our wen re sak nha cling ound en eta a servation of avery light electric shack, while opening ne door eee siting tom the Seat Ithappene because he dsdmege of ean, etothesor the mater o Te cars mane fo abbing aginst the In 60016C,, the Greek philosopher Thales observed rubbed with wool aquiten he property of atineaag ee eee ee EE SRR Sipapwrndr haves dst parte Marearene eee ena onbeingnibie with canabectanes Foresarn epi sinel tc bisioe Int Mena rubbed with silk, an ebonite rod on being rubbed with farsa pose come" £l@irum sn py te wad a onbuing un dhrough dryhar ete. Theamber, glass al cbonichecer penne ies sls charge eects tek SOR ald tobe electrified or charged with electricity. Wool (eae of lee posta a tna sleet oe SR Sli casof lager) nar ince feb areasofoand EEO an The electricity developed on objects, when they ar ribbed with cach otter, called friction eerie ileal The electric charges so developed cannot move from one past ofthe Udject fo the other part: For this reason, fctonal cletrcty vale Laos as Static electricity ot electrostatics Electrostatics cleals withthe study of forces, potentalsand feldsarising from siptic charges ic, changes at resi. 1.02. TWO KINDS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES: To show that electric charges are of two types, take a glass rod and - . suspend it witha thread after rubbing itwith silk, another glays rod rubbed OSD: asa eee with silk is brought near it, the two rods are found to repel each ether 1a Like charges ryt the same fashion, two ebonite rods each rubbed with fur are also found to hayes stat sah er repel each other. But when an ebonite rad rubbed with furisbroughtneara The pret, win glass rod rubbed with silk, the two rods are found to attract eachother. The the to types ol chat above observations lead to the following two conclusions polarity ofthe cha 1. The electric charge developed on glass rod (rubbed with silk) is different from the charge developed on ebonite rod (rubbed with fur). 2. The electric charges of samw kind (charges developed on two glass rods or an two ebonite rods) repel each other, while those of different kinds (charges developed on a glass fod ancl an ebonite rod) attract each other. rrr apm Historically, the electric charge developed on ebonite rod (or amber) was : re called resinous, while the charge developed on glass rod was called viterous. “The charge developed on amber was cal The American scientist Benjamin Franklin introduced the concept of positive _resinaus, as amber is a resin and negative charges in order to distinguish the two kinds of charges, He FETE TENE named viterous as positive charge and resinous as negative chargé] The jerty which differentiates between the two types of charges is called the polarity of the charge. “Assaid earlier, when glass rod is rubbed with silk, sik isalso found t be electricially charged! tis found that the nature of charge on silk is opposite 3 rch eer and eh vs cated she Consider three objects A, Band Cte dbjeets A and B repel each iter, while 8 and C betwee tract. What is the natave of feree Bandcomouers Law fed toovercome friction between them {The energy omere cletrons from both the plastered eas tightly hound as compared to those insilk. Aw et removes from glass rod and are ranstered tes Sisctrone, becomes praitively Ls ‘ese Migngrtencr aceon gaa ir a irance of charges ie due ta acta) Lit may be pointed out that when two objects are charged by them together. the masses ofboth the objectsehanga)itis because, cee Irina are material particles having a small finite mane aera neprocese, SPICIS topes fe naciieshingatmallintemaccantinthenating gets cee em \ electrons are transferred from one object to the other, The wee ‘actual transfer ut het “parson the bjs which oes eetirons Hen the mes epost tale fen sn he ; hanged object isles than es original meat On ehe e e ostvely we seen Sivget ono mete han Iv ong eens ee ncterenteeyene enaticecy fats fos canbe mga sei eer crm body rough incon wi thocknged Say seagate te charg ot athertand fa hepnvlyargestatr eget Onine flow from it to the body to be electrified. a called heck Sree yeiaiedy Toeter here ther