Audio Transformers

by Bill Whitlock
Jensen Transformers, Inc. 9304 Deering Avenue Chatsworth, CA 91311

This work first published by Focal Press in 2001 as Chapter 11 Handbook for Sound Engineers, Third Edition Glen Ballou, Editor

Copyright 2001, 2006 Bill Whitlock All rights reserved

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Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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Audio Transformer Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1 Basic Principles and Term inology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.1 Magnetic Fields and Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.2 W indings and Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.3 Excitation Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Realities of Practical Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.1 Core Materials and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.2 W inding Resistances and Auto-Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2.3 Leakage Inductance and W inding Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.4 W inding Capacitances and Faraday Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2.5 Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 General Application Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.1 Maximum Signal Level, Distortion, and Source Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.2 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.3 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3.4 Sources with Zero Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.5 Bi-Directional Reflection of Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.6 Transformer Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.7 Basic Classification by Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Audio Transformers for Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.1 Equipm ent-Level Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Microphone Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Line Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Moving Coil Phono Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Line Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Inter-Stage and Power Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.6 Microphone Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 System-Level Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Microphone Isolation or Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Microphone Impedance Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Line to Microphone Input or Direct Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Line Isolation or Hum Eliminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Speaker Distribution or Constant Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6 Telephone Isolation or Repeat Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 Telephone Directional Coupling or Hybrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8 Moving Coil Phono Step-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 15 15 16 16 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 21 22 23 23

M easurements and Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1 Testing and Measurem ents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Transmission Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Balance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Resistances, Capacitances, and Other Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Data to Impress or to Inform? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Comprehensive Data Sheet Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 24 24 25 25 25 25

Installation and M aintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.1 A Few Installation Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.2 De-Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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Audio Transformers
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Audio Transformer Basics

Since the birth of audio electronics, the audio transformer has played an important role. W hen compared to modern miniaturized electronics, a transformer seems large, heavy, and expensive but it continues to be the most effective solution in many audio applications. The usefulness of a transformer lies in the fact that electrical energy can be transferred from one circuit to another without direct connection, and in the process the energy can be readily changed from one voltage level to another. Although a transformer is not a complex device, considerable explanation is required to properly understand how it operates. This chapter is intended to help the audio system engineer properly select and apply transformers. In the interest of simplicity, only basic concepts of their design and manufacture will be discussed. 1.1 Basic Principles and Terminology 1.1.1 Magnetic Fields and Induction

As shown in Figure 1, a magnetic field is created around any conductor (wire) in which current flows. The strength of the field is directly proportional to current. These invisible magnetic lines of force, collectively called flux, are set up at right angles to the wire and have a direction, or magnetic polarity, which depends on the direction of current flow. Note that although the flux around the upper and lower wires have different directions, the lines inside the loop aid because they point in the same direction. If an alternating current flows in the loop, the Figure 2 - AC Magnetic Field instantaneous intensity and polarity of the flux will vary at the same frequency and in direct proportion to the instantaneous current. W e can visualize this flux, represented by the concentric circles in Figure 2, as expanding, contracting, and reversing in polarity with each cycle of the ac current. The law of induction states Figure 1 - Magnetic Field that a voltage will be induced in a conductor exposed to changing flux Surrounding Conductor and that the induced voltage will be proportional to the rate of the flux change. This voltage has an instantaneous polarity which opposes the original current flow in the wire, creating an apparent resistance called inductive reactance. Inductive reactance is calculated according to the formula X L = 2fL, where X L is inductive reactance in ohms, f is frequency in Hz, and L is inductance in Henries. An inductor generally consists of many turns or loops of wire called a coil, as shown in Figure 3, which links and concentrates magnetic flux lines, increasing the flux density. The inductance of any given coil is determined by factors such as the number of turns, the physical dimensions and nature of the winding, and the properties of materials in Figure 3 - Coil the path of the magnetic flux. Concentrates Flux According to the law of induction, a voltage will be induced in any conductor (wire) that cuts flux lines. Therefore, if we place two coils near each other as shown in Figure 4, an ac current in one coil will induce an ac voltage in the second coil. This is the essential principle of energy transfer in a transformer. Because they require a changing magnetic field to operate, transformers will not work at dc. In an ideal transformer, the magnetic coupling between the two coils is total and complete, i.e., all the flux lines from one cut across all the turns of the other. The coupling coefficient is said to be unity or 1.00. 1.1.2 Windings and Turns Ratio Figure 4 - Inductive Coupling

The coil or winding that is driven by an electrical source is called the primary and the other is called the secondary. The ratio of the number of turns on the primary to the number of turns on the secondary is called the turns ratio. Since essentially the same voltage is induced in each turn of each winding, the primary to secondary voltage ratio is the same as the turns ratio. For example, with 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, the turns ratio is 2:1. Therefore, if 20 volts were applied to the primary, 10 volts would appear at the secondary. Since it reduces voltage, this transformer would be called a step-down transformer. Conversely, a transformer with a turns ratio of 1:2 would be called a step-up transformer since its secondary voltage would be twice that of the primary. Since a transformer does not create power, the power output from the secondary of an ideal transformer can only equal (and in a real transformer only be less than) the power input to the primary. Consider an ideal 1:2 stepup transformer. W hen 10 volts is applied to its primary, 20 volts appears at its secondary. Since no current is drawn by the

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Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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primary, its impedance appears to be infinite or an open circuit. W hen a 20 load is connected to the secondary, a current of 1 amp flows making output power equal 20 watts. At the same time, a current of 2 amps is drawn by the primary, making input power equal 20 watts. Since the primary is now drawing 2 amps with 10 volts applied, its impedance appears to be 5 . In other words, the 20 load impedance on the secondary has been reflected to the primary as 5 . In this example, a transformer with a 1:2 turns ratio exhibited an impedance ratio of 1:4. Transformers always reflect impedances from one winding to another by the square of the their turns ratio or, expressed as a formula: Zp/Zs = (Np/Ns) 2 where Zp is primary impedance, Zs is secondary impedance, and Np/Ns is turns ratio (which is the same as the voltage ratio). The direction in which coils are wound, i.e., clockwise or counter-clockwise, and/or the connections to the start or finish of each winding determines the instantaneous polarity of the ac voltages. All windings which are wound in the same direction will have the same polarity between start and finish ends. Therefore, relative to the primary, polarity can be inverted by either (1) winding the primary and secondary in opposite directions, or (2) reversing the start and finish connections to either winding. In schematic symbols for transformers, dots are sometimes used to indicate which ends of windings have the same polarity. Observing polarity is essential when making series or parallel connections to transformers with multiple windings. Taps are connections made at any intermediate point in a winding. If 50 turns are wound, an electrical connection brought out, and another 50 turns completes the winding for example, the 100-turn winding is said to be center-tapped. 1.1.3 Excitation Current

As shown in Figure 5, when there is no load on the secondary of a transformer and an ac voltage is applied to the primary, an excitation current will flow in the primary creating magnetic excitation flux around the winding. In theory, the current is due only Figure 5 - Excitation Current to the inductive reactance of the primary winding. In Figure 6 - Cancellation of Flux accordance with Ohms law and the formula for Generated by Load Current inductive reactance, I E = E P 2fL P where I E is excitation current in amperes, E P is primary voltage in volts, f is frequency in Hz, and L P is primary inductance in Henries. In an ideal transformer, primary inductance would be infinite, making excitation current zero. As shown in Figure 6, when a load is connected, current will flow in the secondary winding. Because secondary current flow is in the opposite direction, it creates magnetic flux which opposes the excitation flux. This causes the impedance of the primary winding to drop, resulting in additional current being drawn from the driving source, which creates additional flux just sufficient to completely cancel that created by the secondary. The result, which may surprise some, is that flux density in a transformer is not increased by load current. This also illustrates how load current on the secondary is reflected to the primary. Figure 7 illustrates the relationships between voltage, excitation current, and flux in a transformer as frequency is changed. The horizontal scale is time. The primary voltage Ep is held at a constant voltage as the frequency is tripled and then tripled again. For example, the left waveform could represent one cycle at 100 Hz, the middle 300 Hz, and the right 900 Hz. Because of the primary inductance, excitation current Ip will decrease linearly with frequency, i.e., halving for every doubling in frequency or decreasing at 6 dB per octave. The magnitude of the magnetic flux will likewise decrease exactly the same way. Note that the inductance causes a 90-degree phase lag as well. Since the slew rate of a constant amplitude sine wave increases linearly with frequency, i.e., doubling for every doubling in frequency or increasing at 6 dB per octave, the resultant flux rate of change remains constant. Note that the slope of the Ip and flux waveforms stays constant as frequency is changed. Since, according to the law of induction, the voltage induced in the secondary is proportional to this slope or rate of change, frequency response will be uniform or flat. Figure 7 - Excitation Current and Flux Vary Inversely with Frequency

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Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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1.2 Realities of Practical Transformers Thus far, we have not considered the unavoidable parasitic elements which exist in any practical transformer. Even the design of a relatively simple 60 Hz power transformer must take them into account. The design of an audio transformer operating over a 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range is much more difficult because these elements often interact in complex ways. For example, materials and techniques which improve low-frequency performance are often detrimental to high-frequency performance and vice-versa. Good transformer designs must consider both the surrounding electronic circuitry and the performance ramifications of internal design tradeoffs. A schematic representation of the major low-frequency parasitic elements in a generalized transformer is shown in Figure 8. The ID EAL XFM R represents a perfect transformer having a turns ratio of 1:N and no parasitic elements of any kind. The actual transformer is connected at the PRI terminals to the driving voltage source, through its source impedance RG, and at the SEC terminals to the load RL.

Figure 8 - Transformer Low-Frequency Parasitic Elements

One of the main goals in the design of any transformer is to reduce the excitation current in the primary winding to negligible levels so as not to become a significant load on the driving source. At a given source voltage and frequency, primary excitation current can be reduced only by increasing inductance LP. In the context of normal electronic circuit impedances, very large values of inductance are required for satisfactory operation at the lowest audio frequencies. Of course, inductance can be raised by using a very large number of coil turns but, for reasons discussed later, there are practical limits due to other considerations. Another way to increase inductance by a factor of 10,000 or more is to wind the coil around certain highly magnetic materials. 1.2.1 Core Materials and Construction

Magnetic circuits are quite similar to electric circuits. As shown in Figure 11, magnetic flux always takes a closed path from one magnetic pole to the other and, like an electric current, always favors the paths of highest conductivity or least resistance. The equivalent of applied voltage in magnetic circuits is magnetizing force, symbolized H. It is directly proportional to ampere-turns (coil current I times its number of turns N) and inversely proportional to the flux path length R in the magnetic circuit. The equivalent of electric current flow is flux density, symbolized B. It is measured as the number of magnetic flux lines per square unit of area. A graphic plot of the relationship between field intensity and flux density is shown in Figure 9 and is referred to a the B-H loop or hysteresis loop for a given material. In the United States, the most commonly used units for magnetizing force and flux density are the Oersted and Gauss, respectively, which are CGS (centimeter, gram, second) units. In Europe, the SI (Systme International) units amperes per meter and Tesla, respectively, are more common. The slope of the B-H loop indicates how an incremental increase in applied magnetizing force changes the resulting flux density. This slope is effectively a measure of conductivity in the magnetic circuit and is called permeability, symbolized . Any material inside a coil, which can also serve as a form to support it, is called a core. By definition, the permeability of air is 1.00 and common non-magnetic materials such as aluminum, brass, copper, paper, glass, and plastic also have a permeability of 1 for practical purposes. The permeability of some common ferro-magnetic materials is about 300 for ordinary steel, about 5,000 for 4% silicon transformer steel, and up to about 100,000 for some nickel-iron-molybdenum alloys. Because such materials concentrate magnetic flux, they greatly increase the inductance of a coil. Audio transformers must utilize both high-permeability cores and the largest practical number of coil turns to create high primary inductance. Coil inductance increases as the square of the number of turns and in direct proportion to the permeability of the core and can be approximated using the formula: L = 3.2 N 2 A / 10 8 R where L = inductance in Henries, N = number of coil turns, = permeability of core, A = cross-section area of core in square inches, and inches.

R = mean flux path length in

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Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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The permeability of magnetic materials varies with flux density. As shown in Figure 9, when magnetic field intensity becomes high, the material can saturate, essentially losing its ability to conduct any additional flux. As a material saturates, its permeability decreases until, at complete saturation, its permeability becomes that of air or 1. In audio transformer applications, magnetic saturation causes low-frequency harmonic distortion to increase steadily for low-frequency signals as they increase in level beyond a threshold. In general, materials with a higher permeability tend to saturate at a lower flux density. In general, permeability also varies inversely with frequency. Magnetic hysteresis can be thought of as a magnetic memory effect. W hen a magnetizing force saturates material that has high-hysteresis, it remains strongly magnetized even after the force is removed. Highhysteresis materials have wide or square B-H loops and are used to make magnetic memory devices and permanent magnets. However, if we magnetically saturate zero-hysteresis material, it will have no residual magnetism (flux density) when the magnetizing force is Figure 9 - B-H Loop for Magnetic Core Material removed. However, virtually all high-permeability core materials have some hysteresis, retaining a small memory of their previous magnetic state. Hysteresis can be greatly reduced by using certain metal alloys which have been annealed or heat-treated using special processes. In audio transformers, the nonlinearity due to magnetic hysteresis causes increased harmonic distortion for low-frequency signals at relatively low signal levels. Resistor RC in Figure 8 is a non-linear resistance which represents the combined effects of magnetic saturation, magnetic hysteresis, and eddy-current losses. The magnetic operating point (or zero signal point) for most transformers is the center of the B-H loop shown in Figure 9, where the net magnetizing force is zero. Small ac signals cause a small portion of the loop to be traversed in the direction of the arrows. Large ac signals traverse portions farther from the operating point and may approach the saturation end points. For this normal operating point at the center, signal distortions (discussed in detail later) caused by the curvature of the loop are symmetrical, i.e., they affect the positive excursion and negative excursion equally. Symmetrical distortions produce odd-order harmonics such as third and fifth. If dc current flows in a winding, the operating point will shift to a point on the loop away from the center. This causes the distortion of a superimposed ac signal to become non-symmetrical. Non-symmetrical distortions produce even-order harmonics such as second and fourth. W hen a small dc current flows in a winding, under say 1% of the saturation value, the effect is to add even-order harmonics to the normal odd-order content of the hysteresis distortion, which affects mostly low-level signals. The same effects occur when the core becomes weakly magnetized, as could happen via the brief accidental application of dc to a winding for example. However, the narrow B-H loop indicates that only a weak residual field would remain even if a magnetizing force strong enough to saturate the core were applied and then removed. W hen a larger dc current flows in a winding, the symmetry of saturation distortion is also affected in a similar way. For example, enough dc current might flow in a winding to move the operating point to 50% of the core saturation value. Only half as much ac signal could then be handled before the core would saturate and, when it did, it would occur only for one direction of the signal swing. This would produce strong second-harmonic distortion. To avoid such saturation effects, air gaps are sometimes intentionally built into the magnetic circuit. This can be done, for example, by placing a thin paper spacer between the center leg of the E and I cores of Figure 10. The magnetic permeability of such a gap is so low even though it may be only a few thousandths of an inch compared to the core material, that it effectively controls the flux density in the entire magnetic circuit. Although it drastically reduces the inductance of the coil, gapping is done to prevent flux density from reaching levels which would otherwise saturate the core, especially when substantial dc is present in a winding.

