~139.8
 dinosaurs (e.g.
Berriasian ~145
tyrannosaurs,
titanosaurs,
hadrosaurs, and
ceratopsids) evolve
on land, while
crocodilians appear
in water and
probably cause the
last temnospondyls
to die out; and
mosasaurs and
modern types of
sharks appear in
the sea. The
revolution started
by marine reptiles
and sharks reaches
its peak, though
ichthyosaurs vanish
few million years
after being heavily
reduced at the
Bonarelli Event.
Toothed and
toothless avian
birds coexist with
pterosaurs. Modern
monotremes,
metatherian
(including
marsupials, who
migrate to South
America) and
eutherian (including
placentals,
leptictidans and
cimolestans)
mammals appear
while the last non-
mammalian
cynodonts die out.
First terrestrial
crabs. Many snails
become terrestrial.
Further breakup of
Gondwana creates
South America,
Afro-Arabia,
Antarctica,
Oceania,
Madagascar,
Greater India, and
the South Atlantic,
Indian and Antarctic
Oceans and the
islands of the Indian
(and some of the
Atlantic) Ocean.
Beginning of
Laramide and
Sevier Orogenies of
the Rocky
Mountains.
Atmospheric
oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels
similar to present
day. Acritarchs
disappear. Climate
 initially warm, but
later it cools.
Jurassic Tithonian Climate becomes 152.1 ± 0.9
humid again.
Upper/Late Kimmeridgian Gymnosperms 157.3 ± 1.0
(especially conifers,
Oxfordian 163.5 ± 1.0
cycads and
Callovian cycadeoids) and 166.1 ± 1.2
ferns common.
Dinosaurs, 168.3 ± 1.3
Bathonian including *
sauropods,
Middle carnosaurs, 170.3 ± 1.4
Bajocian *
stegosaurs and
coelurosaurs,
become the 174.1 ± 1.0
Aalenian *
dominant land
vertebrates.
Lower/Early Mammals diversify 182.7 ± 0.7
Toarcian *
into shuotheriids,
australosphenidans,
Pliensbachian eutriconodonts, 190.8 *
multituberculates,
199.3 ± 0.3
Sinemurian symmetrodonts, *
dryolestids and
Hettangian boreosphenidans 201.3 ± 0.2
but mostly remain *
small. First birds,
lizards, snakes and
turtles. First brown
algae, rays,
shrimps, crabs and
lobsters.
Parvipelvian
ichthyosaurs and
plesiosaurs diverse.
Rhynchocephalians
throughout the
world. Bivalves,
ammonoids and
belemnites
abundant. Sea
urchins very
common, along with
crinoids, starfish,
sponges, and
terebratulid and
rhynchonellid
brachiopods.
Breakup of
Pangaea into
Laurasia and
Gondwana, with the
latter also breaking
into two main parts;
the Pacific and
Arctic Oceans
form. Tethys Ocean
forms. Nevadan
orogeny in North
America. Rangitata
and Cimmerian
orogenies taper off.
Atmospheric CO2
levels 3–4 times the
present-day levels
(1200–1500 ppmv,
compared to
today's 400
 ppmv[82][note 8]).
Crocodylomorphs
(last
pseudosuchians)
seek out an aquatic
lifestyle. Mesozoic
marine revolution
continues from late
Triassic.
Tentaculitans
disappear.
Triassic Rhaetian Archosaurs ~208.5
dominant on land as
Upper/Late Norian pseudosuchians ~227
and in the air as
Carnian pterosaurs. ~237 *
Dinosaurs also
Ladinian ~242 *
Middle arise from bipedal
Anisian archosaurs. 247.2
Ichthyosaurs and
Lower/Early Olenekian nothosaurs (a group 251.2
of sauropterygians)
Induan dominate large 251.902
marine fauna. ± 0.024 *
Cynodonts become
smaller and
nocturnal,
eventually
becoming the first
true mammals,
while other
remaining
synapsids die out.