method by wi acharged body, say age rod rabeed Sea a eared conductor, itis found that charge of opposite kind’ is. ‘developed on the near i end of the conductor and charge of same kind on the far end[Fig. 101] However, ifthe charged body is moved away from the conductor, the charges developed on its two ends disappear. ‘This temporary electrification ofa conductor, when a charged body is brought near it, is called electrostatic induction, In contrast to conduction, there is no transfer of electrons between the be two bodies during charging by induction. Its because, no physical contact aS takes place between the charging body and the conductor. Explanation, When positively charged glass rod is brought near the conductor AB, it attracts the free electrons present in the conductor towards it. Asa result, the electrons accumulate at the near end A and therefore, this end becomes negatively charged. As the far end B becomes deficient of electons, it acquires positive’ charge. The opposite kind of charges appear merely due to the redistribution of electrons in the conductor. This redistribution of electrons takes place instantaneously, when the charged glass rod is brought near the conductor. If instead of positively charged glass rod, negatively charged ebonite rod is brought near the conductor, the electrons in the conductor will get repelled. Likewise, the near end A becomes positively charged and the far end B becomes negatively charged. The two kinds of charges that appear on the two ends of the conductor due to electrostatic induction are called induced charges. The charge present on the charging body (used to produce electrostatic induction) is called inducing charge. It is found that the either kind of the induced charge is equal to the inducing charge. If the charging body is removed, the charges induced on the conductor disappear. Thus, induced charges stay on the conductor only solong as the charging body is kept held near the conductor. “The nature of the charge can be verified with a gold leaf clectroscopeMe Acurtctor may be cha tov step Step I. To charge a changed glass rood fe broug eaten nepatively charged, whi ne shower an Fig. 10202 Pig 1.020) Fig. 1.0200) eearth (by touching itwith a finger) as shown in Fig. 1.120), The posite ‘ednced charge will disappear. Esler, it was thought that te ponte induced charge flows tothe earth Infact electrons flow from the car to nutralise the postive charge on the far end of the conductor The negative induces charge on the near end of the conductor remains bound tote to the attractive force exerted by the positive glass rod. ae Step IIL. The conductor is disconnected from the earth (by removing the finger eping the glass rod stilt position as how MF W210), esr crt ofthetendeorconinucsto fold the negates cng Step IV. Finally, when the glass rod is removed, the negative induced charge on the near end spreads uniformly over the whole conditctor as shown in Fig. 1.02(d). “The conductor can be positively charged (by usi dye a sed (by using negatively charged ebonite rod) by following the above four steps in the same order. : 7. ADDITIVE NATURE OF CHARGE We know that mass of an object is equal to the sium of the masses ofits constituent particles. Owing to this, mass is said tobe additive in nature, Like mass, electric charge also possesses additive property. ject is equal to the algebraic sum ofall the The total electric charge on an ol electric charges distributed on the different parts ofthe object presenton differentpartsof an object, EESTI SESSSC SSO guy dyn ate electric charges then total electric charge on the object, ‘An object contains 1 protons and ny GEN tt Mt om electrons. What is the net charge on the It may be pointed out that while taking the algebraic sum, the sign 2 (positive oF negative) ofthe electric charges must be taken into account Ne Eel ‘The additive property of mass and electric charge differ on following, two accounts : 1 The masses of the particl whereas the charges distribute positive or negative. 