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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Because high-permeability materials are usually electrical conductors as well, small voltages are also induced in the cross-section of the core material itself giving rise to eddy currents. Eddy currents are greatly reduced when the core consists of a stack of thin sheets called laminations, as shown in Figure 10. Because the laminations are effectively insulated from each other, eddy currents are generally insignificant. The E and I shaped laminations shown form the widely used shell or double-window core construction. Its parallel magnetic paths are illustrated in Figure 11. W hen cores are made of laminations, care must be taken that they are flat and straight to avoid Figure 11 - Magnetic tiny air gaps between them which could Circuits in Shell Core significantly reduce inductance. A toroidal core is made by rolling a long thin strip of core material into a coiled ring shape that looks something like a donut. It is insulated with a conformal coating or tape and windings are wound around the core through the center hole using special machines. W ith a toroidal core, there Figure 10 - Core Laminations are Stacked and are no unintended air gaps which can degrade magnetic properties. Audio Interleaved around Bobbin which Holds W indings transformers dont often use toroidal cores because, especially in highbandwidth designs where multiple sections or Faraday shields are necessary, physical construction becomes very complex. Other core configurations include the ring core, sometimes called semitoroidal. It is similar to core of Figure 11 but without the center section and windings are placed on the sides. Sometimes a solid (not laminations) metal version of a ring core is cut into two pieces having polished mating faces. These two C-cores are then held together with clamps after the windings are installed. 1.2.2 Winding Resistances and Auto-Transformers

If zero-resistance wire existed, some truly amazing transformers could be built. In a 60 Hz power transformer, for example, we could wind a primary with tiny wire on a tiny core to create enough inductance to make excitation current reasonable. Then we could wind a secondary with equally tiny wire. Because the wire has no resistance and the flux density in the core doesnt change with load current, this postage-stamp sized transformer could handle unlimited kilo-watts of power and it wouldnt even get warm! But, at least until practical superconducting wire is available, real wire has resistance. As primary and secondary currents flow in the winding resistances, the resulting voltage drops cause signal loss in audio transformers and significant heating in power transformers. This resistance can be reduced by using larger (lower gauge) wire or fewer turns, but the required number of turns and the tolerable power loss (or resulting heat) all conspire to force transformers to become physically larger and heavier as their rated power increases. Sometimes silver wire is suggested to replace copper, but since its resistance is only about 6% less, its effect is minimal and certainly not cost-effective. However, there is an alternative configuration of transformer windings, called an autotransformer, which can reduce the size and cost in certain applications. Because an autotransformer electrically connects primary and secondary windings, it cant be used where electrical isolation is required! In addition, the size and cost advantage is maximum when the required turns ratio is very close to 1:1 and diminishes at higher ratios, becoming minimal in practical designs at about 3:1 or 1:3. For example, in a hypothetical transformer to convert 100 volts to 140 volts, the primary could have 100 turns and the secondary 140 turns of wire. This transformer, with its 1:1.4 turns ratio, is represented in the upper diagram of Figure 12. If 1 amp of secondary (load) current I S flows, transformer output power is 140 watts and 1.4 amp of primary

Figure 12 - Auto-Transformers Employ a Buck/Boost Principle

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current I P will flow since input and output power must be equal in the ideal case. In a practical transformer, the wire size for each winding would be chosen to limit voltage losses and/or heating. An auto-transformer essentially puts the windings in series so that the secondary voltage adds to (boosting) or subtracts from (bucking) the primary input voltage. A step-up auto-transformer is shown in the middle diagram of Figure 12. Note that the dots indicate ends of the windings with the same instantaneous polarity. A 40-volt secondary (the upper winding), series connected as shown with the 100-volt primary, would result in an output of 140 volts. Now, if 1 amp of secondary (load) current I S flows, transformer output power is only 40 watts and only 0.4 amp of primary current I P will flow. Although the total power delivered to the load is still 140 watts, 100 watts have come directly from the driving source and only 40 watts have been transformed and added by the auto-transformer. In the auto-transformer, 100 turns of smaller wire can be used for the primary and only 40 turns of heavier wire is needed for the secondary. Compare this to the total of 240 turns of heavier wire required in the transformer. A step-down auto-transformer is shown in the bottom diagram of Figure 12. Operation is similar except that the secondary is connected so that its instantaneous polarity subtracts from or bucks the input voltage. For example, we could step down US 120volt ac power to Japanese 100-volt ac power by configuring a 100-volt to 20-volt step-down transformer as an auto-transformer. Thus, a 100-watt load can be driven using only a 20-watt rated transformer. The windings of low-level audio transformers may consist of hundreds or even many thousands of turns of wire, sometimes as small as #46 gauge, whose 0.0015 inch diameter is comparable to a human hair. As a result, each winding may have a dc resistance as high as several thousand ohms. Transformer primary and secondary winding resistances are represented by RP and RS, respectively, in Figure 8. 1.2.3 Leakage Inductance and Winding Techniques

In an ideal transformer, since all flux generated by the primary is linked to the secondary, a short-circuit on the secondary would be reflected to the primary as a short circuit. In real transformers, the unlinked flux causes a residual or leakage inductance which can be measured at either winding. Therefore, the secondary would appear to have residual inductance if the primary were shorted and vice-versa. The leakage inductance is shown as LL in the model Figure 13 - Transformer High-Frequency Parasitic Elements of Figure 13. Note that leakage inductance is reflected from one winding to another as the square of turns ratio, just as other impedances are. The degree of flux coupling between primary and secondary windings depends on the physical spacing between them and how they are placed with respect to each other. The lowest leakage inductance is achieved by winding the coils on a common axis and as close as possible to each other. The ultimate form of this technique is called multi-filar winding where multiple wires are wound simultaneously as if they were a single strand. For example, if two windings (say primary and secondary) are wound as one, the transformer is said to be bi-filar wound. Note in the cross-section view of Figure 14 how the primary and secondary windings are side-by-side throughout the entire winding. Another technique to reduce leakage inductance is to use layering, a technique in which portions or sections of the primary and/or secondary are wound in sequence over each other to interleave them. For example, Figure 15 shows the cross-section of a 3-layer transformer where half the primary is wound, then the secondary, followed by the other half of the primary. This results in considerably less leakage inductance than just a secondary over primary 2-layer design. Leakage inductance decreases rapidly as the number of layers is increased.

Figure 14 - Bi-Filar W indings

Figure 15 - Layered W indings

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1.2.4

Winding Capacitances and Faraday Shields

To allow the maximum number of turns in a given space, the insulation on the wire used to wind transformers is very thin. Called magnet wire, it is most commonly insulated by a thin film of polyurethane enamel. A transformer winding is made, in general, by spinning the bobbin shown in Figure 10 on a machine similar to a lathe and guiding the wire to form a layer one wire thick across the length of the bobbin. The wire is guided to traverse back and forth across the bobbin to form a coil of many layers as shown in Figure 15, where the bobbin cross-section is the solid line on three sides of the winding. This simple side-to-side, backand-forth winding results in considerable layer-to-layer capacitance within a winding or winding section. More complex techniques such as universal winding are sometimes used to substantially reduce winding capacitances. These capacitances within the windings are represented by CP and CS in the circuit model of Figure 13. Additional capacitances will exist between the primary and secondary windings and are represented by capacitors CW in the model. Sometimes layers of insulating tape are added to increase the spacing, therefore reducing capacitance, between primary and secondary windings. In the bi-filar windings of Figure 14, since the wires of primary and secondary windings are side by side throughout, the inter-winding capacitances CW can be quite high. In some applications, inter-winding capacitances are very undesirable. Their effects can be almost completely eliminated by the use of a Faraday shield between the windings. Sometimes called an electrostatic shield, it generally takes the form of a thin sheet of copper foil placed between the windings. Obviously, transformers that utilize multiple layers to reduce leakage inductance will require Faraday shields between all adjacent layers. In Figure 15 the dark lines between the winding layers are the Faraday shields. Normally, all the shields surrounding a winding are tied together and treated as a single electrical connection. W hen connected to circuit ground, as shown in Figure 16, a Faraday shield intercepts the capacitive current which would otherwise flow between transformer windings.

Figure 16 - High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit of Transformer with Faraday Shield and Driven by a Balanced Source

Faraday shields are nearly always used in transformers designed to eliminate ground noise. In these applications, the transformer is intended to respond only to the voltage difference or signal across its primary and have no response to the noise that exists equally (or common-mode) at the terminals of its primary. A Faraday shield is used to prevent capacitive coupling (via CW in Figure 13) of this noise to the secondary. For any winding connected to a balanced line, the matching of capacitances to ground is critical to the rejection of common-mode noise or CMRR, as discussed in Chapter 37. In Figure 16, if the primary is driven by a balanced line, C1 and C2 must be very accurately matched to achieve high CM RR. In most applications, such as microphone or line input transformers, the secondary is operated unbalanced, i.e., one side is grounded. This relaxes the matching requirements for capacitances C3 and C4. Although capacitances CC1 and CC2 are generally quite small (a few pF), they have the effect of diminishing CM RR at high audio frequencies and limiting rejection of RF interference. 1.2.5 Magnetic Shielding

A magnetic shield has a completely different purpose. Devices such as power transformers, electric motors, and television or computer monitor cathode-ray tubes generate powerful ac magnetic fields. If such a field takes a path through the core of an audio transformer, it can induce an undesired voltage in its windings most often heard as hum. If the offending source and the victim transformer have fixed locations, orientation of one or both can sometimes nullify the pick-up. In Figure 11 note that an external field which flows vertically through the core will cause a flux gradient across the length of the coil, inducing a voltage in it, but a field which flows horizontally through the core will not. Such magnetic pick-up is usually worse in input transformers (discussed later) because they generally have more turns. It should also be noted that higher permeability core materials are more immune to external fields. Therefore, an unshielded output transformer with a high-nickel core will be more immune than one with a steel core. Another way to prevent such pick-up is to surround the core with a closed (no air gap) magnetic path. This magnetic shield most often takes the form of a can or box with tight-fitting lid and is made of high-permeability material. W hile the permeability of ordinary steel, such as that in electrical conduit, is only about 300, special-purpose nickel alloys can have permeability as high as 100,000. Commercial products include Mumetal, Permalloy, HyMu and Co-Netic.[1][2] Since the shield completely surrounds the transformer, the offending external field will now flow through it instead of the transformer core. Generally

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speaking, care must be taken not to mechanically stress these metals because doing so will significantly decrease their permeability. For this reason, most magnetic shield materials must be re-annealed after they are fabricated. The effectiveness of magnetic shielding is generally rated in dB. The transformer is placed in an external magnetic field of known strength, generally at 60 Hz. Its output without and with the shield is then compared. For example, a housing of 1/8" thick castiron reduces pickup by about 12 dB and a Mumetal can by about 30 dB. W here low-level transformers operate near strong magnetic fields, several progressively smaller shield cans can be nested around the transformer. Two or three Mumetal cans can provide 60 dB and 90 dB of shielding respectively. In very strong fields, because high-permeability materials might saturate, an iron or steel outer can is sometimes used. Toroidal power transformers can have a weaker radiated magnetic field than other types. Using them can be an advantage if audio transformers must be located near them. However, a toroidal transformer must be otherwise well designed to produce a low external field. For example, every winding must completely cover the full periphery of the core. The attachment points of the transformer lead wires are frequently a problem in this regard. To gain size and cost advantages, most commercial power transformers of any kind are designed to operate on the verge of magnetic saturation of the core. W hen saturation occurs in any transformer, magnetic field essentially squirts out of the core. Power transformers designed to operate at low flux density will prevent this. Often a standard commercial transformer, when operated at reduced primary voltage, will have a very low external field. 1.3 General Application Considerations For any given application, a number of parameters must be considered when selecting or designing an appropriate audio transformer. W e will discuss how the performance of a transformer can be profoundly affected by its interaction with surrounding circuitry. 1.3.1 Maxim um Signal Level, Distortion, and Source Im pedance

Because these parameters are inextricably inter-dependent, they must be discussed as a group. Although transformer operating level is often specified in terms of power such as dBm or watts, the only thing that affects distortion is the equivalent driving voltage. Distortion is caused by excitation current in the primary winding which is proportional to primary voltage, not power. Referring to Figure 8, recall that RC represents the distortion producing mechanisms of the core material. Consider that, if both RG (driving source impedance) and RP (internal winding resistance) were zero, the voltage source (by definition, zero impedance) would effectively short out RC resulting in zero distortion! But in a real transformer design there is a fixed relationship between signal level, distortion, and source impedance. Since distortion is also a function of magnetic flux density, which increases as frequency decreases, a maximum operating level specification must also specify a frequency. The specified maximum operating level, maximum distortion at a specified low frequency, and maximum allowable source impedance will usually dictate the type of core material which must be used and its physical size. And, of course, cost plays a role, too. The most commonly used audio transformer core materials are M6 steel (a steel alloy containing 6% silicon) and 49% nickel or 84% nickel (alloys containing 49% or 84% nickel plus iron and molybdenum). Nickel alloys are substantially more expensive than steel. Figure 17 shows how the choice of core material affects low-frequency distortion as signal level changes. The increased distortion at low levels is due to magnetic hysteresis and at high levels is due to magnetic saturation. Figure 18 shows how distortion decreases rapidly with increasing frequency. Because of differences in their hysteresis distortion, the fall-off is most rapid for the 84% nickel and least rapid for the steel. Figure 19 shows how distortion is strongly affected by the impedance of the driving source (the plots begin at 40 because that is the resistance of the primary winding). Therefore, maximum operating levels predicated on higher frequencies, higher distortion, and lower source impedance will always be higher than those predicated on lower frequencies, lower distortion, and lower source impedance.

Figure 17 - Measured THD at 20 Hz and 40 Source vs Signal Level for Three Types of Core Material

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As background, it should be said that THD or total harmonic distortion is a remarkably inadequate way to describe the perceived awfulness of distortion. Distortion consisting of low-order harmonics, 2 nd or 3 rd for example, is dramatically less audible than that consisting of high-order harmonics, 7 th or 13 th for example. Consider that, at very low frequencies, even the finest loudspeakers routinely exhibit harmonic distortion in the range of several percent at normal listening levels. Simple distortion tests whose results correlate well with the human auditory experience simply dont exist. Clearly, such perceptions are far too complex to quantify with a single figure. One type of distortion which is particularly audible is intermodulation or IM distortion. Tests frequently use a large low-frequency signal and a smaller high-frequency signal and measure how much the amplitude of the high frequency is modulated by the lower frequency. Such inter-modulation creates tones at new, non-harmonic frequencies. The classic SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) IM distortion test mixes 60 Hz and 7 kHz signals in a 4:1 amplitude ratio. For virtually all electronic amplifier circuits, there is an approximate relationship between harmonic distortion and SM PTE IM distortion. For example, if an amplifier measured 0.1% THD at 60 Hz at a given operating level, its SM PTE IM distortion would measure about three or four times that, or 0.3% to 0.4% at an equivalent operating level. This correlation is due to the fact that electronic non-linearities generally distort audio signals without regard to frequency. Actually, because of negative feedback and limited gain-bandwidth, most electronic distortions become worse as frequency increases.

Figure 18 - Measured THD at 0 dBu and 40 Source vs Frequency for the Cores of Figure 16

Distortion in audio transformers is different in a way which makes it unusually benign. It is caused by the smooth symmetrical curvature of the magnetic transfer characteristic or B-H loop of the core material shown in Figure 9. The non-linearity is related to flux density which, for a constant Figure 19 - Measured THD at 0 dBu and 20 Hz vs voltage input, is inversely proportional to frequency. The Source Impedance for the Cores of Figures 16 and 17 resulting harmonic distortion products are nearly pure third harmonic. In Figure 18, note that distortion for 84% nickel cores roughly quarters for every doubling of frequency, dropping to less than 0.001% above about 50 Hz. Unlike that in amplifiers, the distortion mechanism in a transformer is frequency selective. This makes its IM distortion much less than might be expected. For example, the Jensen JT-10KB-D line input transformer has a THD of about 0.03% for a +26 dBu input at 60 Hz. But, at an equivalent level, its SMPTE IM distortion is only about 0.01% about a tenth of what it would be for an amplifier having the same THD. 1.3.2 Frequency Response

The simplified equivalent circuit of Figure 20 shows the high-pass RL filter formed by the circuit resistances and transformer primary inductance LP. The effective source impedance is the parallel equivalent of RG + RP and RS + RL. When the inductive reactance of LP equals the effective source impedance, low-frequency response will fall to 3 dB below its mid-band value. For example, consider a transformer having an LP of 10 Henries and winding resistances RP and RS of 50 each. The generator impedance RG is 600 and the load RL is 10 k. The effective source impedance is then (600 + 50 ) in parallel with (10 k + 50 ) which computes to about 610 . A 10 Henry inductor will have 610 of reactance at about 10 Hz, making response 3 dB down at that frequency. If the generator impedance RG were made 50 instead, response would be !3 dB at 1.6 Hz. Lower source impedance will always extend low-frequency bandwidth. Since the filter is single-pole, response falls at 6 dB per octave. As discussed earlier, the permeability of most core material steadily increases as frequency is lowered and typically reaches its

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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maximum somewhere under 1 Hz. This results in an actual roll-off rate less than 6 dB per octave and a corresponding improvement in phase distortion (deviation from linear phase). Although a transformer cannot have response to 0 Hz or dc, it can have much less phase distortion than a coupling capacitor chosen for the same cutoff frequency. Or, as a salesperson might say its not a defect, its a feature.