Rhynchosaurs
(archosaur
relatives) also
common. Seed
ferns called
Dicroidium
remained common
in Gondwana,
before being
replaced by
advanced
gymnosperms.
Many large aquatic
temnospondyl
amphibians.
Ceratitidan
ammonoids
extremely common.
Modern corals and
teleost fish appear,
as do many modern
insect orders and
suborders. First
starfish. Andean
Orogeny in South
America.
Cimmerian
Orogeny in Asia.
Rangitata Orogeny
begins in New
Zealand. Hunter-
Bowen Orogeny in
Northern Australia,
Queensland and
New South Wales
ends, (c. 260–
 225 Ma). Carnian
pluvial event occurs
around 234-232 Ma,
allowing the first
dinosaurs and
lepidosaurs
(including
rhynchocephalians)
to radiate. Triassic-
Jurassic extinction
event occurs
201 Ma, wiping out
all conodonts and
the last parareptiles,
many marine
reptiles (e.g. all
sauropterygians
except plesiosaurs
and all ichthyosaurs
except
parvipelvians), all
crocopodans
except
crocodylomorphs,
pterosaurs, and
dinosaurs, and
many ammonoids
(including the whole
Ceratitida),
bivalves,
brachiopods, corals
and sponges. First
diatoms.[86]
Paleozoic Permian Landmasses unite 254.14
Changhsingian
into supercontinent ± 0.07 *
Lopingian Pangaea, creating
the Urals, 259.51
Wuchiapingian
Ouachitas and ± 0.21 *
Appalachians,
among other 264.28
Capitanian
mountain ranges ± 0.16 *
(the superocean
Panthalassa or 266.9 ± 0.4
Guadalupian Wordian *
Proto-Pacific also
forms). End of
273.01
Roadian Permo-
Carboniferous ± 0.14 *
Cisuralian Kungurian glaciation. Hot and 283.5 ± 0.6
dry climate. A
possible drop in 290.1
Artinskian oxygen levels. ± 0.26 *
Synapsids
(pelycosaurs and 293.52
Sakmarian therapsids) become ± 0.17 *
widespread and
Asselian dominant, while 298.9
parareptiles and ± 0.15 *
temnospondyl
amphibians remain
common, with the
latter probably
giving rise to
modern amphibians
in this period. In the
mid-Permian,
lycophytes are
heavily replaced by
ferns and seed
plants. Beetles and
flies evolve. The
very large
arthropods and non-
tetrapod
tetrapodomorphs go
extinct. Marine life
flourishes in warm
shallow reefs;
productid and
spiriferid
brachiopods,
bivalves, forams,
ammonoids
(including
goniatites), and
orthoceridans all
abundant. Crown
reptiles arise from
earlier diapsids, and
split into the
ancestors of
lepidosaurs,
kuehneosaurids,
choristoderes,
archosaurs,
testudinatans,
ichthyosaurs,
thalattosaurs, and
sauropterygians.
Cynodonts evolve
from larger
therapsids. Olson's
Extinction (273 Ma),
End-Capitanian
extinction (260 Ma),
and Permian-
Triassic extinction
event (252 Ma)
occur one after
another: more than
80% of life on Earth
becomes extinct in
the lattermost,
including most
retarian plankton,
corals (Tabulata and
Rugosa die out
fully), brachiopods,
bryozoans,
gastropods,
ammonoids (the
goniatites die off
fully), insects,
parareptiles,
synapsids,
amphibians, and
crinoids (only
articulates
survived), and all
eurypterids,
trilobites,
graptolites, hyoliths,
edrioasteroid
crinozoans,
blastoids and
acanthodians.
Ouachita and
Innuitian orogenies
in North America.
Uralian orogeny in
 Europe/Asia tapers
off. Altaid orogeny
in Asia. Hunter-
Bowen Orogeny on
Australian continent
begins (c. 260–
225 Ma), forming
the MacDonnell
Ranges.
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
Gzhelian Winged insects 303.7
[note 9] [note 10] radiate suddenly;
Kasimovian some (esp. 307 ± 0.1
Protodonata and
Moscovian 315.2 ± 0.2
Palaeodictyoptera)
Bashkirian of them as well 323.2 *
some millipedes
and scorpions
become very large.