2. The total mass of an object is always non-zero, whereas the total charge on thepbject may be positive, QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE ‘The magnitude of charge on a proton or an electron (e= 16 5 10°C) is Cited elementary charge. Since protons and clectrons are the only chargext particles constituting the matter, the charge on an object mustbe integral multiple Pree. In other words, the charge possessed by an object eanmot be fraction of lies in the fact that charging of @ body is ore Mathematically, the charge on any object must always be equal to always due to the transfer of integral qeene, number of electron i E \ Jes constituting an object are always positive, .d on the different parts of the object may be zero ar negative. The basic cause of quantization of chargeThe fact that all ose etementarigcharge €(= 16% 10 ¥C) te hanna pe Te seetcnape steal partice. It is because, step si iectre % >: ice Reva Shey re the et Due fo this number of elementary charges imvaived hecamnescxtvemtely large, TS Forexample, when a glass rod is rubbed witha ® : aiken sn te lar, Fore is rubbed with silk a Gharge of the order of the order of ne microcoulomb (2 10°C Glementary char a ane large is egal te he glass road or silk ‘on the glass fod for sit eee ‘ot elementarychanas riven by 107 rexio 7 e = 625 « 1012 Since it | s a very large number, : stern conga arge number, the quantization of charge sno zation of charge cannot epic on the basis of classical Soe, eee that protons and neurone are themes Bll oto ove slomentary Sachs eitora ern ea nea \ 26/3 andthe dovwn quark (has charge“ ) by aneutron unchanged. For example, invuclear ss¢ 1 ao84"*), krypton ¢ Keng seth iberation of energy below eve Prot numberbeore fasion =o. She *wKP 3 ae Ntbage ter (2 Positron and an electron com Prodltction (a yrray photon mater ane ene icortssntah eyes mm i10. PROPERTIES Or Eee importn’ properties eee J Like charges repel each attr and wr ee 2. The magnitude of elementary is equal tol6x 10% 3. The electric charge is additive in n n nature. It imy jects algebraic sum ofthe charges nergy fission of U>™, 3. Annihilation of matt a pray’ photon) and pais, attract each other egative or positive change inne sme and lis hat oa charge ae loci aterm pana {Te charges quntizd ie cure canst acurget tos newhereto anime syne i ea 5. The electric charge o system is ava 1m isalways conser 6. Unlike mass, the elect change on af eer aon motion of the object. “ ee It states that two point charges attract or rp which is directly proportional to the product of the inversely proportional tothe square of the distance betwoven th pel each otter with a fore magnitudes ofthe charges und The force is repulsive, if the charges are alike and attractive in case of unlike charges. Further, electrostatic force between two charges is central in nature. It may be pointed out that Coloumb’s law in electrostatics holds for stationary charges. Further, the two charges should be points in size. Consider that two charges 9, and q, are present at points A and Bat a distance r apart as shown in Fig. 1.03. Then, force between the two charges, “Fegan 1.01) 1 °F (1.02) Combining the equations (1,01) and (1.02), we have | pall 4 or Fak (1.03) where kis constant of proportionality. Its value the medium in which the two charges are adopted to measure F, q,, q3 and r. In SL, when the two charges are located in vacuum or air, 1 k ‘depends upon the nature of Tocated and also thesystem of units & Teg Cae on an ess ota yy ee ‘Coulomb's law in elecuostai ies holds for {wo point charges ares art A force, whict ats along the tine joining the centres of two interacting objxts. called a central fore. pegs hie SS A 8 aw I Ais.Fo B54 5 10-122 PS MensULEd to he satan. 1 =9x10N mc Hence he atin (100 2 be wig | 10? 