Figure 20 - Simplified Low Frequency Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Figure 21 - Simplified High-Frequency Transformer Equivalent Circuit

The simplified equivalent schematic of Figure 21 shows the parasitic elements which limit and control high-frequency response. Except in bi-filar wound types discussed below, leakage inductance LL and load capacitance are the major limiting factors. This is especially true when Faraday shields because of the increase in leakage inductance. Note that a low-pass filter is formed by series leakage inductance LL with shunt winding capacitance CS plus external load capacitance CL. Since this filter has two reactive elements, it is a two-pole filter subject to response variations caused by damping. Resistive elements in a filter provide damping, dissipating energy when the inductive and capacitive elements resonate. As shown in the figure, if damping resistance R D is too high, response will rise before it falls and if damping resistance is too low, response falls too early. Optimum damping results in the widest bandwidth with no response peak. It should be noted that placing capacitive loads CL on transformers with high leakage inductance not only lowers their bandwidth but changes the resistance required for optimum damping. For most transformers, RL controls damping. In the time domain, underdamping manifests itself as ringing on square-waves as shown in Figure 22. W hen loaded by its specified load resistance, the same transformer responds as shown in Figure 23. In some transformers, source impedance also provides significant damping. Figure 23 - Proper Damping In bi-filar wound transformers, leakage inductance LL is very low but inter-winding capacitance CW and winding capacitances CP and CS are quite high. Leakage inductance must be kept very small in applications such as line drivers because large cable capacitances CL would otherwise be disastrous to highfrequency response. Also note that a low-pass filter is formed by series RG and shunt CP plus CS. Therefore, driving sources may limit high-frequency response if their source impedance RG is too high. In normal 1:1 bi-filar output transformer designs, CW actually works to capacitively couple very high frequencies between windings. Depending on the application, this can be either a defect or a feature. 1.3.3 Insertion Loss Figure 22 - Undamped Response

The power output from a transformer will always be slightly less than power input to it. As current flows in its windings, their dc resistance causes additional voltage drops and power loss as heat. Broadly defined, insertion loss (or gain) is that caused by inserting a device into the signal path. But, because even an ideal lossless transformer can increase or decrease signal level by virtue of its turns ratio, the term insertion loss is usually defined as the difference in output signal level between the real transformer and an ideal one with the same turns ratio.

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Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

Page 12

The circuit models, Thevenin equivalent circuits, and equations for both ideal and real transformers are shown in Figure 24. For example, consider an ideal 1:1 turns ratio transformer and RG = RL = 600 . Since N s/N p is 1, the equivalent circuit becomes simply E i in series with RG or 600 . W hen RL is connected, a simple voltage divider is formed making E o = 0.5 E i (or a 6.02 dB loss). For a real transformer having RP = RS = 50 , the equivalent circuit becomes E i in series Figure 24 - Insertion Loss Compares the Outputs of Real and Ideal Transformers with RG + RP + RS or 700 . Now, the output E o = 0.462 E i (or a 6.72 dB loss). Therefore, the insertion loss of the transformer is 0.70 dB. Calculations are similar for transformers with turns ratios other than 1:1, except that voltage is multiplied by the turns ratio and reflected impedances are multiplied by the turns ratio squared as shown in the equations. For example, consider a 2:1 turns ratio transformer, RG = 600 , and RL = 150 . The ideal transformer output appears as 0.5 E i in series with RG/4 or 150 . W hen RL is connected, a simple voltage divider is formed making E o = 0.25 E i (or a 12.04 dB loss). For a real transformer having RP = 50 and RS = 25 , the equivalent circuit becomes 0.5 E i in series with (RG + RP)/4 + RS or 187.5 . Now, the output E o = 0.222 E i (or a 13.07 dB loss). Therefore, the insertion loss of this transformer is 1.03 dB. 1.3.4 Sources with Zero Im pedance

One effect of using negative feedback around a high-gain amplifier is to reduce output impedance. Output impedance is reduced by the feedback factor which is open-loop gain in dB minus closed-loop gain in dB. A typical op-amp with an open-loop gain of 80 dB, set for closed-loop gain of 20 dB (feedback factor is 80 dB ! 20 dB = 60 dB or 1000) will have its open-loop output impedance of 50 reduced by the feedback factor to about 0.05 . W ithin the limits of linear operation, i.e., no current limiting or voltage clipping, the feedback around the amplifier forces the output to remain constant regardless of loading. For all practical purposes this can be considered a true voltage source. As seen in Figure 19, the distortion performance of ANY transformer is significantly improved when the driving source impedance is less than the dc resistance of the primary. However, little is gained below about 10% of the winding dc resistance. For example, consider a typical line output transformer with a primary dc resistance of 40 . A driving source impedance well under 4 will result in lowest distortion. The line drivers shown in Figure 28 and Figure 29 use a paralleled inductor and resistor to isolate or decouple the amplifier from the destabilizing effects of load (cable) capacitance at very high frequencies. Because its impedance is well under an ohm at all audio frequencies, it is much preferred to the relatively large series or build-out resistor often used for the purpose. It is even possible for an amplifier to generate negative output resistance to cancel the winding resistance of the output transformer. Audio Precision uses such a patented circuit in their System 1 audio generator to reduce transformer-related distortion to extremely low levels. 1.3.5 Bi-Directional Reflection of Im pedances

The impedances associated with audio transformers seems to confuse many. Much of the confusion probably stems from the fact that transformers can simultaneously reflect two different impedances. One is the impedance of the driving source, as seen from the secondary, and the other is the impedance of the load, as seen from the primary. Transformers simply reflect impedances, modified by the square of their turns ratio, from one winding to another. However, because of their internal parasitic elements, transformers tend to produce optimum results when used within a specified range of external impedances. There is essentially no intrinsic impedance associated with the transformer itself. W ith no load on its secondary, the primary of a transformer is just an inductor and its impedance will vary linearly with frequency. For example, a 5 H primary winding would

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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have an input impedance of about 3 k at 100 Hz, 30 k at 1 kHz, and 300 k at 10 kHz. In a proper transformer design, this selfimpedance, as well as those of other internal parasitics, should have negligible effects on circuit operation. The following applications will illustrate the point. A 1:1 output transformer application is shown in Figure 25. It has a winding inductance of about 25 H and negligible leakage inductance. The open circuit impedance, at 1 kHz, of either winding is about 150 k. Since the DC resistance is about 40 per winding, if the primary is short circuited, the secondary impedance will be 80 . If we place the transformer between a zero-impedance amplifier (more on that later) and a load, the amplifier will "see" the load through the transformer and the load will "see" the amplifier through the transformer. In our example, the amplifier would "look like" 80 to the output line or load and the 600 load would "look like" 680 to the amplifier. If the load were 20 k, it would "look like" slightly less than 20 k because the open circuit transformer impedance (150 k at 1 kHz) is effectively in parallel with it. For most loads, this effect is negligible. A 4:1 input transformer example is shown in Figure 26. It has a primary inductance of about 300 H and negligible winding capacitance. The open circuit impedance, at 1 kHz, of the primary is about 2 M. Because this transformer has a 4:1 turns ratio, therefore 16:1 impedance ratio, the secondary open circuit impedance is about 125 k. The DC resistances are about 2.5 k for the primary and 92 for the secondary. Since this is an input transformer, it must be used with the specified secondary load resistance of 2.43 k for proper damping (flat frequency response). This load on the secondary will be transformed by the turns ratio to "look like" about 42 k at the primary. To minimize the noise contribution of the amplifier stage, we need to know what the transformer secondary "looks like," impedance wise, to the amplifier. If we assume that the primary is driven from the line in our previous output transformer example with its 80 source impedance, we can calculate that the secondary will "look like" about 225 to the amplifier input. Actually, any source impedance less than 1 k would have little effect on the impedance seen at the secondary.

Figure 25 - Impedance Reflection in a 1:1 Transformer

Figure 26 - Impedance Reflection in a 4:1 Transformer

Transformers are not "intelligent" they cant isolate, in the loading sense, outputs from one another or magically couple signals in one direction only. Magnetic coupling is truly bi-directional. For example, Figure 27 shows a three-winding 1:1:1 transformer connected to drive two 600 loads. The driver sees the loads in parallel or, neglecting winding resistances, 300 . Likewise, a short on either output will be reflected to the driver as a short. Of course, turns ratios and winding resistances must be taken into account to calculate actual driver loading. For the same reason, stereo L and R outputs driving two windings on the same transformer are effectively driving each other, possibly causing distortion or damage. 1.3.6 Transformer Noise Figure Figure 27 - Multiple Loads are Effectively Paralleled

Although the step-up turns ratio of a transformer may provide noise-free voltage gain, some 20 dB for a 1:10 turns ratio, its important to understand that improvements in signal-to-noise ratio are not solely due to this gain. Because most amplifying devices generate current noise as well as voltage noise, their noise performance will suffer when turns ratio is above the optimum (see Chapter 21 on mic preamps). Noise figure measures, in dB, how much the output signal-to-noise ratio of a system is degraded by a given system component. All resistances, including the winding resistances of transformers, generate thermal noise. Therefore, the noise figure of a transformer indicates the increase in thermal noise or hiss when it replaces an ideal noiseless transformer having the same turns ratio, i.e., voltage gain. The noise figure of a transformer is calculated as follows:

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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1.3.7

Basic Classification by Application

Many aspects of transformer performance, such as level-handling, distortion, and bandwidth, depend critically on the impedance of the driving source and, in some cases, the resistance and capacitance of the load. These impedances play such an important role that they essentially classify audio transformers into two basic types. Most simply stated, output transformers are used when load impedances are low, as in line drivers, while input transformers are used when load impedances are high, as in line receivers. The conflicting technical requirements for output and input types make their design and physical construction very different. Of course, some audio transformer applications need features of both input and output transformers and are not so easily classified. Output transformers must have very low leakage inductance in order to maintain high-frequency bandwidth with capacitive loads. Because of this, they rarely use Faraday shields and are often multi-filar wound. For low insertion loss, they use relatively few turns of large wire to decrease winding resistances. Since they use fewer turns and operate at relatively high signal levels, output transformers seldom use magnetic shielding. On the other hand, input transformers directly drive the usually high-resistance, lowcapacitance input of amplifier circuitry. Many input transformers operate at relatively low signal levels, frequently have a Faraday shield, and are usually enclosed in at least one magnetic shield.

Audio Transformers for Specific Applications

Broadly speaking, audio transformers are used because they have two very useful properties. First, they can benefit circuit performance by transforming circuit impedances, to optimize amplifier noise performance for example. Second, because there is no direct electrical connection between its primary and secondary windings, a transformer provides electrical or galvanic isolation between two circuits. As discussed in Chapter 37, isolation in signal circuits is a powerful technique to prevent or cure noise problems caused by normal ground voltage differences in audio systems. To be truly useful, a transformer should take full advantage of one or both of these properties but not compromise audio performance in terms of bandwidth, distortion, or noise.

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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2.1 Equipment-Level Applications 2.1.1 Microphone Input

A microphone input transformer is driven by the nominal 150 (or 200 in Europe) source impedance of professional microphones. One of its most important functions is to transform this impedance to a generally higher one more suited to optimum noise performance. As discussed in chapter 21, this optimum impedance may range from 500 to over 15 k, depending on the amplifier. For this reason, microphone input transformers are made with Figure 28 - Microphone Pre-Amplifier with 40 dB Overall Gain turns ratios ranging from 1:2 to 1:10 or higher. The circuit of Figure 28 uses a 1:5 turns ratio transformer, making the microphone appear as a 3.7 k driving source to the IC amplifier, which optimizes its noise. The input impedance of the transformer is about 1.5 k. It is important that this impedance remain reasonably flat with frequency to avoid altering microphone response by loading it excessively at frequency extremes. In all balanced signal connections, common-mode noise can exist due to ground voltage differences or magnetic or electrostatic fields acting on the inter-connecting cable. It is called common-mode noise because it appears equally on the two signal lines, at least in theory. Perhaps the most important function of a balanced input is to reject (not respond to) this common-mode noise. A figure comparing the ratio of its differential or normal signal response to its common-mode response is called common-mode rejection ratio or CM RR. An input transformer must have two attributes to achieve high CM RR. First, the capacitances of its two inputs (to ground) must be very well matched and as low as possible. Second, it must have minimal capacitance between its primary and secondary windings. This is usually accomplished by precision winding of the primary to evenly distribute capacitances and the incorporation of a Faraday shield between primary and secondary. Because the common-mode input impedances of a transformer consist only of capacitances of about 50 pF, transformer CMRR is maintained in real-world systems where the source impedances of devices driving the balanced line and the capacitances of the cable itself are not matched with great precision [3]. Because tolerable common-mode voltage is limited only by winding insulation, transformers are well suited for phantom power applications. The standard arrangement using precision resistors is shown in Figure 28. Resistors of lesser precision may degrade CMRR. Feeding phantom power through a center tap on the primary requires that both the number of turns and the dc resistance on either side of the tap be precisely matched to avoid small dc offset voltages across the primary. Normal tolerances on winding radius and wire resistance make this a less precise method than the resistor pair in most practical transformer designs. Virtually all microphone input transformers will require loading on the secondary to control high-frequency response. For the circuit in the figure, network R1, R2, and C1 shape the high-frequency response to a Bessel roll-off curve. Because they operate at very low signal levels, most microphone input transformers also have magnetic shielding. 2.1.2 Line Input

A line input transformer is driven by a balanced line and, most often, drives a ground-referenced (unbalanced) amplifier stage. As discussed in Chapter 37, modern voltage-matched interconnections require that line inputs have impedances of 10 k or more, traditionally called bridging. In the circuit of Figure 29, a 4:1 step-down transformer is used which has an input impedance of about 40 k. High common-mode noise rejection or CMRR is achieved in line input transformers using the same techniques as those for microphones. Again, because its common-mode input impedances consist of small capacitances, a good input Figure 29 - Low-Noise Unity-Gain Balanced Line Input Stage transformer will exhibit high CM RR even when signal sources are real-world equipment. Electronically-balanced stages, especially simple differential amplifiers, are very susceptible to tiny impedance imbalances in driving sources. However, they usually have impressive CMRR figures when the signal source is a laboratory generator. The pitfalls of measurement techniques will be discussed in section 3.1.