First coal forests
(scale trees, ferns,
club trees, giant
horsetails,
Cordaites, etc.).
Higher atmospheric
oxygen levels. Ice
Age continues to
the Early Permian.
Goniatites,
brachiopods,
bryozoa, bivalves,
and corals plentiful
in the seas and
oceans. First
woodlice. Testate
forams proliferate.
Euramerica collides
with Gondwana and
Siberia-
Kazakhstania, the
latter of which
forms Laurasia and
the Uralian orogeny.
Variscan orogeny
continues (these
collisions created
orogenies, and
ultimately
Pangaea).
Amphibians (e.g.
temnospondyls)
spread in
Euramerica, with
some becoming the
first amniotes.
Carboniferous
Rainforest Collapse
occurs, initiating a
dry climate which
favors amniotes
over amphibians.
Amniotes diversify
rapidly into
synapsids,
parareptiles,
cotylosaurs,
protorothyridids and
diapsids.
Rhizodonts
remained common
 before they died out
by the end of the
period. First sharks.
Serpukhovian Large lycopodian 330.9 ± 0.2
primitive trees
flourish and 346.7 ± 0.4
Viséan *
amphibious
eurypterids live
amid coal-forming
coastal swamps,
radiating
significantly one last
time. First
gymnosperms.
First
holometabolous,
paraneopteran,
polyneopteran,
odonatopteran and
ephemeropteran
insects and first
barnacles. First
five-digited
tetrapods
(amphibians) and
land snails. In the
oceans, bony and
cartilaginous fishes
are dominant and
diverse;
echinoderms
Mississippian
(especially crinoids
[note 10] and blastoids)
abundant. Corals, 358.9 ± 0.4
Tournaisian bryozoans, *
orthoceridans,
goniatites and
brachiopods
(Productida,
Spiriferida, etc.)
recover and
become very
common again, but
trilobites and
nautiloids decline.
Glaciation in East
Gondwana
continues from Late
Devonian. Tuhua
Orogeny in New
Zealand tapers off.
Some lobe finned
fish called
rhizodonts become
abundant and
dominant in
freshwaters. Siberia
collides with a
different small
continent,
Kazakhstania.
Devonian First lycopods, 372.2 ± 1.6
Famennian *
ferns, seed plants
Upper/Late (seed ferns, from
earlier 382.7 ± 1.6
Frasnian *
progymnosperms),
first trees (the
Middle Givetian progymnosperm 387.7 ± 0.8
 Archaeopteris), and *
first winged insects
(palaeoptera and 393.3 ± 1.2
Eifelian *
neoptera).
Strophomenid and
Lower/Early atrypid 407.6 ± 2.6
Emsian *
brachiopods,
rugose and tabulate
corals, and crinoids 410.8 ± 2.8
Pragian *
are all abundant in
the oceans. First
Lochkovian 419.2 ± 3.2
fully coiled *
cephalopods
(Ammonoidea and
Nautilida,
independently) with
the former group
very abundant
(especially
goniatites).
Trilobites and
ostracoderms
decline, while jawed
fishes (placoderms,
lobe-finned and ray-
finned bony fish,
and acanthodians
and early
cartilaginous fish)
proliferate. Some
lobe finned fish
transform into
digited fishapods,
slowly becoming
amphibious. The
last non-trilobite
artiopods die off.
First decapods (like
prawns) and
isopods. Pressure
from jawed fishes
cause eurypterids
to decline and some
cephalopods to lose
their shells while
anomalocarids
vanish. "Old Red
Continent" of
Euramerica
persists after
forming in the
Caledonian
orogeny. Beginning
of Acadian Orogeny
for Anti-Atlas
Mountains of North
Africa, and
Appalachian
Mountains of North
America, also the
Antler, Variscan,
and Tuhua
orogenies in New
Zealand. A series of
extinction events,
including the
massive
Kellwasser and
Hangenberg ones,
wipe out many
 acritarchs, corals,
sponges, molluscs,
trilobites,
eurypterids,
graptolites,
brachiopods,
crinozoans (e.g. all
cystoids), and fish,
including all
placoderms and
ostracoderms.