09 . \ \ \ vit Ginnewton) 105) ’ crane tz Whats the force between too smal Sr Cpa aViNe changes Seema A prot 3 Meg Steminairt NCE RE ane ene en Seb tere 92210 Cygg GN GERT Glee ng Mea Ee EEN ce cen nant sturof fone? apse j nai, La Ans. 990 x 10-8 5, eco Axe 2 Gxt G07) 3 = 610 N (repulsive) 1,42-UNIT OF CHARGE Mint, force b Tyrveen two charges q, and gy held ata distance r apart in vacuum is given by 9 109 x Suppose that 9, == 4 (say); My ee =I mand Fy. = 9% 109N Then, © 9109 = 9x 109, 24 z or 1 or +1 cotilomb (C) cosy cee lt gic pen alent sini davis afore of 9 10°N, chen placed in vaca (orair)atalstanceofene mete fron it Note. 1. Ineelectrostatic gs system, the unit of charge is known as TT g ‘terete ntof dre osn aftr) Wakao ne 1¢ 10° stat C Prove that 1 coulomt 2. In electromagnetic egs system, the unit of charge is known as electromagnetic unit of charge (em. u, of charge), 1 Jo ¢M.u. of charge IMITTIVITY (DIELECTRIC CONSTANT) situated in some other medium in place or air, . charges may be greatly affected. For exabpie oe duncan tbe aboaie permitiviy of air only FOF Uaicsactiore Thee pa {ractum)-For this reason, ty is usually taken ay abnaluteposmanary teas X10? statcoulomb 1 fmm 1.13. RELATIVE PERI When two charges are the force between th 1 Refer to section 5.04 of the chapter 5 ~ Capacitor.wo charges are located in‘. lis beeen SRE Sabout Bo times ar lange as theca te permittivity of Permittivity of free spate hay be apres og SPB" ANd located ats ee ee mei may be expressed as * ait : Lin Foal" Tae AE, ee tertile bt permits of he mcm Pesgetan 0p reteteer dg when ape Pape es ean dg (1.06), we have ae (on by ay eee Lain Fnet Fe 2 / Tze (1.06) (1.07) The rato indented by 6, cle rato pemitity one imatium wrt vatun sats dentedty x, called dielectric constant o the medium. Therefore, tant of the equation (1.07) gives Fowc 7 Cena) (1.08) Thus, relative permittivity or dielectric constant of of medium may be defined 1s the ratio ofthe force between too charges placed ata Sate In the equation (1.06), setting e = e9¢, or e= 65K) weave 1 Fea med ab &, ALM (1.09) that two like charges 4 a ind q, are present at points A and B in vacuum ata distance r apart. The tw: ‘0 charges will exest equal repulsive forces on each other. Let Fiz be the force on charge 1% due to charge gy and f;, be the force on charge 9, due to charge q,as shown in Fig. 1.04, (kzonding to Coulomb’ law, the magnitude of force on change 4, due ‘092 (or on charge gy due to 4,) is given by Fia| “Blan 010 Let fiz be a unit vector Pointing from charge q, to q and fy), a unit “ector pointing from charge 4, to q,. As the force vector fj» is along the rection of unit vector 1, we have R= mn, Me ire Ee (1) Also, as the force vector Fy is along the direction of unit vector fay. it follows that * 90 relative permit ‘constant of a medi physical quantities” oo ‘Two charges stuatedat a certain divance apart exert maximum force on each hes, ‘When they are placed in vacuum (or ait ‘adiclectic medium, the force between ton charges always decreases.ee Heaney aunt vcr pining in cpp dct P= ha Therefore, the equation (1.11) becomes, eee Rasa Rh) oh From the equations (1.12) and (1.19) footy R2=-Fy 2.From Coulomb's aw in vector form, i fly forcebetween the two chargesisa entation ol the two charges From the equations (1.12) eet by one charge de othe other acs inthe diction of anit veces he vn the direction opposite tothatof a Since aie aunt eco along terre Joning the two charges, the electrostatic force between Mie cee central force. (1.34) lows that the electrostatic ets along the line ining and (1.13), i follows that force © Note. Incase the two charges ae unlike, they willo forces on each other as shown in Fig, 1.05; Proce obiained that ert equal attractive ingas above, it can be ‘ORCE BETWEEN TWO CHARGESIN TERMS OF THEIR POSITION VECTORS To express force between two point charges in terms of their position vectors, consider a co-ordinate frame of reference OXYZ. Suppose that the wo point charges j, and q, are present in space atthe points A and B, whose Position vectorsare QA = 7, and Oj, asshownin Fig. 1.06, Join the two charges 9, and 9, by a straight line. Ifthe distance between the two charges isdenoted by rand %y, is unit vector from ‘charge q to g,, then force on charge 4} due to gis given by 1 . ima 2a The above equation can be rewritten as Foo OB p 5 DE 2 Tye, tha) (115) From triangle lav of addition of vectors, we have Fa OB +A = or BA = 06 - ¢ oe Ae follows that A thetwo char forces of each other Giy ihe elec 2 (13) From Coutomiys nessexen ea opposite \ \ , Fig, 1.06Inthe