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

Page 16

As with any transformer having a Faraday shield, line input transformers have significant leakage inductance and their secondary load effectively controls their frequency response and roll-off characteristics. The load resistance or network recommended by the manufacturer should be used to achieve specified bandwidth and transient response. Input transformers are intended to immediately precede an amplifier stage with minimal input capacitance. Additional capacitive loading of the secondary should be avoided because of its adverse effect on frequency and phase response. For example, the capacitance of two feet of ordinary shielded cable, about 100 pF, is enough to significantly degrade performance of many input transformers. 2.1.3 Moving-Coil Phono Input

Moving-coil phonograph pickups are very low-impedance, very low-output devices. Some of them have source impedances as low as 3 , making it nearly impossible to achieve optimum noise performance in an amplifier. The transformer shown in Figure 30 has a three-section primary that can be series-connected as a 1:4 step-up for 25 to 40 devices and parallel-connected as a 1:12 step-up for 3 to 5 devices. In either case, the amplifier sees a 600 source impedance that enables low-noise operation. The transformer is packaged in double magnetic shield cans and has a Faraday shield. The loading network R1, R2, and C1 tailor the high-frequency response to a Bessel curve. 2.1.4 Line Output Figure 30 - Preamp for 25 to 40 Moving-Coil Pickups

A line-level output transformer is driven by an amplifier and typically loaded by several thousand pF of cable capacitance plus the 20 k input impedance of a balanced "bridging" line receiver. At high frequencies, most driver output current is actually used driving the cable capacitance. Sometimes, terminated 150 or 600 lines must be driven, requiring even more driver output current. Therefore, a line output transformer must have a low output impedance that stays low at high frequencies. This requires both low resistance windings and very low leakage inductance, since they are effectively in series between amplifier and load. To maintain impedance balance of the output line, both driving impedances and inter-winding capacitances must be well matched at each end of the windings. A typical bifilar-wound design has winding resistances of 40 Figure 31 - Typical Line Output Application Circuit each, leakage inductance of a few micro-henries, and a total inter-winding capacitance of about 20 nF matched to within 2% across the windings. The high-performance circuit of Figure 31 uses op-amp A1 and current booster A2 in a feedback loop setting overall gain at 12 dB. A3 provides the high gain for a dc servo feedback loop used to keep dc offset at the output of A2 under 100 V. This prevents any significant dc flow in the primary of transformer T1. X1 provides capacitive load isolation for the amplifier and X2 serves as a tracking impedance to maintain high-frequency impedance balance of the output. High-conductance diodes D1 and D2 clamp inductive kick to protect A2 in case an unloaded output is driven into hard clipping. The circuit of Figure 32 is well suited to the lower signal levels generally used in consumer systems. Because its output floats, it can drive either balanced or unbalanced outputs, but not at the same time. Floating the unbalanced output avoids ground loop problems that are inherent to unbalanced interconnections. In both previous circuits, because the primary drive of T1 is single-ended, the voltages at the secondary will not be symmetrical, especially at high frequencies. THIS IS NOT A

Figure 32 - Universal Isolated Output Application

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PROBLEM. Contrary to widespread myth and as explained in Chapter 37, signal symmetry has absolutely nothing to do with noise rejection in a balanced interface! Signal symmetry in this, or any other floating output, will depend on the magnitude and matching of cable and load impedances to ground. If there is a requirement for signal symmetry, the transformer should be driven by dual, phase-inverted drivers. The circuit of Figure 33 uses a cathode follower circuit which replaces the usual resistor load in the cathode with an active current sink. The circuit operates at quiescent plate currents of about 10 mA and drives the transformer with a source impedance of about 60 , which is less than 10% of its primary dc resistance. C2 is used to prevent dc flow in the primary. Since the transformer has a 4:1 turns ratio (or 16:1 impedance ratio), a 600 output load is reflected to the driver circuit as about 10 k. Since the signal swings on the primary are four times as large as those on the secondary, high-frequency capacitive coupling is prevented by a Faraday shield. The secondary windings may be parallel connected to drive a 150 load. Because of the Faraday shield, output winding capacitances are low and the output signal symmetry will be determined largely by the balance of line and load impedances. 2.1.5 Inter-Stage and Power Output Figure 33 - Double Cathode-Follower Line Driver

Inter-stage coupling transformers are seldom seen in contemporary equipment but were once quite popular in vacuum-tube amplifier designs. They typically use turns ratios in the 1:1 to 1:3 range and, as shown in Figure 34, may use a center-tapped secondary producing phase-inverted signals to drive a push-pull output stage. Because both plate and grid circuits are relatively high impedance, windings are sometimes section-wound to reduce capacitances. Resistive loading of the secondary is usually necessary both to provide damping and to present a uniform load impedance to the driving stage. Although uncommon, inter-stage transformers for solid-state circuitry are frequently bifilar wound units similar to line output designs. The classic push-pull power output stage, with many variations over the years, has been used in hi-fi gear, PA systems, and guitar amplifiers. The turns ratio of the output transformer is generally chosen for a reflected load at the tubes of several thousand ohms plate-to-plate. A typical 30:1 turns ratio may require many interleaved sections to achieve bandwidth extending well beyond 20 kHz. If the quiescent plate currents and the number of turns in each half of the primary winding are matched, magnetic flux in the core will cancel at dc. Since any current-balancing is temporary at Figure 34 - Push-Pull Vacuum-Tube Power Amplifier best, these transformers nearly always use steel cores. The relatively high driving impedance of the tube plates results in considerable transformer related distortion. To reduce distortion, feedback around the transformer is often employed. But to achieve stability (freedom from oscillation), very wide bandwidth (actually low phase shift) is required of the transformer when a feedback loop is closed around it. As a result, some of these output transformer designs are very sophisticated. Some legendary wisdom suggests as a rough guide that a good-fidelity output transformer should have a core weight and volume of at least 0.34 pounds and 1.4 cubic inches respectively per watt of rated power [4]. A single-ended power amplifier is created by removing the lower tube and the lower half of the transformer primary from the circuit of Figure 34. Now plate current will create a strong dc field in the core. As discussed in section 1.2.1, the core will likely require an air gap to avoid saturation. This reduces inductance (limiting low-frequency response) and increases even-order distortion products. Such a single-ended pentode power amplifier was widely used in 5-tube table radios of the fifties and sixties.

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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2.1.6

Microphone Output

There are two basic types of output transformers used in microphones, step-up and step-down. In a ribbon microphone, the ribbon element may have an impedance of well under 1 , requiring a step-up transformer with a turns ratio of 1:12 or more to make its nominal output impedance around 150 . Typical dynamic elements have impedances from 10 to 30 , which require step-up turns ratios from 1:2 to 1:4. These step-up designs are similar to line output transformers in that they have no Faraday or magnetic shields, but are smaller because of lower signal levels. A condenser microphone has integral circuitry to buffer and/or amplify the signal Figure 35 - Condenser Microphone from its extremely high-impedance transducer. Since this low-power circuitry Output Transformer operates from the phantom supply, it may be unable to directly drive the 1.5 k input impedance of a typical microphone preamp. The output transformer shown in Figure 35, which has an 8:1 step-down ratio, will increase the impedance seen by Q1 to about 100 k. Due to its high turns ratio, a Faraday shield is used to prevent capacitive coupling of primary signal to the output. 2.2 System-Level Applications 2.2.1 Microphone Isolation or Splitter

The primary of a transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio can bridge the output of a 150 to 200 microphone feeding one pre-amp and the secondary of the transformer can feed a duplicate of the microphone signal to another pre-amp. Of course, a simple Y cable could do this but there are potential problems. There are often large and noisy voltages between the grounds of two pre-amplifiers. The isolation provided by the transformer prevents the noise from coupling to the balanced signal line. To reduce capacitive noise Figure 36 - A 3-W ay Microphone Splitter Box coupling, Faraday shields are included in better designs and double Faraday shields in the best. As discussed in section 11.1.3.5, the input impedances of all the pre-amps, as well as all the cable capacitances, will be seen in parallel by the microphone. This places a practical upper limit on how many ways the signal can be split. Transformers are commercially available in 2, 3, and 4-winding versions. A 3-way splitter box schematic is shown in Figure 36. Since the microphone is directly connected only to the direct output, it is the only one that can pass phantom power to the microphone. To each preamp, each isolated output "looks like" a normal floating (ungrounded) microphone. The ground lift switches are normally left open to prevent possible high ground current flow in the cable shields. 2.2.2 Microphone Im pedance Conversion

There are some legacy dynamic microphones which are high-impedance (about 50 k) and have two-conductor cable and connector (unbalanced). W hen such a microphone must be connected to a standard balanced low-impedance microphone pre-amp, a transformer with a turns ratio of about 15:1 is necessary. Similar transformers can be used to adapt a low-impedance microphone to the unbalanced high-impedance input of a legacy pre-amplifier. 2.2.3 Line to Microphone Input or Direct Box

Because its high-impedance input accepts line-level signals and its output drives the low-level, low-impedance microphone input of a mixing console, the device shown in Figure 37 is called a direct box. It is most often driven by an electric guitar, synthesizer, or other stage instrument. Because it uses a transformer, it provides ground isolation as well. In this typical circuit, since the transformer has a 12:1 turns ratio, the impedance ratio is 144:1. W hen the microphone input has a typical 1.5 k input impedance, the input impedance of the direct box is about 200 k. The transformer shown has a separate Faraday shield for each winding to minimize capacitively coupled ground noise.

Figure 37 - A Transformer-Isolated Direct Box

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2.2.4

Line Isolation or Hum Eliminators

There are a remarkable number of black boxes on the market intended to solve ground loop problems. This includes quite a number of transformer-based boxes. W ith rare exception, those boxes contain output transformers. Tests were performed to compare noise rejection of the original interface to one with an added output transformer and to one with an added input transformer. The tests accurately simulated typical real-world equipment (see the definitions at the end of this section). Figure 38 shows results of CM RR tests on a balanced interface using the IEC 60268-3 test procedure (discussed in section 3.1.2). This test recognizes that the impedances of real-world balanced outputs are not matched with the precision of laboratory equipment. W hile the output transformer reduces 60 Hz hum by over 20 dB, it has little effect on buzz artifacts over about 1 kHz. The input transformer increases rejection to over 120 dB at 60 Hz and to almost 90 dB at 3 kHz, where the human ear is most sensitive to faint sounds. Figure 39 shows results of ground noise rejection tests on an unbalanced interface. By definition, there is 0 dB of inherent rejection in an unbalanced interface (see Chapter 37).W hile the output transformer reduces 60 Hz hum by about 70 dB, it reduces buzz artifacts around 3 kHz by only 35 dB. The input transformer increases rejection to over 100 dB at 60 Hz and to over 65 dB at 3 kHz. Figure 40 shows results of CMRR tests when an unbalanced output drives a balanced input. A two-wire connection of this interface will result in zero rejection (see Chapter 37). Assuming a three-wire connection, the !30 dB plot shows how CM RR of typical electronically-balanced input stages is degraded by the 600 source imbalance. Again, the output transformer improves 60 Hz hum by over 20 dB, it has little effect on buzz artifacts over about 1 kHz. The input transformer increases rejection to over 120 dB at 60 Hz and to almost 90 dB at 3 kHz. Figure 41 shows results of ground noise rejection tests when a balanced output drives an unbalanced input. Because our balanced output does not float, the direct connection becomes an unbalanced interface having, by definition, 0 dB of rejection. W hile the output transformer reduces 60 Hz hum by about 50 dB, it reduces buzz artifacts around 3 kHz by less than 20 dB. The input transformer increases rejection to over 105 dB at 60 Hz and to almost 75 dB at 3 kHz. In this application it is usually desirable to attenuate the signal by about 12 dB (from +4 dBu or 1.228 volts to !10 dBV or 0.316 volts) as well as provide ground isolation. This can be conveniently done by using a 4:1 step-down input transformer such as the one in Figure 29, which will produce rejection comparable to that shown here. One might fairly ask W hy not use a 1:4 step-up transformer when an unbalanced output drives a balanced input to get 12 dB of signal gain? Because of the circuit impedances involved, the answer is because it doesnt work very well. Recall that a 1:4 turns ratio has an impedance ratio of 1:16. This means that the

Figure 38 - Balanced Output to Balanced Input Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input

Figure 39 - Unbalanced Output to Unbalanced Input Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input

Figure 40 - Unbalanced Output to Balanced Input Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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input impedance of the pro balanced input we drive will be reflected back to the consumer output at one-sixteenth that. Since the source impedance (usually unspecified, but not the same as load impedance) of a consumer outputs is commonly 1 k or more, the reflected loading losses are high. A 1:4 step-up transformer would have its own insertion losses, which we will rather optimistically assume at 1 dB. The table below shows actual gain using this transformer with some typical equipment output and input impedances (Z is impedance). Consumer Output Z 200 500 1 k Pro Balanced Input Z 10 k 20 k 40 k (625 ) (1.25 k) (2.5 k) 8.6 dB 9.7 dB 10.3 dB 5.9 dB 8.1 dB 9.4 dB 2.7 dB 5.9 dB 8.1 dB

Figure 41 - Balanced Output to Unbalanced Input Not only will gain usually be much less than 12 dB, the load Top = None, Center = Output, Bottom = Input reflected to the consumer output (shown in parentheses) may cause headroom loss, increased distortion, and poor lowfrequency response. Often the only semi-technical description of a consumer output is 10 k minimum load. It is futile to increase the turns ratio of the transformer in an attempt to overcome the gain problem it only makes the reflected loading losses worse! In most situations, a 1:1 transformer can be used because the pro equipment can easily provide the required gain. Of course, a 1:1 input transformer will provide far superior noise immunity from ground loops. The point here is that the noise rejection provided by an input transformer with a Faraday-shield is far superior to that provided by an output type. But the input transformer must be used at the receiver or destination end of an interface cable. In general, input transformers can drive no more than two feet of typical shielded cable the capacitance of longer cables will erode their high-frequency bandwidth. Although output type (no Faraday shield) transformers are not as good at reducing noise, their advantage is that they can be placed anywhere along an interface cable, at the driver end, at a patch-bay, or at the destination end, and work equally well. In all the test cases discussed in this section, results of using both an output and an input transformer produced results identical to those using only an input transformer. For example, an unbalanced output does not need to be balanced by a transformer before transmission through a cable (this is a corollary of the balance versus symmetry myth), it needs only an input transformer at the receiver. There is rarely a need to use both types on the same line. Definitions: Balanced Output means a normal, non-floating source having a differential output impedance of 600 and common-mode output impedances of 300 , matched to within 0.1%; Balanced Input means a typical electronically-balanced stage (an instrumentation circuit using 3 op-amps) having a differential input impedance of 40 k and common-mode input impedances of 20 k, trimmed for a CM RR over 90 dB when directly driven by the above Balanced Output; Unbalanced Output means a ground-referenced output having an output impedance of 600 . This is representative of typical consumer equipment; Unbalanced Input means a ground-referenced input having an input impedance of 50 k. This is representative of typical consumer equipment; No Transformer means a direct wired connection; Output Transformer means a Jensen JT-11-EMCF (a popular line output transformer); and Input Transformer means a Jensen JT-11P-1 (our most popular line input transformer).

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2.2.5

Speaker Distribution or Constant Voltage

W hen a number of low-impedance speakers are located far from a power amplifier, there are no good methods to interconnect them in a way that properly loads the amplifier. The problem is compounded by the fact that power losses due to the resistance of the inter-connecting wiring can be substantial. The wire gauge required is largely determined by the current it must carry and its length. Borrowing a technique from power utility companies, boosting the distribution voltage reduces the current for a given amount of power and allows smaller wire to be used in the distribution system. Step-down matching transformers, most often having taps to select power level and/or speaker impedance, are used at each location. This scheme not only reduces the cost of wiring but allows system designers the freedom to choose how power is allocated among the speakers. These so-called constantvoltage speaker distribution systems are widely used in public address, paging, and background music systems. Although the most popular is 70-volt, others include 25-volt, 100-volt, and 140-volt. Because the higher voltage systems offer the lowest distribution losses for a given wire size, they are more common in very large systems. It should also be noted that only the 25-volt system is considered low-voltage by most regulatory agencies and the wiring in higher voltage systems may need to conform to ac power wiring practices. It is important to understand that these nominal voltages exist on the distribution line only when the driving amplifier is operating at full rated power. Many specialty power amplifiers have outputs rated to drive these lines directly but ordinary power amplifiers rated to drive speakers can also drive such lines, according to the following table: Amplifier Rated Output, W atts at 8 at 4 at 2 1,250 2,500 5,000 625 1,250 2,500 312 625 1,250 156 312 625 78 156 312 Output Voltage 100 70.7 50 35.3 25

For example, an amplifier rated to deliver 1,250 watts of continuous average power into an 8 load Figure 42 - Step-Up could drive a 70-volt distribution line directly as long as the sum of the power delivered to all the Auto-Transformer speakers doesnt exceed 1,250 watts. Although widely used, the term rms watts is technically ambiguous [5]. In many cases, the benefits of constant-voltage distribution are desired, but the total power required is much less. In that case a step-up transformer can be used to increase the output voltage of an amplifier with less output. This is often called matching it to the line because such a transformer is actually transforming the equivalent line impedance down to the rated load impedance for the amplifier. Most of these step-up transformers will have a low turns ratio. For example, a 1:1.4 turns ratio would increase the 50-volt output to 70 volts for an amplifier rated at 300 watts into 8 . In such lowratio applications, the auto-transformer discussed in section 11.1.2.2 has cost and size advantages. Figure 42 is a schematic of an auto-transformer with taps for turns ratios of 1:1.4 or 1:2 which could be used to drive a 70-volt line from amplifiers rated for either 300 or 150 watts respectively at 8 . Several power amplifier manufacturers offer such transformers as options or accessories. A line to voice-coil transformer is usually necessary to step-down the line voltage and produce the desired speaker power: Speaker 16 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 Power in W atts 8 4 64 128 32 64 16 32 8 16 4 8 2 4 1 2 0.5 1 0.25 0.5 Speaker Volts 22.63 16 11.31 8 5.66 4 2.83 2 1.41 Transformer Step-Down Turns Ratio Required 100 V 70 V 35 V 25 V 4.42 3.12 1.56 1.10 6.25 4.42 2.21 1.56 8.84 6.25 3.12 2.21 12.5 8.84 4.42 3.12 17.7 12.5 6.25 4.42 25 17.7 8.84 6.25 35.3 25 12.5 8.84 50 35.3 17.7 12.5 71 50 25 17.7