Silurian Ozone layer
thickens. First
Pridoli vascular plants and 423 ± 2.3 *
fully terrestrialized
arthropods:
myriapods,
hexapods (including
insects), and
arachnids. 425.6 ± 0.9
Ludfordian *
Eurypterids
diversify rapidly,
becoming
Ludlow widespread and
dominant.
Cephalopods
continue to flourish.
True jawed fishes, 427.4 ± 0.5
Gorstian *
along with
ostracoderms, also
roam the seas.
Tabulate and rugose
corals, brachiopods
(Pentamerida,
Rhynchonellida,
etc.), cystoids and 430.5 ± 0.7
Homerian *
crinoids all
abundant. Trilobites
and molluscs
Wenlock diverse; graptolites
not as varied. Three
minor extinction
events. Some
echinoderms go 433.4 ± 0.8
Sheinwoodian *
extinct. Beginning of
Caledonian
Orogeny (collision
between Laurentia,
Llandovery Baltica and one of
the formerly small
Gondwanan
terranes) for hills in 438.5 ± 1.1
Telychian *
England, Ireland,
Wales, Scotland,
and the
Scandinavian
Mountains. Also
continued into
Devonian period as
the Acadian 440.8 ± 1.2
Aeronian *
Orogeny, above
(thus Euramerica
forms). Taconic
Orogeny tapers off.
Rhuddanian Icehouse period 443.8 ± 1.5
ends late in this *
period after starting
in Late Ordovician.
Lachlan Orogeny
 on Australian
continent tapers off.
Ordovician The Great 445.2 ± 1.4
Hirnantian *
Ordovician
Biodiversification
Upper/Late Katian Event occurs as 453 ± 0.7 *
plankton increase in
number: 458.4 ± 0.9
Sandbian *
invertebrates
diversify into many
new types 467.3 ± 1.1
Darriwilian *
Middle (especially
brachiopods and
Dapingian molluscs; e.g. long 470 ± 1.4 *
Lower/Early Floian
straight-shelled
cephalopods like 477.7 ± 1.4
(formerly *
Arenig) the long lasting and
diverse
Tremadocian Orthocerida). Early 485.4 ± 1.9
corals, articulate *
brachiopods
(Orthida,
Strophomenida,
etc.), bivalves,
cephalopods
(nautiloids),
trilobites, ostracods,
bryozoans, many
types of
echinoderms
(blastoids, cystoids,
crinoids, sea
urchins, sea
cucumbers, and
star-like forms,
etc.), branched
graptolites, and
other taxa all
common.
Acritarchs still
persist and
common.
Cephalopods
become dominant
and common, with
some trending
toward a coiled
shell.
Anomalocarids
decline. Mysterious
tentaculitans
appear. First
eurypterids and
ostracoderm fish
appear, the latter
probably giving rise
to the jawed fish at
the end of the
period. First
uncontroversial
terrestrial fungi and
fully terrestrialized
plants. Ice age at
the end of this
period, as well as a
series of mass
extinction events,
killing off some
cephalopods and
 many brachiopods,
bryozoans,
echinoderms,
graptolites,
trilobites, bivalves,
corals and
conodonts.
Cambrian Stage 10 Major diversification ~489.5
of (fossils mainly
Furongian Jiangshanian show bilaterian) life ~494 *
in the Cambrian
Paibian Explosion as ~497 *
oxygen levels
Guzhangian increase. ~500.5 *
Numerous fossils;
Miaolingian Drumian ~504.5 *
most modern
Wuliuan animal phyla ~509
(including
Stage 4 arthropods, ~514
Series 2 molluscs, annelids,
Stage 3 echinoderms, ~521
hemichordates and
Terreneuvian Stage 2 chordates) appear. ~529
Fortunian Reef-building ~538.8
archaeocyathan
± 0.2 *
sponges initially
abundant, then
vanish.