equation (1.15) setting +, in Ld: Similarly, tcan beobtained that the free 1 ae by a-al = a.PamcieLEor SuPcaposion om law givestheforebetwesn on yy \pincpie of superposition ace gears tofindfores ‘Eroup of changes ar interting The prinaple of superpostion states th interacting. thelr charoen onto exerted onthe given charge Wat The force between any wera other charges Consider that n point charges 9-05.95. a discrete manner. The charges are thtsaeticn thetotal force on the charge say charges 4, 95, 4.7) electric, ‘ona charge, whens at wen @ nu rector su of charges. The tbr of charges ar thendhstle ate distributed in space in interacting with each other tne eeee a Guetoallother remaining charge Hn 4p exer forces, in 0" the charge 9, (Fig, 1.07) given pentding to principle of super position, the total fone ag charge q is given by a Reise, (1.18) Ifthe distance between the charges q, and qs denoted as, ;and, is Lunt vector from charge gp to qy, then 1 199 » tae Similarly, the force on charge q, due to other chargesis given by and Hence, in the equation (1.18), substituting for Fg, ry, Fy, - the total force on the charge 4, due to all other charges is given tp 7 NO» . Haas 14 Toe Pa TB Tay tmnt ans [24 area 2 1 |.(0.19) hn The same procedure can be adopted for finding the force on Charge due to the remaining charges ofthe group of chs Force on charge qz due to all other charges is given by any other arges. For example, Fy +B + ot Fy 1 [asa a 5 ER 2 are Thee hetero ee 1 80 charge Presen : ee oF thersnr Ea ean whose position vectorsare 9) 72 5 unt ectors from charge tg) Tron gh gon TH: Lat yi Flim tie poe eee a pea Te apna a -i) metre rtinel th, = aan ee Oe harp ve 14 shen due to all other charges is given by he i ' Ae 120) CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE suid eal, the electric change is quantized an the charge on a t or) ea F Ff tohdg o> s(r ~ ry The force on charge q due to the whole line charge distribution can be found by integrating the above over its total length ie. Ff at 7, 2. When charge is distributed cont sareeate Shaving a uniform continuous deat Surface. Suppose that we have to find fy Charge q, placed at a point, w! Let dS be an infinitesin surface charge density element Sis given by yo ds Let + be position vectorof this e having charge da, Then, force on charge q, due to change 43s given by bution of charge along its vee due tosusface chargeS ona point ‘hose position vectoris 7 asshownin Fig. 1.13, racy mal tea of the surface charge S irc of the surface ch 'rge, then charge on the surface lementary portion of the surface, charge «(= 0d8)on the surface element x Fig. 2 x : Fig. 113,Aw: on S 2 3 cont when charge tinuous dist is distributed fe urilorm oanme naving 9 wtorm tovolusne aa erat seapoint whose post voneabean lee seve crge density svagrenby vectors ra aly ame the aap Let 7 be position vector ofthis e ing charged charge having hari argeqqdue tothe charged (=P “Then, force on the charge fa clement dV isgiven By Tre > ‘The force on change dp de to wh found by integrating the above 7etg) F-a® Note. 1. In case charges are dist fon a charge due to the discrete distributi volume of t ution can BE = 2 syovera yume Coie pus over rhage SUP i din pnt charge Pt pown in Fi 114 : fhe volume charge V. If vousange on the volume clement Jementary portion of the volume | dV) onthe volume le volume charge distribution can be over its total volume te. (FF) ributed in a discrete manner, the force ion of charges is found by adding, the forces exerted by the individual charges. Accordingly, the summation signis used to add such forces. However, ‘when charges are distributed in a Continuous manner, the effect can only be summed up by the method of integration °.If charge is distributed continuously over a line charge L, over a surface charge S, over a volume charge V and also in a discrete manner in the space, then total force on charge qy at pa location y willbe F "Tag “| ) i ry + teint dang In the equation (1.24), rh ts beer user cl C ofan elementary portion of line charge sarin plum car Vand any one charge q’ of the discrete distrib jon of charges in space Fig. 1.14