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These step-down transformers can be designed several ways. Figure 43 shows a design where the line voltage is selected at the primary side and the power level is selected at the secondary while Figure 44 shows a design where power level is selected on the primary side and speaker impedance is selected at the secondary. As clear from the repeating patterns in the table above, there are many combinations of line voltage, speaker impedance, and power level that result in the same required turns ratio in the matching transformer. Since the constant-voltage line has a very low source impedance, and the transformer is loaded by a low-impedance loudspeaker, transformer high-frequency response is usually not a design issue. As in any transformer, low-frequency response is determined by primary inductance and total source impedance, which is dominated by the primary winding resistance since the driving source impedance is very low. W inding resistances of both primary and secondary contribute to insertion loss. In efforts to reduce size and cost, the fewest turns of the smallest wire possible are often used, which raises insertion loss and degrades low-frequency response. Generally, an insertion loss of 1 dB or less is considered good and 2 dB is marginally acceptable for these applications. It is very important to understand that, while the frequency response of a transformer may be rated as !1 dB at 40 Hz, its rated power does NOT apply at that frequency. Rated power, or maximum signal level is discussed in section 1.3.1. In general, level handling is increased by more primary turns and more core material and it takes more of both to handle more power at lower frequencies. This ultimately results in physically larger, heavier, and more expensive transformers. W hen any transformer is driven at its rated level at a lower frequency than its design will support, core saturation is the result. The sudden drop in permeability of the core effectively reduces primary inductance to zero. The transformer primary now appears to have only the dc resistance of its winding, which may be only a few ohms. In the best scenario, some ugly-sounding distortion will occur and the line amplifier will simply current limit. In the worst scenario, the amplifier will not survive the inductive energy or kick fed back to it as the transformer comes out of saturation. This can be especially dangerous if large numbers of transformers saturate simultaneously. In 1953, the power ratings of speaker matching transformers were based on 2% distortion at 100 Hz [6]. Traditionally, the normal application of these transformers has been speech systems and this power rating standard assumes very little energy will exist under 100 Hz. The same reference recommends that transformers used in systems with emphasized bass should have ratings higher than this 100-Hz nominal power rating and those used to handle organ music should have ratings of at least four times nominal. Since the power ratings for these transformers is rarely qualified by a specification stating the applicable frequency, it seems safe to assume that the historical 100 Hz power rating applies to most com m ercial transform ers available today. If a background music system, for example, requires good bass response, it is wise to use over-rated transformers. Reducing the voltage on the primary side of the transformer will extends its low-frequency power handling. Its possible, using the table above, to use different taps to achieve the same ratio while driving less than nominal voltage into the transformer primary. For example, a 70-volt line could be connected to the 100-volt input of the transformer in Figure 33 and, for example, the 10-watt secondary tap used to actually deliver 5 watts. In any constant-voltage system, saturation problems can be reduced by appropriate high-pass filtering. Simply attenuate low-frequency signals before they can reach the transformers. In voice-only systems, problems that arise from breath pops, dropped microphones, or signal switching transients can be effectively eliminated by a 100-Hz high-pass filter ahead of the power amplifier. In music systems, attenuating frequencies too low for the speakers to reproduce can be similarly helpful. 2.2.6 Telephone Isolation or Repeat Coil Figure 43 - Transformer with Secondary Taps for Power Selection Figure 44 - Transformer with Primary Taps for Power Selection

In telephone systems it was sometimes necessary to isolate a circuit which was grounded at both ends. This metallic circuit problem was corrected with a repeat coil to improve longitudinal balance. Translating from telephone lingo, this balanced line had poor common-mode noise rejection which was corrected with a 1:1 audio isolation transformer. The W estern Electric 111C repeat coil was widely used by radio networks and others for high-quality audio transmission over 600 phone lines. It has split primary and secondary windings

Figure 45 - Repeat Coil Ground Isolation for 600 Lines

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and a Faraday shield. Its frequency response was 30 Hz to 15 kHz and it had less than 0.5 dB insertion loss. Split windings allow them to be parallel connected for 150 use. Figure 45 shows a modern version of this transformer as a general purpose isolator for low-impedance circuits, such as in a recording studio patch-bay. Optional components can be useful in some applications. For example, network R1 and C1 will flatten the input impedance over frequency, R2 will trim the input impedance to exactly 600 , and R3 can be used to properly load the transformer when the external load is high-impedance or bridging. 2.2.7 Telephone Directional Coupling or Hybrid

Telephone hybrid circuits use bridge nulling principles to separate signals which may be transmitted and received simultaneously on a 2-wire line. This nulling depends critically on well-controlled impedances in all branches of the circuits. This nulling is what suppresses the transmit signal (your own voice) in the receiver of your phone while allowing you to hear the receive signal (the other party). A two-transformer hybrid network is shown in Figure 46. The arrows and dashed lines show the current flow for a signal from the transmitter TX. Remember that the dots on the transformers show points having the same instantaneous polarity. The transformer turns ratios are assumed to be 1:1:1. W hen balancing network Z N has an impedance that matches the line impedance Z L at all significant frequencies, the currents in the Z L loop (upper) and Z N loop (lower) will be equal. Since they flow in opposite Figure 46 - Two-Transformer Hybrid directions in the RX transformer (right), there is cancellation and the TX signal does not appear at RX. A signal originating from the line rather than TX is not suppressed and is heard in RX. A common problem with hybrids of any kind is adjusting network Z N to match the telephone line, which may vary considerably in impedance even over relatively short time spans. If the transmitter and receiver are electrically connected, the single transformer method, shown in Figure 47, can be used. Any well-designed transformers with accurate turns ratio can be used in hybrid applications. 2.2.8 Moving-Coil Phono Step-Up Figure 47 - Single-Transformer Hybrid

Outboard boxes are sometimes used to adapt the output of low-output, low-impedance moving-coil phono pickups to pre-amplifier inputs intended for the more ordinary high-impedance moving-magnet pickups. These pre-amplifiers have a standard input impedance of 47 k. Figure 48 shows a 1:37 step-up transformer used for this purpose. It has a voltage gain of 31 dB and reflects its 47 k pre-amplifier load to the pickup as about 35 . This keeps loading loss on the pickup to about 1 dB. The series RC network on the secondary provides proper damping for smooth frequency response. Double magnetic shield cans are used because of the very low signal levels involved and the low-frequency gain inherent in the RIAA playback equalization. In these applications, it is extremely important to keep all leads to the pickup tightly twisted to avoid hum from ambient magnetic fields.

Figure 48 - Step-Up Transformer for Moving Coil Phono Pickup

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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Measurements and Data Sheets

3.1 Testing and M easurements 3.1.1 Transmission Characteristics

The test circuits below are the basic setups to determine the signal transmission characteristics of output and input type transformers, respectively, shown in the diagrams as DUT for device under test. In each case, the driving source impedance must be specified and is split into two equal parts for transformers specified for use in balanced systems. For example, if a 600 balanced source is specified, the resistors Rs/2 become 300 each. The generator indicated in both diagrams is understood to have symmetrical voltage outputs. The buffer amplifiers shown are used to provide a zero source impedance, which is not available from most commercial signal sources. The generator could be used in an unbalanced mode by simply connecting the lower end of the DUT primary to ground. The specified load impedance must also be placed on the secondary. For output transformers, the load and meter are often floating as shown in Figure 49. For input transformers, a specified end the secondary is generally grounded as shown in Figure 50.

Figure 49 - Transmission Tests for Output Types

Figure 50 - Transmission Tests for Input Types

These test circuits can be used to determine voltage gain or loss (turns ratio when R L is infinite), frequency response, and phase response. If the meter is replaced with a distortion analyzer, distortion and maximum operating level may be characterized. Multipurpose equipment such as the Audio Precision System 1 or System 2 can make such tests convenient. Testing of high-power transformers usually requires an external power amplifier to boost the generator output as well as some hefty power resistors to serve as loads. 3.1.2 Balance Characteristics

Tests for common-mode rejection are intended to apply a common-mode voltage through some specified resistances to the transformer under test. Any differential voltage developed then represents undesired conversion of common-mode voltage to differential mode by the transformer. In general terms, CMRR or common-mode rejection ratio, is the ratio of the response of a circuit to a voltage applied normally (differentially) to that same voltage applied in common-mode through specified impedances. This conversion is generally the result of mismatched internal capacitances in the balanced winding. For output transformers, the most common test arrangement is shown in Figure 51. Common values are 300 for RG and values from zero to 300 for Rs/2. Resistor pairs must be very well matched.

Figure 51 - Common-Mode Test for Output Types

Figure 52 - IEC Common-Mode Test for Input Types

Traditionally, CMRR tests of balanced input stages involved applying the common-mode voltage through a pair of very tightlymatched resistors. As a result, such traditional tests were not accurate predictors of real-world noise rejection in some very widely used electronically-balanced inputs. The IEC recognized this a number of years ago and solicited help to revise the test. The problem arises from the fact that the common-mode output impedances of balanced sources in typical commercial equipment are not matched with laboratory precision. Imbalances of 10 are quite common. This author, through an educational process about balanced interfaces in general, suggested a more realistic test which was adopted by the IEC in their document 60268-3 Testing of Amplifiers in August, 2000. The Informative Annex of this document is a concise short-course explaining the nature of a balanced interface. The method of the new test, as shown in Figure 52, is simply to introduce a 10 imbalance, first in one line and then in the other. The CMRR is then computed based on the highest differential reading observed.

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

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3.1.3

Resistances, Capacitances, and Other Data

Other data which can be very helpful to an equipment or system designer includes resistances of each winding and capacitances from winding to winding or winding to Faraday shield or transformer frame. Do not use an ohmmeter to check winding resistances unless you are able to later demagnetize the part. Ordinary ohmmeters, especially on low-ohm ranges, can weakly magnetize the core. If an ohmmeter simply must be used, use the highest ohm range (where the test current is least). Figure 53 - Impedance Tests Capacitances are usually measured on impedance bridges and, to eliminate the effects of winding inductances, with all windings shorted. Total capacitances can be measured this way, but balance of capacitances across a winding must be measured indirectly. CMRR tests are effectively measuring capacitance imbalances. As shown in Figure 53, sometimes the input impedance of a winding is measured with specified load on other windings. This test includes the effects of primary resistance, secondary resistance, and the parallel loss resistance RC shown in Figure 8 and Figure 13. If specified over a wide frequency range, it also includes the effects of primary inductance and winding capacitances. Breakdown voltages are sometimes listed as measures of insulation integrity. This is normally done with special equipment, sometimes called a hi-pot tester, which applies a high voltage while limiting current to a very low value. 3.2 Data Sheets 3.2.1 Data to Impress or to Inform?

As with other products, many data sheets and other product specifications are designed to impress rather than inform. Specifications offered with unstated measurement conditions are essentially meaningless, so a degree of skepticism is always appropriate before comparisons are made. A few examples: Hum Eliminator and Line Level Shifter products with no noise rejection specs of any kind! Line Level Shifter products with no gain spec at all! Section 2.2.4 explained why you likely never see one. Maximum Power or Maximum Level listed with no frequency and no source impedance specified! Other specifications, while true, may mislead those not wise in the ways of transformers. M aximum Level and Distortion are commonly specified at 50 Hz, 40 Hz, 30 Hz, or 20 Hz. Be careful, the 50 Hz specs will always be much more impressive than those at 20 Hz! There is an approximate 6 dB per octave relationship at work here. A transformer specified for level or distortion at 40 Hz for example, will handle about 6 dB less level at 20 Hz and have at least twice the distortion! Seen in advertising copy: Frequency response 10 Hz to 40 kHz 1 dB into 10 k load and Distortion less than 0.002% at 1 kHz. W hat about the source impedance? Response at 10 Hz and low distortion is a lot easier from a 0 source than from a 1 k source and 1 kHz is not a very revealing frequency for distortion tests. Section 1.3.1 explains. 3.2.2 Com prehensive Data Sheet Exam ple

For reference, the following is offered as a sample of a data sheet that has been called truly useful and brutally honest.

JT-11P-1

LINE INPUT TRANSFORMER

1:1 FOR "BALANCED BRIDGING" INPUTS M M M M M Ideal for balancing any high-impedance unbalanced input Wide bandwidth: !3 dB at 0.25 Hz and 100 kHz Recommended for levels up to +20 dBu at 20 Hz High input impedance: 13 k with 10 k load High common-mode rejection: 107 dB at 60 Hz

This transformer is designed for use in wideband line input stages. Distortion remains very low and CMRR remains high, even when driven by high source impedances. The primary is fully balanced and its leads may be reversed to invert polarity, if required. A 30 dB magnetic shield package is standard.

TYPICAL APPLICATION

JT-11P-1 SPECIFICATIONS (all levels are input unless noted)

PARAMETER Input impedance, Zi Voltage gain Magnitude response, ref 1 kHz Deviation from linear phase (DLP) Distortion (THD) Maximum 20 Hz input level Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 50 balanced source Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 600 unbalanced source Output impedance, Zo DC resistances Capacitances @ 1 kHz Turns ratio Temperature range Breakdown voltage (see IMPORTANT NOTE below) operation or storage primary or secondary to shield and case, 60 Hz, 1 minute test duration CONDITIONS 1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1 1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1 20 Hz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 20 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 20 Hz to 20 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 1 kHz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 20 Hz, +4 dBu, test circuit 1, Rs=600 1% THD, test circuit 1, Rs=600 60 Hz, test circuit 2 3 kHz, test circuit 2 60 Hz, test circuit 3 3 kHz, test circuit 3 1 kHz, test circuit 1, Rs=50 primary (RED to BRN) secondary (YEL to ORG) primary to shield and case secondary to shield and case 0.999:1 0E C 250 V RMS 65 dB +18 dBu MINIMUM 12.3 k !2.6 dB !0.15 dB !0.15 dB TYPICAL 13.0 k !2.3 dB !0.04 dB !0.05 dB +0.6E <0.001% 0.025% +20 dBu 107 dB 73 dB 100 dB 68 dB 2.34 k 1.45 k 1.55 k 98 pF 110 pF 1.000:1 1.001:1 70E C 0.10% MAXIMUM 13.7 k !2.0 dB 0.0 dB 0.0 dB 2.0E

All minimum and maximum specifications are guaranteed. Unless noted otherwise, all specifications apply at 25EC. Specifications subject to change without notice. All information herein is believed to be accurate and reliable, however no responsibility is assumed for its use nor for any infringements of patents which may result from its use. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of Jensen Transformers, Inc. IMPORTANT NOTE: This device is NOT intended for use in life support systems or any application where its failure could cause injury or death. The breakdown voltage specification is intended to insure integrity of internal insulation systems; continuous operation at these voltages is NOT recommended. Consult our applications engineering department if you have special requirements.

1/01

JENSEN TRANSFORMERS, INC., 7135 Hayvenhurst Avenue, Van Nuys, CA 91406-3807, USA (818) 374-5857 FAX (818) 374-5856 www.jensen-transformers.com

Bill W hitlock

Audio Transformers
Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

Page 28

Installation and Maintenance

4.1 A Few Installation Tips ! Remember that there are very tiny wires inside an audio transformer. Its wire leads should never be used like a handle to pick it up. The internal bonds are strong, but one strong tug might result in an open winding. Be careful with sharp tools. A gouge through the outer wrapper of an output transformer can nick or cut an internal winding. Use either the supplied screws or ones no longer than recommended to mount transformers in shield cans. If the screws are too long, theyll bore right into the windings big problem! Be careful about using magnetized tools. If a screwdriver will pick up a paper clip, it shouldnt be used to install an audio transformer. Dont drop a transformer. It can distort the fit of the laminations in output transformers and affect their low-frequency response. Mechanical stress (as in denting) of the magnetic shield can of an input transformer will reduce its effectiveness as a shield. For the same reason, dont over-tighten the clamp on transformers mounted with them. Twisting helps avoid hum pickup from ambient ac magnetic fields. This is especially true for mic level lines in splitters, for example. Separately twist the leads from each winding twisting the leads from all windings together can reduce noise rejection or CMRR.

! !