Stromatolites
replace them, but
quickly fall prey to
the Agronomic
revolution, when
some animals
started burrowing
through the
microbial mats
(affecting some
other animals as
well). First artiopods
(including trilobites),
priapulid worms,
inarticulate
brachiopods
(unhinged
lampshells),
hyoliths, bryozoans,
graptolites,
pentaradial
echinoderms (e.g.
blastozoans,
crinozoans and
eleutherozoans),
and numerous other
animals.
Anomalocarids are
dominant and giant
predators, while
many Ediacaran
fauna die out.
Crustaceans and
molluscs diversify
rapidly.
Prokaryotes,
protists (e.g.,
forams), algae and
fungi continue to
present day. First
vertebrates from
 earlier chordates.
Petermann
Orogeny on the
Australian continent
tapers off (550–
535 Ma). Ross
Orogeny in
Antarctica.
Delamerian
Orogeny (c. 514–
490 Ma) on
Australian
continent. Some
small terranes split
off from Gondwana.
Atmospheric CO2
content roughly 15
times present-day
(Holocene) levels
(6000 ppm
compared to
today's 400
ppm)[82][note 8]
Arthropods and
streptophyta start
colonizing land. 3
extinction events
occur 517, 502 &
488 Ma, the first
and last of which
wipe out many of
the anomalocarids,
artiopods, hyoliths,
brachiopods,
molluscs, and
conodonts (early
jawless
vertebrates).
Proterozoic Neoproterozoic Good fossils of primitive animals. Ediacaran biota
flourish worldwide in seas, possibly appearing after an
explosion, possibly caused by a large-scale oxidation
event.[87] First vendozoans (unknown affinity among
animals), cnidarians and bilaterians. Enigmatic
vendozoans include many soft-jellied creatures shaped
like bags, disks, or quilts (like Dickinsonia). Simple
trace fossils of possible worm-like Trichophycus,
Ediacaran etc.Taconic Orogeny in North America. Aravalli Range ~635 *
orogeny in Indian subcontinent. Beginning of Pan-
African Orogeny, leading to the formation of the short-
lived Ediacaran supercontinent Pannotia, which by the
end of the period breaks up into Laurentia, Baltica,
Siberia and Gondwana. Petermann Orogeny forms on
Australian continent. Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica,
633–620 Ma. Ozone layer forms. An increase in
oceanic mineral levels.
Possible "Snowball Earth" period. Fossils still rare. Late
Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers off. First ~720
Cryogenian [note 11]
uncontroversial animal fossils. First hypothetical
terrestrial fungi[88] and streptophyta.[89]
Tonian Final assembly of Rodinia supercontinent occurs in 1000
early Tonian, with breakup beginning c. 800 Ma. [note 11]
Sveconorwegian orogeny ends. Grenville Orogeny
tapers off in North America. Lake Ruker / Nimrod
Orogeny in Antarctica, 1,000 ± 150 Ma. Edmundian
Orogeny (c. 920–850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex,
Western Australia. Deposition of Adelaide Superbasin
and Centralian Superbasin begins on Australian
 continent. First hypothetical animals (from holozoans)
and terrestrial algal mats. Many endosymbiotic events
concerning red and green algae occur, transferring
plastids to ochrophyta (e.g. diatoms, brown algae),
dinoflagellates, cryptophyta, haptophyta, and euglenids
(the events may have begun in the Mesoproterozoic)[90]
while the first retarians (e.g. forams) also appear:
eukaryotes diversify rapidly, including algal,
eukaryovoric and biomineralized forms. Trace fossils of
simple multi-celled eukaryotes.
Narrow highly metamorphic belts due to orogeny as
Rodinia forms, surrounded by the Pan-African Ocean.
Sveconorwegian orogeny starts. Late Ruker / Nimrod 1200
Stenian [note 11]
Orogeny in Antarctica possibly begins. Musgrave
Orogeny (c. 1,080–), Musgrave Block, Central
Australia. Stromatolites decline as algae proliferate.