4.2 De-M agnetization Some subtle problems are created when transformer cores and/or their shield cans become magnetized. Generally, cores become magnetized by having dc flow in a winding, even for a fraction of a second. It can leave the core weakly magnetized. Steel cores, because of their wider hysteresis loops, are generally the most prone to such magnetization. The only way to know if the core has some permanent magnetization is to perform distortion measurements. A transformer with an un-magnetized core will exhibit nearly pure third harmonic distortion, with virtually no even order harmonic distortion while magnetized ones will show significant even order distortion, possibly with 2nd harmonic even exceeding 3rd. A test signal at a level about 30 or 40 dB below rated maximum operating level at 20 or 30 Hz is typically the most revealing because it maximizes the contribution of hysteresis distortion. Microphone input transformers used with phantom power are exposed to this possibility whenever a microphone is connected or disconnected from a powered input. However, distortion tests before and after exposure to the worst-case 7 mA current pulses have shown that the effects are indeed subtle. Third harmonic distortion, which normally dominates transformer distortions, is unaffected. Second harmonic, which normally is near the measurement threshold, is typically increased by about 20 dB but is still some 15 dB lower than the third harmonic. Is it audible? Some say yes. But even this distortion disappears into the noise floor above a few hundred Hz. In any case, it can be prevented by connecting and disconnecting microphones only when phantom power is off. However, such magnetized transformers can be de-magnetized. Demagnetizing of low level transformers can generally be done with any audio generator having a continuously variable output It may take a booster of some sort to get enough level for output transformers (be sure theres no dc offset at its output!). The idea is to drive the transformer deeply into saturation (5% THD or more) and slowly bring the level down to zero. Saturation will, of course, be easiest at a very low frequency. How much level it takes will depend on the transformer. If youre lucky, the level required may not be hazardous to the surrounding electronics and the de-magnetizing can be accomplished without disconnecting the transformer. Start with the generator set to 20 Hz and its minimum output level, connect it to the transformer, then slowly (over a period of a few seconds) increase the level into saturation maintain it for a few seconds then slowly turn it back down to minimum. For the vast majority of transformers, this process will leave them in a demagnetized state. Shield cans are usually magnetized by having a brief encounter with a strongly magnetized tool. Sometimes, transformers are unknowingly mounted on a magnetized chassis. W hen the shield can of an input transformer becomes magnetized, the result is microphonic behavior of the transformer. Even though quality input transformers are "potted" with a semi-rigid epoxy compound to prevent breakage of very fine wires, tiny movements between core and can activate what is essentially a variable reluctance microphone. In this case, a good strong tape head de-magnetizer can be used to de-magnetize the can. At the end of the production line, most transformers are routinely demagnetized with a very strong de-magnetizer just prior to shipment. Although I haven't tried it, I would expect that something like a degausser for 2" video tape (remember that!) would also de-magnetize even a large

Bill W hitlock

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Handbook for Sound Engineers, 3 rd Edition

Page 29

steel-core output transformer.

References [1] Magnetic Shield Corporation, Frequently Asked Questions, www.magnetic-shield.com/faq.html. [2] Sowter, G.A.V., Soft Magnetic Materials for Audio Transformers: History, Production, and Applications, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, October 1987, www.sowter.co.uk/pdf/GAVS.pdf. [3] W hitlock, Bill, Balanced Lines in Audio: Fact, Fiction, and Transformers, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, June 1995, pp 454-464. [4] Smith, F. Langford, Radiotron Designers Handbook, W ireless Press, Sydney, 4 th Edition, 1953, p 208. [5] W oolf, Lawrence, RMS Watt, or Not?, Electronics W orld, December 1998, pp 1043-1045. [6] Smith, F. Langford, op. cit., p 227.

Co-Netic is a registered trademark of Magnetic Shield Corp. HyMu is a registered trademark of Carpenter Technology Corp. Mumetal is a registered trademark of Telcon Metals, Ltd. Permalloy is a registered trademark of B & D Industrial & Mining Services, Inc.

PAPERS

Soft Magnetic Materials for Audio Transformers: History, Production, and Applications*
G. A. V. SOWTER

Sowter Audio Transformers, Ipswich IP1 2EL, Suffolk, UK

The history of soft magnetic materials is traced from 1000 B.C. to the present time. This includes a description of the work of Oersted and Faraday who invented the first transformer, and the gradual improvements in core material over the last 150 years. These cover soft iron, silicon iron, grain orientation, Hi-B steels, domain control by lasers, and spark ablation. Amorphous metallic glasses are also detailed. Finally the design and characteristics of a wide range of audio transformers and magnetic shields are discussed, in particular with regard to Mumetal, which with other nickel-iron alloys has been the author's lifetime occupation.

0 INTRODUCTION

The term "soft" relates to that class of metals or alloys which can be easily magnetized and demagnetized as opposed to "hard" magnetic materials used for permanent magnets. This paper deals exclusively with soft materials, particularly for audio applications. As far back as 1000 B.C. certain iron ores were found, mainly in Magnesia, a district of Macedonia, pieces of which attracted and repelled each other. These contained Fe304 (magnetite) and became known as lodestone, from the Saxon "loeden," to lead or direct. Lodestones as found were permanently magnetized and their power was named "magnetism." Around 55 B.C. Lucretius wrote "I have seen Samothracean iron rings even jump up, and at the same time filings of iron rave within brass basins when the magnet stone has been placed under." Later Pliny observed that iron which has been well touched and rubbed with lodestone is able to take hold of other pieces of iron. The first use of lodestone as a mariner's compass is attributed to the Chinese. Even before then, it was known that a piece of lodestone freely suspended always turns to the North. The first compasses were magnetized iron needles on floating straws, but pivoted devices were developed. While visiting the Chinese National Museum in Peking some 20 years ago, the author was shown the whole range of early Chinese compasses. The first authentic treatise on the science of magnetism was written in Latin by William Gilbert of Colchester
* Presented at the 82nd Convention of the Audio Engineering Society, London, 1987 March 10-13. 760

who had also studied electrostatics, a science dating back to about 600 B.C., when Thales, by rubbing amber with fur, gave the amber the power of picking up certain objects. The Greek word for amber was "elektron," and from this our word "electricity" is derived. Over the centuries considerable experimentation and the production of friction machines to generate electrostatic charges were completed and included capacitors and spark discharge devices. It was not until 1796 that Volta evolved the voltaic pile to generate a continuous flow of electricity. This consisted of copper and zinc disks placed alternately in column form but prevented from touching each other by means of pieces of moist cloth. This was later replaced by the voltaic cell which consisted of a copper and a zinc strip placed in dilute sulfuric acid and capable of being joined externally by copper wires to feed a load. As is known, hydrogen gathers on the surface of the copper strip and polarization takes place, limiting the current output.
1 OERSTED'S DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

Before we consider transformers, the production of a magnetic field by the presence of current is fundamental. In early 1820 the Danish physicist Oersted gave a series of lectures on magnetism and electricity. He made the current from a galvanic trough (voltaic cells in series) pass through a platinum wire to illustrate the heating effect (forerunner of modern electric heaters). Adjacent was a compass covered with glass, and in the course of the demonstration, on making the circuit, in the presence of the audience, a slight flick of
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the compass needle was noticed. It was not considered to be of very great significance, but months later, in 1820 July, he resumed the research and confirmed that the needle did actually move. By putting the compass, above, below, and on the sides of the wire carrying current he established that the wire was surrounded by a magnetic field. He immediately published a fourpage quarto document in Latin, describing this epochmaking discovery, and sent it to all learned bodies and distinguished scientists. When several turns of wire were wound on a magnetizable core, such as iron, the field was greatly enhanced, and in 1825 Sturgeon produced the first electromagnet. A typical example is the Royal Institution's great electromagnet illustrated in Fig. 1. Electromagnets were constructed by Franklin in the United States and G. I. Moll of Utrecht, Holland. Magnetizable materials known at that time were various steels, wrought iron, nickel, and cobalt. (It is interesting to note that the nickel-cobalt alloy Permendur, a 20th-century U.S. discovery now in production, has the highest saturation induction of all well-used commercial alloys, particularly for pole pieces. Some rare earth alloys with even higher saturations exist but are too expensive to come into general use.

2 FARADAY'S DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION In the years 1821-1831 Michael Faraday became deeply interested in experimentation with electrically produced magnetic fields and in November 1825 came very close to discovering electromagnetic induction. He had five separate wires, each 5 ft long, adjacent to each other, and he passed a current through one of them trying to detect any effect on any of the neighboring wires. Unfortunately his galvanometer was not a delicate one and no effect was observable. At that time a galvanometer, or current-measuring device, was no more than a crude compass near a coil of wire. On 1828 February 15, at the usual Friday evening gathering at the Royal Institution in London, there was held what could have been the first meeting of our Audio Engineering Society. The subject of the lecture was "Resonance or the Reciprocation of Sound." Music was demonstrated on instruments from Java, the jew's harp, and whistles, and a second meeting included sirens and stringed instruments. At the first lecture resonances were produced by the then well-known method of strewing sand on a circular disk and drawing a violin bow across the edge. The Chladni (1785) figures showed the natural resonances of the disk. A second disk of similar dimensions was placed under the energized one, which was similarly lightly covered with sand. It was then shown that the sand on the unenergized disk exhibited the same pattern of Chladni figures. Michael Faraday was present at these demonstrations and he perceived that the mechanical work of bowing had been converted into sound energy and then reconverted into work on the second disk. This gave him a germ of inspiration to determine whether electrical energy might be converted into magnetism and then reconverted into electricity. Incidentally N. W. McLachlan and the author, in 1930, made Chladni figures with sand and lycopodium powder on disks and wide-angled metal and paper cones to discover the natural resonances of loudspeakers by bowing. Subsequently energization of cones of many sizes and materials was made by passing audio frequency current through the moving coil attached to the cone and the sand studied. The frequencies at which these occurred were confirmed by bridge measurement of the variations of impedance and radiation resistance at each resonance [1]. It is worth recording that even the resonances of the actual moving coils were found to be audible by bowing, and the frequencies were measured. Faraday, in 1831 August, did confirm that electric energy could be converted to magnetism and back to electricity by the following entry in his diary [2]: Have had an iron ring made (soft iron) round and inches thick and ring 6 inches in external diameter. Wound many coils of copper wire round one half, the coils being separated by twine and calico-there were 3 lengths of wire about 24 feet long and they could be connected as one length or used as separate lengths. By trial with a trough, each was insulated from the other. Will call this side of the
'1/8

Fig. 1. The Royal Institution's great electromagnet.

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side of the ring, but separated by an interval, was wound in two pieces together amounting to about 60 feet in length, the direction being as with the former coils; this side call B. Since the coil on A intensified the effect of the current it was logical to presume that coil B would intensify the effect of the forces in the ring. Coil A was capable of being connected to a trough and coil B was connected to a Galvanometer. When all was ready, connected the ends of one of the pieces on A side with battery; immediately a sensible effect on the needle. It oscillated and settled at last in the original position. On breaking connection of A side with battery again a disturbance of the needle wave apparently short and sudden.

This is exactly what Faraday wrote in his diary. The discovery of electromagnetic induction resulted from many months of experimental research which he continued for almost 30 years. Faraday's induction ring was the first transformer ever made, and his description of the toroidal core and windings does not differ greatly from that of a modern toroidal mains transformer now so extensively used in audio equipment (Fig. 2). He even had some idea of the effect of the turns ratio but suffered from the fact that covered insulated wire was not then available. During the nineteenth century wire coverings of silk or cotton in single or double layers, impregnated papers, Gutta Percha for submarine cables, and rubber were utilized, to be followed eventually by enamel coatings. It is worth recording that Faraday also invented the first dynamo, which gave a supply of direct current from a rotating disk (Fig. 3). This greatly enhanced the use of direct current for experimental and other purposes and basically led to the manufacture of highpower commercial generators. Toward the end of that century considerable research was undertaken on soft magnetic materials for generators and power transformers. The latter, in some instances, consisted of toroidal copper windings with as many small-diameter iron wires as possible, forced through the central aperture and bent back on themselves to complete a magnetic core. Similar construction was used for small communication transformers for telephones. For power transformers an alternative construction was the use of soft iron plates bolted together, but these had appreciable losses and suffered from deterioration due to aging.

research was being carried out on so many magnetic materials. Another reason for mentioning this treatise is that Ewing, Hopkinson, and others almost anticipated the discovery of modern high-permeability alloys such as Mumetal and Permalloy, so widely used in audio transformers. At that time tests were made on nickel-iron alloys containing 4.7% Ni, 25% Ni, 30% Ni, and 33% Ni. Even the effects of annealing were observed, and had the nickel contents been increased further up to 80%, there would have been created elementary forms of Invar (35% NiFe), Radiometal (50% NiFe), and Mumetal and Permalloy (73-80% NiFe). After leaving the university in 1922, the author's first laboratory work was to measure the magnetic properties of nickel-iron rods about 5 ft long and 0.25

3 PRODUCTION OF NICKEL-IRON ALLOYS

In about 1890 J. A. Ewing had published a book entitled

Magnetic Induction in Iron and Other Metals [3]. This is a

most comprehensive study covering various magnetic measurements, including Weber's ballistic method, magnetization of iron rings and long wires, steel, cast iron, nickel, cobalt, and wrought iron wires. A chapter deals with hysteresis and the effects of vibration, together with magnetizing in weak and strong fields. He also studied effects of temperature and stress, torsion and twisting, with a final chapter on practical magnetic testing. Considering that the period was 1890-1900, it is astonishing that such comprehensive
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Fig. 2. Page from Faraday's diary describing experiment and showing his induction ring the first toroidal transformer.
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in diameter, containing 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% Ni. These had previously been heated to about 1000C and slow cooled. The test equipment employed, invented by Weber, is illustrated in Fig. 4, where a. ballistic galvanometer is used to measure flux. These tests quickly indicated that as the nickel content was increased, there was an enormous improvement in magnetic properties around about 78% Ni content, which gave the optimum permeabilities. High permeability is closely allied with low magnetostriction, and some years later the author made magnetostriction tests on a Mumetal rod, again using the Weber ballistic equipment. A 6-ft length of annealed thin Mumetal rod was inserted in the magnetizing solenoid, and one end was securely fixed in a large lead block. At the other end a 2000x linear magnification Reichert measuring microscope with oil immersion was focused on the grain boundary of a crystal exposed by etching with nitric acid. The first observations showed that the whole laboratory, situated within the works, was in a state of vibration due to the operation of hot and cold rolling mills and particularly a steam hammer. The result was that the measurements had to be made in the middle of the night when all was quiet. The magnetostriction movement on the grain boundary was on the order of one-millionth of its length for that particular specimen (Fig. 5). It is interesting to observe that had magnetostriction measurements been made on the aforementioned series of rods, the optimum composition for high permeability might have been confirmed. Another test carried out by the author was to measure the permeability of a vertically suspended annealed Mumetal wire when various loads were applied to the lower end. This clearly showed that as loads were in

creased, there was first an improvement in permeability and then a decline. It is interesting to note that on modern Hi-B transformer steel a small tensile stress is obtained by using a glass surface coating applied at high temperature and then cooling. This reduces the losses and raises the permeability.
4 DISCOVERY OF IRON ALLOYED WITH SILICON FOR TRANSFORMER CONES

During the latter half of the nineteenth century considerable research on magnetic materials had been carried out by such persons as Ewing, Rowlands, S. P. Thomson, Steinmetz, and many others, and measurement techniques became well established. Many properties of wrought iron, steels, nickel, cobalt, and even some nickel-iron alloys were determined, and it is to be regretted that the full import of the results was not realized. In the early 1900s that first major improvement in materials for transformers took place when Sir Robert Hadfield introduced iron alloyed with silicon which gave higher permeabilities and appreciably less loss than earlier steels. Various percentages of silicon were utilized and the alloys were sold under a variety of trade names. These were produced from hot-rolled sheets and had omnidirectional properties. Strain-relieving annealing was sometimes employed, and various coatings were used to reduce eddy current loss. These sheets were used in the form of butt lapped strips for the magnetic cores or power transformers and had only about half of the previous iron losses. The most popular alloy was 3-4% SiFe. Larger values of silicon content were investigated even up to 7%, which was found to have superior magnetic properties, but the material was brittle and not easily machinable or stamped. As an indication of the quality of silicon iron available in 1915, reference is made to an IEE paper by N. W. McLachlan on Stalloy plates 0.5 mm thick for instrument transformers [4]. He found by measurement at 50 Hz that at 0.01 T the complex permeability was 780 and at 0.1 T, 2760. At 0.5 T the value was only 3000.

Fig. 3. Page from Faraday's diary showing sketch of first dynamo.

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Fig. 4. Connections for testing iron rods by search coil method due to Weber.
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5 GRAIN-ORIENTED SILICON IRON

Silicon irons with a number of improvements were utilized for transformers until the late 1930s when a breakthrough occurred due to the introduction of grainoriented silicon iron. This was the important invention of N. P. Goss, who termed the product Goss iron [5]. This was achieved by altering the silicon content in the steel, cold rolling the strip to the desired thickness, followed by high-temperature annealing at 1200C to evolve secondary recrystallization. Large grains were produced, oriented in the rolling direction and resulting in greatly improved magnetic properties along the strip. More loss, however, arose across the strip, and this led to considerable research on mitered joints, butt joints, and methods of utilizing as far as possible constructions where the flux went along the grains. Obviously toroids here had a big advantage, and subsequently C cores and E cores were introduced, particularly for small transformers. While improvements were taking place prior to the 1960s such as making thinner Goss material to reduce eddy currents, research was continuing to produce better steels. Japan came to the fore and patented their Hi-B Steel which is extensively used today. Here larger grains are evolved and a small tensile stress is imparted to the steel by using a glass surface coating applied at high temperature and resulting in reduced electrical loss.

feature to obtain high inductance with the smallest number of turns. The latter is required to minimize the capacity effects, as described later.
7 METALLIC GLASS OR AMORPHOUS SOFT MAGNETIC ALLOYS

6 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Even in the last few years significant improvements in electrical steel production have been obtained. As is well known, magnetic losses in a core consist partly of hysteresis, which varies linearly with frequency, and eddy current loss, which is proportional to the squares of sheet thickness, frequency, and induction, but inversely proportional to resistivity. There is however a third loss, mentioned by the author in 1941 [6], which was termed disaccommodation loss or Nachwirkung loss. It has been found that this loss depends on the distance between domain walls, and recently by a process of scribing and laser treating the surface of the strip, losses can be reduced by as much as 10%. Richardson [5] gives further details of these treatments and states that electrical steels developed today give a 40% improvement on the Goss 0.35-mm strip. British steels are now using spark ablation to give the same results as laser scribing. So far, for use in audio transformer cores, several grades of oriented strip are available, termed M grades, from M2 to M7, and these are utilized for the production of small toroids and laminations. For these purposes the aforementioned very high grade materials are not available yet, possibly for economic reasons. It is noted that all efforts to improve steel materials are concerned with reducing losses. Fortunately low loss usually means higher magnetic permeability, which in the case of audio transformers is a most desirable
764

One final development in magnetic materials over tile last 20 years has been the production of metallic glass, or amorphous soft magnetic alloys: These are like glass and have no crystalline structure. They are produced by continuous casting and rapid continuous quenching, which results in a quick transition from the fluid to the solid phase. The virtue of these materials is that thin strips, such as 0.05 mm thick (and up to 1 m wide in one instance), can be made directly from the casting line, thus avoiding the usual hot rolling, cold rolling, and intermediate annealing processes. Unfortunately, like glass, they are hard and very brittle which makes handling and cutting uneconomic. The composition of metallic glasses may consist of some of the following: iron (Fe), boron (B), phosphorus (P), nickel (Ni), carbon (C), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo), a few of these elements constituting a particular brand. Table 1 gives the properties of metallic glasses that existed a few years ago, but research continues [7]. Amorphous metal has been employed in small distibution transformers, and a 16-kVA unit which has only 20% of the loss of normal oriented silicon steels has been constructed. Amorphous metal is unlikely to be used in large power transformers owing to its low saturation induction, but in due course there is a possibility for its use in audio transformers if it can be considerably reduced in price as compared even with Mumetal.

8 THE ORIGIN OF MUMETAL

In the early 1920s Mumetal was developed to act as a loading material for submarine telegraph cables. It was produced in high-frequency induction furnaces (the original microwave oven principle), and the 20-lb ingots were used to make wire 0.010 in diameter. In 1926 for the Pacific submarine cable between Bamfield and Fanning, 3370 nautical miles in length, thousands of miles of this Mumetal wire were drawn for wrapping around the central copper conductor to increase its inductance. This involved subsequent annealing to develop the high permeability required. The effect of the Mumetal wire was to reduce greatly the attenuation of the signals and increase the word-handling capacity. By passing the loaded copper through a continuous furnace at about 900C in a nitrogen atmosphere it also meant continuous measurements of inductance by the author and others on a definite length of conductor after passage through the furnace. Mumetal is a registered trademark of Telcon Metals Ltd., Crawley, Sussex, UK.
1

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It is worthy of mention that since so much Mumetal wire was required, quite a number of firms were engaged in its production. It was found that the wire from one firm always had higher permeabilities than any other, and it transpired that they used fewer passes between intermediate softenings. It was thus proved that cold working or work hardening produced better magnetic qualities, the forerunner of grain orientation. To cover the improvement in permeability a world patent was taken out (British Patent 366523, Smith,

Garnett, and Randall, 1930) and subsequently sold to the U.S. company engaged in the production of oriented silicon iron. In the early 1930s the demand for loaded submarine cables slackened and fresh fields for the utilization of Mumetal were explored. Magnetic shields began to be required and Mumetal toroids for precision instrument transformers soon became the fashion. In addition a demand arose for shielding cathode-ray tubes, particularly for oscilloscopes and eventually radar equipment.

Fig. 5. Longitudinal magnetostriction effect in nickel-iron alloys.

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It is worthy of mention that since so much Mumetal wire was required, quite a number of firms were engaged in its production. It was found that the wire from one firm always had higher permeabilities than any other, and it transpired that they used fewer passes between intermediate softenings. It was thus proved that cold working or work hardening produced better magnetic qualities, the forerunner of grain orientation. To cover the improvement in permeability a world patent was taken out (British Patent 366523, Smith,

Garnett, and Randall, 1930) and subsequently sold to the U. S. company engaged in the production of oriented silicon iron. In the early 1930s the demand for loaded submarine cables slackened and fresh fields for the utilization of Mumetal were explored. Magnetic shields began to be required and Mumetal toroids for precision instrument transformers soon became the fashion. In addition a demand arose for shielding cathode-ray tubes, particularly for oscilloscopes and eventually radar equipment.

Fig. 5. Longitudinal magneto striction effect in nickel-iron alloys.

Table 1. Properties of metal glasses.

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9 HISTORY OF AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS

The author's first experience with audio transformers was in 1919 when he examined a war surplus audio amplifier which used "R" bright emitter valves and contained three kinds of audio transformers. These were inlet, intervalve, and output types and were all about 2 in 3 with Stalloy (4% silicon iron) cores. It is of interest to note that a small brass plate on the amplifier case stated "made by Captain Mullard" with a South London, Streatham, address. It is believed that subsequently he was the founder of the firm of Mullard. In the 1920s Ferranti Ltd. produced much improved types of intervalve and output transformers, termed the "AF series," which persisted for many years. The transformer cores were Armco iron, where the initial permeability was about 600 and the maximum less than 4000. The advantage of these transformers was that the core section was generous, the windings sandwiched to give good magnetic coupling and spaced for minimum capacitance. This led to a respectable frequency response from 50 Hz to 8 kHz or slightly above, which was adequate for the various types of loudspeakers then being manufactured. In the early 1930s N. W. McLachlan and the author were engaged in research for a proposed transatlantic telephone cable, to be 2300 nautical miles in length. The frequency range was 250 Hz to 2500 Hz, with the received signal strength at the highest frequency only about 1 uV The transmitter with a shaped frequency characteristic, emphasizing highest frequency, had an input of 200 W. Due to cable attenuation the signal strength on the cable falls as the operating frequency is increased, and the ratio between 250 and 2500 Hz was as indicated in Table 2. The frequency characteristic of the receiving amplifier was designed to offset this by the aid of Mumetal-cored resonant transformers fed from the then newly invented screened grid valves (Tetrodes). British Patent 304710 gives the circuit of this amplifier, as shown in Fig. 6. Elaborate precautions had to be taken to decouple the feeding supplies and screen the transformers. In its final form the amplifier had six stages, and the following amplification figures (which include amplification due to the input and output

transformers) were obtained by measurements made by the author and given in British Patent 304710. The input transformer with a Mumetal core operated at such a low level that "noise" had to be minimized and the winding resistances were reduced by immersing this transformer in liquid air. Due to the Wall Street crash, the transatlantic telephone cable could not be financed, but the project worked well in the laboratory using artificial lines which corresponded to the proposed cable.

10 TONE COMPENSATOR FOR PHONOGRAPH RECORDS

Based on the experience gained with resonant transformers, it was decided to design a tone compensator for use with a pickup for phonograph records. This became known as the Novotone, which correctly compensated for the low-note loss due to groove limitations by the use of a carefully designed transformer resonating at about 30 Hz. A second transformer resonating at 4000 Hz and having a tertiary winding loaded with a variable resistor permitted variable high-note compensation as shown in Fig. 7. This instrument was patented and became a commercial success. It is interesting to note that when the two transformers in the Novotone were first connected up so that the primaries and the secondaries were in series, the author's measurements showed an unexpected reduction of voltage in the midfrequency band. After pondering about this for some time, it was realized that the output voltage from the 30-Hz transformer, being above the resonant frequency, was capacitive and that from the 4-kHz transformer, being below the resonant frequency, was inductive. When the two secondaries were connected in opposition,

Table 2. Voltage amplification. Frequency (Hz) 250 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Voltage amplification 2.4 x 102 2.3 x 103 5.8 x 104 6.8 x 105 5.4 x 106 1.1 x 10'

Fig. 6. Amplifier with "resonant intervalve transformers" to give voltage amplification of 240 at 250 Hz and 11 million at 2500 Hz (British Patent 304710). 766
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the performance curve in Fig. 7 was achieved. It should perhaps be stated that to get the exact frequency characteristics of the resonant transformers, a considerable amount of research was required. By the early 1930s, nickel-iron alloys such as Mumetal, Permalloy C, Radiometal, and others were firmly

established as materials for audio frequency transformers. A very large variety of sizes of laminations became available and eventually led to the formation of a committee which produced a document giving the preferred types, particularly for government departments. Many of these sizes are still being manufactured.

Fig. 7. McLachlan Novotone compensator for electrical reproduction of disk records using resonant audio transformers
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During World War II, munitions and communications made great demands on these high-permeability laminations, but a few unusual types of transformers are worth mentioning. Thus the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough was interested in determining the vibration frequencies and their amplitudes on the mainly wooden aeroplane, the Mosquito, specially designed to avoid radar. In conjunction with the De Havilland Company, which built Mosquitos, the author designed and manufactured Mumetal-cored transformers operating over the range 4 Hz to 1 kHz, which suited the R. A. E. program. The transformers handled the small voltages set up by nickel-chromium wire transducers glued to the vibrating parts and a six-channel amplifier-recorder was built. After this, a similar demand arose from the Wellcome research laboratories for transformers to operate over 4 Hz to 1 kHz or above for the encephalograph. This is a device for measuring the tiny voltages set up between electrodes gummed to the patient's head for the study of brain tumors. Today as many as nine electrodes can be utilized. It is amusing to recall that the author was invited to the laboratories to witness the first demonstration of the equipment utilizing an anesthetized dog, on the head of which had been fixed electrodes feeding the amplifier and a recording oscilloscope. Rhythmic signals at low frequencies were being observed when the doctor in charge facetiously asked the author, "Would you like to have your brains tested?" Fearing the worst, the author agreed and was asked to observe the pattern on the screen when he worked out an elementary mathematical calculation. To his astonishment he found that the record showed a burst of voltages during the calculation, which was immediately followed by a second similar burst. He was told that subconsciously he checked his calculations although he was unaware of this. Another outstanding device considered during the war was modified transformers for the Asdic antisubmarine equipment. Toward 1945 the author was also asked to redesign the normal transformers so that, without loss of performance, they could be appreciably reduced in size. After the war ended in 1945 there began improvements in recording on disks and tapes and a frequency range spectrum of 40 Hz to 16 kHz became common, although some recording companies specified 20 Hz to 20 kHz, which is normal for many transformers today. Harmonic generation, today called distortion, then had become important, and the author made a detailed study of the properties of the nickel-iron alloys from this aspect. For this he was awarded an external Ph.D. by London University, his thesis being entitled "Harmonic Distortion in Transformers and Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores" [8]. The superiority of Mumetal over other alloys with respect to low distortion was studied and distortion coefficients were evolved. These enabled designers to predict transformer distortion on finished transformers, provided the associated circuit

parameters were disclosed. In the thesis the importance of uniform flux density throughout the magnetic circuit was shown to be essential if distortion is to be minimized. Fig. 8 illustrates the distortion coefficients of various magnetic materials in the form of interleaved assemblies of laminations. These coefficients are directly proportional to the resulting distortion, and the superiority of Mumetal is apparent. Fig. 9 gives the distortion coefficients for Mumetal in forms other than laminations and emphasizes the low distortion of highpermeability spiral cores.
11 MAGNETIC CORES FOR AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS

The desirable properties for audio frequency magnetic cores varies somewhat according to the type of transformer. For those handling voltages over a wide frequency band, particularly starting at 20 Hz, highpermeability cores are essential to restrict the number of turns and keep the leakage inductance down. High resistivity of the magnetic material and low hysteresis and eddy current loss are desirable so that overall core losses are minimized. Where actual power handling is small and low cost is desirable, Mumetal 0.38 mm thick is mostly employed, although thinner laminations can offer certain advantages, especially as regards permeability. This is particularly the case for very small transformers required for printed circuit board mounting. For this the range of laminations available is somewhat limited but can vary in size from about 10 mm 2 up to a few square centimeters. On the Continent DIN standard sizes exist. Fig. 10 gives a few of the lamination sizes in general use, although for high per

Fig. 8. Distortion coefficients of various magnetic materials in the form of interleaved assemblies of laminations.
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performance or appreciable audio output larger sizes are available. Laminations are generally in the form of Es and Is (to make up a rectangular form) or Ts and Us, and care must be taken in assembly to avoid excess compression or bending since the permeability is easily reduced thereby. There are advantages in higher permeability by using single E laminations (Fig. 11). Impregnation can have undesired effects, and immersion in incorrect grades of wax can lead to microphony, that is, minor voltages set up in the windings generally due to relative movements-of windings and cores. It will be noticed that generally the core sectional areas are such that uniform flux density throughout the magnetic circuit is obtained. This is most important to minimize harmonic generation, and the presence of holes for bolts for fixing purposes does cause nonuniform flux concentration. Laminations are normally interleaved to form a stack, but when this is the case, a striking phenomenon is observed. Referring to Table 3, which gives the latest properties of the various grades of Mumetal, it will be observed that the saturation flux density is 0.77 T. Now by examining the manufacturers' curves for Mumetal laminations type 187 (Fig. 12) it will be seen that the permeability falls rapidly beyond 0.3 T, or less than half of the ferric induction saturation. This obviously limits the practical maximum induction at which the transformer can operate since high distortion starts at this density. Fig. 13 shows the wide range of permeabilities

found over a number of batches of laminations, as sold, which shows initial permeability varying from 16 000 to 27 000 and a comparable divergence over the whole useful range of flux density. This must be taken into account when designing. The reason for the limitation of maximum working induction is given in detail in [9], from which Figs. 14 and 15 are taken. Basically it is due to the crowding of flux at the imbricated joints in the lamination assembly, which is discussed in detail in this paper.

12 DISTORTION IN AUDIO TRANSFORMERS

Referring to Figs. 8 and 9 it will be noticed that distortion increases as the flux density is raised so that wherever there are flux concentrations, additional distortion is produced. With an audio transformer the highest operating flux levels are at the lowest frequency, and here the maximum distortion occurs. As frequency is raised, for a definite operating voltage, the flux is progressively reduced so that harmonic generation falls. For the higher frequencies in the audio range there is the "skin effect," that is, the flux tends to concentrate on the outer surface of the laminations, which accounts for the fall in effective permeability, as shown in Fig. 16. Obviously for best operation at high audio frequencies thin material, such as 0.1 mm thick, has advantages as regards both inductance and distortion, but it is expensive.