Platform covers continue to expand. Algal colonies in 1400
Ectasian the seas. Grenville Orogeny in North America. [note 11]
Mesoproterozoic Columbia breaks up.
Platform covers expand. Barramundi Orogeny,
McArthur Basin, Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny,
c. 1,600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, Queensland. First
archaeplastidans (the first eukaryotes with plastids from 1600
Calymmian [note 11]
cyanobacteria; e.g. red and green algae) and
opisthokonts (giving rise to the first fungi and
holozoans). Acritarchs (remains of marine algae
possibly) start appearing in the fossil record.
First uncontroversial eukaryotes: protists with nuclei
and endomembrane system. Columbia forms as the
second undisputed earliest supercontinent. Kimban
Orogeny in Australian continent ends. Yapungku 1800
Statherian Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in Western Australia. [note 11]
Mangaroon Orogeny, 1,680–1,620 Ma, on the
Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia. Kararan
Orogeny (1,650 Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia.
Oxygen levels drop again.
The atmosphere becomes much more oxygenic while
more cyanobacterial stromatolites appear. Vredefort and
Paleoproterozoic Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts. Much orogeny.
Penokean and Trans-Hudsonian Orogenies in North 2050
Orosirian [note 11]
America. Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2,000–
1,700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane,
Australian continent c. 2,005–1,920 Ma. Kimban
Orogeny, Gawler craton in Australian continent begins.
Bushveld Igneous Complex forms. Huronian glaciation. 2300
Rhyacian First hypothetical eukaryotes. Multicellular Francevillian [note 11]
biota. Kenorland disassembles.
Great Oxidation Event (due to cyanobacteria) increases 2500
Siderian oxygen. Sleaford Orogeny on Australian continent, [note 11]
Gawler Craton 2,440–2,420 Ma.
Archean Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event.
Insell Orogeny, 2,650 ± 150 Ma. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day 2800
Neoarchean Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilizes by 2,600 Ma. First [note 11]
uncontroversial supercontinent, Kenorland, and first terrestrial
prokaryotes.
First stromatolites (probably colonial phototrophic bacteria, like
cyanobacteria). Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica. 3200
Mesoarchean [note 11]
Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-day Ontario
and Quebec, ends by roughly 2,696 Ma.
Paleoarchean Prokaryotic archaea (e.g. methanogens) and bacteria (e.g. 3600
cyanobacteria) diversify rapidly, along with early viruses. First known [note 11]
phototrophic bacteria. Oldest definitive microfossils. First microbial mats.
 Oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield and the Pilbara
Craton) may have formed during this period.[note 12] Rayner Orogeny in
Antarctica.
First uncontroversial living organisms: at first protocells with RNA-based
genes around 4000 Ma, after which true cells (prokaryotes) evolve along 4000
Eoarchean with proteins and DNA-based genes around 3800 Ma. The end of the [note 11]
Late Heavy Bombardment. Napier Orogeny in Antarctica,
4,000 ± 200 Ma.

Formation of protolith of the oldest known rock (Acasta Gneiss) c. 4,031 to 3,580 Ma.[91][92]
Hadean
Possible first appearance of plate tectonics. First hypothetical life forms. End of the Early ~4600
[note 13] Bombardment Phase. Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8 Ma).[93] Asteroids and [note 11]
comets bring water to Earth, forming the first oceans. Formation of Moon (4,533 to 4,527
Ma), probably from a giant impact. Formation of Earth (4,570 to 4,567.17 Ma)

Non-Earth based geologic time scales

Some other planets and satellites in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own
histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not comparably
preserve their history. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on
the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the
planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing,
and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.[note 14]

Lunar (selenological) time scale

The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on geomorphological markers, namely impact
cratering, volcanism, and erosion. This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale
boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale. Five geologic
systems/periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, Copernican), with the Imbrian divided into two series/epochs
(Early and Late) were defined in the latest Lunar geologic time scale.[94] The Moon is unique in the Solar System that is the only
other body which we have rock samples with a known geological context.