13 INCREMENTAL OPERATING CONDITIONS

The passage of direct current through winding carrying audio, frequency currents causes magnetization which results in a severe diminution in permeability and limits the audio output. This is of particular importance with transistor amplifiers where heavy direct current can be available in the output. In one case encountered by the author a 300-VA

Fig. 9. Distortion coefficients of Mumetal. O-cut ring stampings with interleaved joints; x-ring-stampings; 0spiral core; A-high-permeability spiral core.
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Fig. 10. Sizes and types of some of the laminations used for audio frequency transformers.
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push-pull audio output transformer designed by him and fed from two transistor amplifiers was said to have been balanced to eliminate any direct current. In fact it was found to be unbalanced and passing 2 A direct current through the primary winding, and the effect on the quality of the speech and music, to put it mildly, was most pronounced. When the unbalance was found, there had never before been such a rush to put two 10 000-RF capacitors in the lines. Here was a case of enormous distortion, and the author was reminded of a wartime requirement of a large number of transformers he designed especially to create maximum distortion for radio transmitters to jam unwanted radio reception.

14 DEMAGNETIZATION OF SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

When a transformer has been subjected to large values of direct current or has been in the vicinity of a strong permanent magnet, such as too near a loudspeaker, it will assume a polarized state or become magnetized. Fortunately this seldom has a permanently harmful effect on the core material, although in its magnetized state it will have higher distortion and reduced audio output. The process of demagnetizing is quite simple and consists of applying to one winding an alternating current (for example, at 50 Hz) of value appreciably exceeding

Fig. 11. Higher permeability of E laminations as compared with E and I of same material. Table 3. Summary of typical characteristics of modern Mumetal. Standard Mumetal Mumetal Plus Magnetic properties Initial permeability* do 114 Maximum permeability do Saturation ferric induction Bsat (Tesla) Remanence, Brem from saturation (Tesla) Coercivity, H do (A/m) Hysteresis loss at Bsat (J/m3 cycle) Total loss at 0.1 Tesla 50 Hz, 0.1 mm spirated cores (mW/kg) Curie temperature (C) Physical properties (similar for all grades) Coefficient of linear expansion, per C Resistivity, uOhm . m Specific gravity Thermal conductivity, W/m . C Specific heat, J/kg . C * u4 is measured at 0.4 A/m. 60 000 240 000 0.77 0.45 1.0 3.2 0.7 350 80 000 300 000 0.77 0.45 0.8 1.3 0.55 350

Supermumetal 140 000 350 000 0.77 0.5 0.55 0.9 0.35 350 13 x 10-6 0.6 8.8 33 440

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Fig. 14. Variation of permeability of interleaved laminations with flux density as compared with butted and gapped assemblies. 0-interleave 0-butted; O-with 0.001-in gap in one outer limb and butt joint in the other; x -with 0.001-in gap in middle and in both outer limbs. Note change of scale of ordinate at [L5-5000.
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that required for saturation. This current should then be reduced smoothly and gradually over a period of time, such as one-half to one minute. In its most elementary form this can be done with a suitable variable resistance, such as a potential divider capable of handling the large current. It is important to spend the bulk of the time on the low values of demagnetizing force, which should be reduced to absolute zero. Another demagnetizing method is to reverse direct current continuously while reducing its value to zero. It should be stressed that Mumetal does not easily acquire unidirectional magnetization under normal operating conditions. Silicon iron, however, can become polarized to a small extent if low-frequency ac signals or pulses of values approaching saturation are encountered, and this increases distortion.

15 HISTORY OF MAGNETIC SHIELDING AS USED FOR AUDIO TRANSFORMERS

Nowadays a good proportion of audio transformers are contained in high-permeability (usually Mumetal) magnetic shielding cans where 50-Hz "hum" may exist, and these are most effective. The first evidence of magnetic shielding was in the

early 1820s, when it was demonstrated that a horseshoe permanent magnet freely suspended and rotated over a copper disk caused the latter to rotate. (This is the principle of the induction motor.) By interfacing various nonferrous disks between the magnet and the copper disk there was little effect. When, however, an iron disk was interfaced, the copper disk did not move, and this was the first evidence of magnetic shielding. Other metals than copper were tried instead for the rotatable disk, and it was found that silver was comparable but bismuth reacted very weakly. It is now known that electric conductivity is the desideratum for motion of the disk. On 1883 November 8 Willoughby Smith, as president of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians, read a paper entitled "Volta-Electrical Induction" [10]. This society became the present Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) some years later in 1888. For demonstration purposes he utilized two wooden frames about 36 in 2 in which were supported flat helices of insulated copper wire, as indicated in Fig. 17. The coils were placed some distance apart, and switches D and E were mechanically controlled and could be synchronized. Faraday had also experimented with similar coils with hand-operated static switches as in Fig. 17(b) and found that when the space between the coils was filled with insulating bodies such as sulfur and shellac, there was no effect on the galvanometer deflection when the circuit was made or broken. Copper and other nonmagnetic materials also had no observable effect, and Willoughby Smith wrote:
It is to be regretted that so sound a reasoner and so careful an experimenter had not the great advantage of the assistance of such suitable instruments for this class of research as the Mirror-Galvanometer and the Telephone.

Fig. 15. Variation of permeability with flux density of Mumetal spiral cores showing higher possible working densities. x-high-permeability specimen; O-medium-permeability specimen; A-low-permeability specimen.

It is noteworthy that both these instruments were available in 1879, Sir William Thomson's mirror reflecting galvanometer being described in detail by Willoughby Smith in his paper read before the Society of Telegraph Engineers on 1879 February 12 [11]. In his presidential paper Willoughby Smith was able to send interrupted current through coil A and measure the induced currents in coil B at various frequencies.

Fig. 16. Curves stressing fall in permeability with increasing frequency and showing advantage of thin laminations.
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The results of his tests by placing between the coils sheets of copper, zinc, tin, iron, and lead show wide differences in shielding effects and particularly variations as the frequency increased. (This author found all this equipment some 40 years later in his company's stores.) A more scientific series of shielding tests was carried out by Constable and Aston at the National Physical Laboratory some 40 years ago, and results are given in Table 4. It will be noted that at 50 Hz Mumetal is easily the most effective, but while copper 1/32 in thick has a value of 4 dB at 50 Hz it becomes 26 dB at 3200 Hz. With the passage of time and research on the effects of impurities in Mumetal, the permeabilities have greatly improved, and comparatively thinner thicknesses for shields are employed. It is even possible to obtain

some degree of shielding by wrapping a transformer in very thin Mumetal tape, 0.05 or 0.1 mm thick, but the uses are limited. For shielding audio frequency transformers the author, in the 1930s, devised about 10 deep-drawn cylindrical Mumetal cans, and many of these sizes have persisted up to the present time. The normal reduction in hum by the use of these cans is 30-40 dB, but where 50-Hz fields are intense, it is customary to use double shields or even a Mumetal shield encased in a second shield having a higher saturation induction, such as Radiometal 50% Ni-50% Fe alloy. When low- and high-frequency audio fields are to be minimized it is possible to copper plate Mumetal shields, although an inner lining of copper foil is preferable. The usual method of measuring hum reduction is to

Fig. 17. Magnetic shielding measurements by Willoughby Smith in 1882.

Table 4. Screening effects of various materials compared with Mumetal.

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create a uniform 50-Hz magnetic field by the use of Helmholtz coils and to measure the voltage setup in a transformer first without a shield, then when encased in a shield. For some applications, particularly for electromedical purposes or electron-microscope observations or where the earth's field is to be minimized or eliminated, it is possible to line a room with a Mumetal sheet, or even to make a Mumetal cabin capable of housing an operator.

16 SOME NOTES ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF AUDIO TRANSFORMERS The lower register of the frequency response is obtained by the correct selection of the grade and size of the magnetic core and by the number of primary turns. The maximum operating flux density must be chosen to keep within the acceptable distortion range, and this generally is quite a straightforward procedure. The middle register up to about 10 kHz will generally be acceptable with the above provisos for the bass, provided that the copper and iron losses are not excessive. The top register from, say, 10 kHz to 20 kHz depends

to a great extent upon the number of sections in the windings and the minimization of capacitance between coils and other parts of the transformer. The magnetic coupling between primary and secondary windings is of considerable importance since this controls the leakage inductance, and high permeability of the core material is helpful in effecting this. At high frequencies it can be assumed that the self- and mutual coil capacities, and those between the windings and the core, and electrostatic and magnetic shields, can be regarded as lumped together to form capacitance C20 in the equivalent circuit (Fig. 18a). If L' represents the leakage inductance and R' is the generator resistance plus the equivalent resistance of the transformer, this forms a series resonant circuit whose frequency is

This will have an amplification factor Q whose value will be controlled by the resistance R'. An alternative method of controlling the Q, which causes the rise in voltage output at the resonant frequency, is by loading the transformer with a resistor

Fig. 18. (a) Equivalent circuits of audio transformer at high audio frequencies. (b) Simplest form of equivalent circuit of audio transformer at high audio frequencies.
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or increasing the secondary winding resistance. Fig. 19 is a series of curves showing the frequency response of a very old (1944) fairly bad input transformer for different loading resistances. With modern transformers the leakage resonance is usually above 20 kHz, but loading the secondary gives similar effects. The type of loading on a very high grade input transformer can have astonishing effects where the frequency response can be made to extend from 20 Hz up to beyond 100 kHz, as indicated by the curves in Fig. 20. This transformer was designed by the author for Dolby Laboratories and was extensively used by them for their broadcast equipment.

17 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS

A specification could include all or a great deal of the following, much of which depends on the magnetic core. 1) Frequency response, for example, 20 Hz to 20 kHz generally, although 2 Hz to 10 kHz has been specified for vibration study transformers and 320 Hz to 320 kHz for high-speed cassette-copying equipment 2) Maximum operating level at the lowest operating frequency 3) Turns ratio 4) Copper resistance 5) Inductance of primary or secondary at a specified frequency and value of excitation and sometimes leakage inductance 6) Permissible transmission loss and whether correction is to be made by turns adjustment 7) Source impedance 8) Load or loads 9) Insulation test on winding to winding and to magnetic core and housing

10) Flash test at prescribed voltage 11) Permissible distortion or harmonic generation 12) Balance or common-mode rejection 13) Mechanical size with any limitations for insertion in a module 14) Type of mounting, such as printed circuit board, one-hole fixing, or grommet 15) Color-coded leads or terminal blocks 16) Electrostatic interwinding shields if required 17) Magnetic shielding, usually by Mumetal can and being of the order of 30-40 dB at 50 Hz 18) Freedom from microphony 19) For large transformers, such as 300 VA, freedom from acoustic noise generated by core and winding 20) For telecommunication transformers, return loss 21) Isolation test (such as 1500 V rms at 50 Hz for 1 minute), between windings and metal parts with subsequent insulation test 22) Maximum voltage permissible if core accidently saturated. A few of the specialized requirements encountered are: 1) To operate at 90C at bottom of oil well drilling 2) To operate in liquid nitrogen at 77 K 3) To operate inside diver's helmet with compensation for loss of bass 4) Very low power bridge input transformers 5) Audiometric transformers to medical specifications 6) High-ratio transformer in liquid helium for noise research.

18 RANGE OF AUDIO FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS

It is not normally realized that there is a very large number of different audio frequency transformers; the following list covers some of those in general demand:

Frequency, cycles per second Fig. 19. Frequency and phase characteristics of a circuit containing an input or interstage transformer, showing the effects of varying the secondary resistance.
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Fig. 20. Typical performance of wide-band audio transformers showing effects of different secondary loadings.

1) Microphone transformers (all types), including those for phantom powering 2) Transformers for dynamic and moving-coil pickups 3) Input transformers (all types) 4) Output transformers for mixers 5) Multisecondary output transformers 6) Bridging transformers 7) Line transformers 8) Line transformers to isolating test specifications 9) Impedance matching transformers, including those for high-power loudspeaker distribution 10) Balanced transformers, input and output 11) Double-screened transformers 12) Experimental transformers (all types) for research projects 13) Audio output transformers for power amplifiers up to 1 kW 14) 100-V line transformers for audio amplifiers up to 1kW 15) Output transformers for valve amplifiers up to 500 W 16) Hi-fi loudspeaker transformers for all ratings 17) Column loudspeaker transformers for plain and focused outputs 18) Tapped autotransformers for volume control on loudspeakers 19) Printed circuit board mounting transformers for mixing and recording desks 20) Miniature audio transformers for most modules 21) Microphone split!er/combiner transformers 22) Antimicrophonic transformers 23) Low-frequency pulse transformers 24) Vibration study transformers (2 Hz upward) 25) Direct injection transformers (for guitars etc )
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26) Transformers for electrostatic speakers up to 2000 V do 27) Hi-fi output reproduction transformers for Compact Disc

28) Induction loop transformers (all ratings).

19 REFERENCES
[1] N. W. McLachlan and G. A. V. Sowter, Philo. Mag., vol. 11, p. 15 (1931 Jan.) [2] L. P. Williams, Michael Faraday (Chapman & Hall, London, 1965). [3] J. A. Ewing, Magnetic Induction in Iron, etc. (Electrician Printing and Publishing Co., 1890). [4] N. W. McLachlan, J. IEE, vol. 53 (1915 Mar.). [5] B. Richardson, "Transformer Core Losses," Electronics c& Power (IEE) (1986 May). [6] G. A. V. Sowter, "Magnetic Properties of Nickel Iron Alloys," J. Brit. IRE (1941 Aug.). [7] R. Boll, Soft Magnetic Materials (Heyden & Sons, 1979). [8] G. A. V. Sowter, "Harmonic Distortion in Transformers and Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores," Ph.D. thesis, London University, 1944. [9] G. A. V. Sowter, "Characteristics of Soft Magnetic Materials for Instruments," Proc. IEE, vol. 98, p. 11 (1951 Dec.). [10] W. Smith, "Volta-Electric Induction," presidential address, Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians (1883 Nov.). [11] W. Smith, "Working of Long Submarine Cables," Society of Telegraph Engineers (1879 Nov. 8). [12] MIT., Magnetic Circuits and Transformers (Chapman & Hall, London, 1944).
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THE AUTHOR

G. A. V. Sowter was born in London, U.K., and educated at London University, where he was awarded his B.Sc. in engineering in 1922. He then joined the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co., which made and laid the first Atlantic submarine cable, and he was engaged in research on magnetic materials. This included the early work and evolution on Mumetal and kindred alloys by the team. In the early 1930s, he worked with N. W. McLachlan, the celebrated pioneer of moving-coil loudspeaker research, and developed a transmitter and receiver for a projected transatlantic telephone submarine cable. The economic world depression of the 1930s terminated this project and laboratory work on moving coil loudspeakers was undertaken. A number of technical papers were published by Dr. Sowter and Dr. McLachlan on loudspeaker articles in the Philosophical Magazine. During this period the standard textbook Loudspeakers by N. W. McLachlan was published, based on the extensive measurements carried on by Dr. Sowter. Dr. Sowter became chairman of the measurements division of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, was on the council for a number of years, and served on many of their committees. He received a fellowship of the I.E.E. Previously he had been Chairman of the Council of the British Institution of Radio Engineers (now I.E.E.I.E.) and still enjoys his ham radio-his callsign G20S being allocated in the early 20s. He has chaired a number of British Standard Committees on magnetic materials and has written several technical papers on this subject. He became Group Commercial Director of several Telcon Metals companies which included factories producing Mumetal

and other alloys. Prior to World War II Dr. Sowter spent several years teaching at Higher National Certificate level as well as managing Telcon Metals Ltd. This resulted in the award of an external Ph.D. degree at London University, where his thesis was on "Harmonic Distortion in Transformers and Chokes with Nickel Iron Cores." In the late 1930s he became consultant to Sowter Transformers, Ipswich, U.K., which produces every type of audio frequency transformer. He is still active in this capacity and has made hundreds of designs resulting in the sale of thousands of transformers handling from a few microwatts up to a kilowatt. His expertise in the properties and applications of high-permeability magnetic alloys led to the design of transformers for the Royal Shakespeare Co. Barbican, Royal Opera House Covent Garden, BBC Studios, Dolby Laboratories, plus many others. Dr. Sowter has traveled extensively, including a visit to China 25 years ago. He is treasurer and member of the "Dynamicables" Club, which has celebrated its Centenary recently and consists of the 100 outstanding British Electrical Engineers. He is also a registered chartered engineer by the British Engineering Council. At the 73rd Convention of the Audio Engineering Society in Eindhoven, Dr. Sowter was awarded a fellowship in recognition of his achievements in the audio field. The citation, approved by Ray Dolby, chairman of the AES Awards Committee, reads: "For contributions to audio transformer and loudspeaker design, particularly the optimal employment of magnetic materials."

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