Millions of years before present

Martian geologic time scale

The geological history of Mars has been divided into two alternate time scales. The first time scale for Mars was developed by
studying the impact crater densities on the Martian surface. Through this method four periods have been defined, the Pre-
Noachian (~4,500–4,100 Ma), Noachian (~4,100–3,700 Ma), Hesperian (~3,700–3,000 Ma), and Amazonian (~3,000 Ma to
present).[95][96]

Martian Time Periods (Millions of Years Ago)

A second time scale based on mineral alteration observed by the OMEGA spectrometer on-board the Mars Express. Using this
method, three periods were defined, the Phyllocian (~4,500–4,000 Ma), Theiikian (~4,000–3,500 Ma), and Siderikian (~3,500
Ma to present).[97]
See also
Age of the Earth History of the Earth New Zealand geologic time scale
Cosmic calendar History of geology Prehistoric life
Deep time History of paleontology Timeline of the Big Bang
Evolutionary history of life List of fossil sites Timeline of evolution
Formation and evolution of the List of geochronologic names Timeline of the geologic history of
Solar System Logarithmic timeline the United States
Geological history of Earth Lunar geologic timescale Timeline of human evolution
Geology of Mars Martian geologic timescale Timeline of natural history
Geon (geology) Natural history Timeline of paleontology
Graphical timeline of the universe

Notes
1. It is now known that not all sedimentary layers are deposited purely horizontally, but this principle is still a
useful concept.
2. Time spans of geologic time units vary broadly, and there is no numeric limitation on the time span they can
represent. They are limited by the time span of the higher rank unit they belong to, and to the
chronostratigraphic boundaries they are defined by.
3. Precambrian or pre-Cambrian is an informal geological term for time before the Cambrian period
4. The Tertiary is a now obsolete geologic system/period spanning from 66 Ma to 2.6 Ma. It has no exact
equivalent in the modern ICC, but is approximately equivalent to the merged Palaeogene and Neogene
systems/periods.
5. Geochronometric date for the Ediacaran has been adjusted to reflect ICC v2022/02 as the formal definition for
the base of the Cambrian has not changed.
6. Kratian time span is not given in the article. It lies within the Neoarchean, and prior to the Siderian. The position
shown here is an arbitrary division.
7. The dates and uncertainties quoted are according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy International
Chronostratigraphic chart (v2022/02). A * indicates boundaries where a Global Boundary Stratotype Section
and Point has been internationally agreed.
8. For more information on this, see Atmosphere of Earth#Evolution of Earth's atmosphere, Carbon dioxide in the
Earth's atmosphere, and climate change. Specific graphs of reconstructed CO2 levels over the past ~550, 65,
and 5 million years can be seen at File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png, File:65 Myr Climate Change.png,
File:Five Myr Climate Change.png, respectively.
9. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are official sub-systems/sub-periods.
10. This is divided into Lower/Early, Middle, and Upper/Late series/epochs
11. Defined by absolute age (Global Standard Stratigraphic Age).
12. The age of the oldest measurable craton, or continental crust, is dated to 3,600–3,800 Ma.
13. Though commonly used, the Hadean is not formally ratified by the ICS.
14. Not enough is known about extra-solar planets for worthwhile speculation.

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Further reading
Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen,
Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a
community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ (https://doi.org/10.7916%2FD8DR
35JQ).
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (2004). "A Geologic Time scale 2004 – Why, How and Where Next!" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180417173639/http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.pdf)
(PDF). Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. doi:10.1080/00241160410006483 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F002411604100
06483). Archived from the original (https://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.p
df) (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (2004). A Geologic Time Scale 2004 (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=rse4v1P-f9kC). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78142-8.
Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new
Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene" (https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiug
s%2F2004%2Fv27i2%2F002). Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002 (https://doi.org/
10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F2004%2Fv27i2%2F002).
Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking" (https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/201
4/09/28/351692717/embracing-deep-time-thinking). NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate
Change" (https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/21/350344129/pondering-deep-time-could-inspire-new-wa
ys-to-view-climate-change). NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New
Period for the Geologic Time Scale" (http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~ncb/Selected_Articles_all_files/17_Scienc
e%20305.621.pdf) (PDF). Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803 (https://doi.org/10.112
6%2Fscience.1098803). PMID 15286353 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15286353). S2CID 32763298 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32763298). Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology" (https://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C&pg=PA29).
The Earth Through Time (https://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C). Hoboken, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Montenari, Michael (2016). Stratigraphy and Timescales (https://books.google.com/books?id=xzJQDAAAQBA
J) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-811549-7.
Montenari, Michael (2017). Advances in Sequence Stratigraphy (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Advan
ces_in_Sequence_Stratigraphy.html?id=j5KZDgAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press
(Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-813077-3 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/stratigraphy-and-timescales/vo
l/2/suppl/C)
Montenari, Michael (2018). Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Cyc
lostratigraphy_and_Astrochronology.html?id=mlVwDwAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y)
(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-815098-6 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/boo
kseries/stratigraphy-and-timescales/vol/3/suppl/C)
Montenari, Michael (2019). Case Studies in Isotope Stratigraphy (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Case
_Studies_in_Isotope_Stratigraphy.html?id=am-9DwAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y) (1st
ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier), ISBN 978-0-12-817552-1 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookser
ies/stratigraphy-and-timescales/vol/4/suppl/C)
Montenari, Michael (2020). Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Carbon_Isotop
e_Stratigraphy.html?id=-N4EEAAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y) (1st ed.). Amsterdam:
Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-820991-2 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/stratigraphy-a
nd-timescales/vol/5/suppl/C)
 Montenari, Michael (2021). Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Ca
lcareous_Nannofossil_Biostratigraphy.html?id=2h9OEAAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y)
(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-824624-5 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/boo
kseries/stratigraphy-and-timescales/vol/6/suppl/C)
Nichols, Gary (2013). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Sedimentology
_and_Stratigraphy/Gcgp5oLFrZMC?hl=en&gbpv=0) (2nd ed.). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-
1405135924
Williams, Aiden (2019). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Sedimentolog
y_and_Stratigraphy/etVhxQEACAAJ?hl=en) (1st ed.). Forest Hills, NY: Callisto Reference. ISBN 978-
1641160759

External links
The current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart can be found at stratigraphy.org/chart (https://
stratigraphy.org/chart)
Interactive version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart is found at stratigraphy.org/timescale (https://str
atigraphy.org/timescale)
A list of current Global Boundary Stratotype and Section Points is found at stratigraphy.org/gssps (https://stratigr
aphy.org/gssps/)
NASA: Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20050418090602/http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect2/Sect2_1b.ht
ml)
GSA: Geologic Time Scale (https://web.archive.org/web/20190120115100/https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Edu
cation_Careers/Geologic_Time_Scale/GSA/timescale/home.aspx)
British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/time/timechart/hom
e.html)
GeoWhen Database (https://web.archive.org/web/20040623025505/http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/)
National Museum of Natural History – Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20051111150720/http://www.
nmnh.si.edu/paleo/geotime/index.htm)
SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems (https://www.seegrid.csiro.au/twiki/bin/view/CGIModel/GeologicTime)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080723195950/https://www.seegrid.csiro.au/twiki/bin/view/CGIModel/
GeologicTime) 23 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Information model for the geologic time scale
Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe
Episodes (https://web.archive.org/web/20120425232455/http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/272/Tim
e%20Scale.pdf), Gradstein, Felix M. et al. (2004) A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to
Precambrian and Neogene, Episodes, Vol. 27, no. 2 June 2004 (pdf)
Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937. Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time
(https://books.google.com/books?id=ckIrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc#PPP1,M1)
Lessons for Children on Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20110714173934/http://www.newsciencel
essons.com/geology_lesson_plans.html)
Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive Infographic (http://deeptime.info)
Geology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale (https://geology.buzz/threads/geologic-time-scale.36/)

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