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    1988 Hiroshige BOOK ESSAY Catalogue Exce

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    HIROSHIGE Birds and Flowers Introduction by Cynthea J. Bogel Commentaries on the Plates by Israel Goldman Poetry translated from the Japanese by Alfred H. Marks George Braziller, Inc, New York in association with The Rhode Island School of Design Published in the United States of America in 1988 by George Brazier, Inc Reproduced from the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Collection of Japanese Prints, Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design Introduction ® Cynthea Bogel, 198. Legends © Israel Goldman, 1988. Tranelations of poems and "Note on the Poems” © George Brazile, ne. 988. All rights reserved, For information address the publisher: George Brazile, Inc. 60 Madison Avenue [New York, New York 10010 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: And®, Hiroshige, 1797-1858, (Hiroshige: birds and flowors/Introduction by Cynthea Bogel: commentaries on the plates by Israel Goldman: poetry translated from the Japanese by Alfred Marks “(Published) in assoctation with Museum of Amt, Rhode Island Schoo! of Design. Providence. Bibliography’ p. ISBN 0-8076-1199-9: $75.00 AndS, Hiroshige. 1797-1858 — Catalogs. 2. Color prints, Japanese ~ Edo period, 1800- 1868 Catalogs. 3.Birdsinart—Catalogs. 4. Flowersinant—Catalogs. 5. Color prints = Rhode Island ~ Providence ~ Catalogs. 6. Rhode Island School of Design, Museum of Act— Catalogs. Goldman, Israel IL Rhode Island School of Design, Museum of Art. II Tile. IV. Thle: Birds and flowers NE1325.ABA 1988 799.92'4~ de19 86-1376 cp First edition Designed by Cynthia . Hollandsworth. Type composed by LS. Lithograph, rypographers, New York. Drinted and bound by Dal Nippon Printing Company, Tokyo, Japan CONTENTS Foreword Maggie Bickford Acknowledgments Introduction Cynthea J. Bogel A Note on the Poems Alfred H. Marks Plates and Commentaries Israel Goldman Bibliography aL 192 1. Sau Haruna, Cat and Begonia Printed Inkand clorson paper. Abby Aldrich Rackefelle Collec: Hon, Museum of Art, Rods Islnd School of Design INTRODUCTION Hiroshige and the Bird and Flower Tradition in Edo Japan The depiction of subjects fom nature ~ particularly birds, animals, plants, and lowers — constitutes arch r3- dition in the arts of Japan. This certainly applies to the well-known genre of Japanese wood-block prints, of tkiyo-, which lourishedin Japan berween the seventeenth and twentieth centuries, Yet anyone familiar with ukiyo-e ‘will inevitably cite themes other than flora and fauna as typical, Kabuki actors lovely courtesans, erotica, scenes ‘of the Edo capital, or travelers transposed against distant ‘Mt Fuji comprise the more commonly named subjects. Examples ofthis type were produced in abundance dur- Ing the Edo period (1603-1868). They feature Japan's turban mileu prior co the influx of Westetn technology and tend (0 teat the particularly hedonistic aspects of a lively urban culture. But bid and flower prints are equally representative ofthis “ating world ~as the erm ukiyo ‘may be translated ~ because they document the evol- tion of a classical mode into a populse artform ‘Andd Hiroshige (1797-1858) was one of the foremost \wood-block print artists ofhis day, and through his genius, the bid and flower print genre achieved a popularity pre- viously unknown. Bird and flower prints are not as com- ‘mon as ukiyove depicting other subjects, and examples in pstine condition ate rare. Ths isthe primary reason fot the greater atention ven landscape, courtesan, and actor plats in the iterature on ukiyore. A bird and flower print Collection ofthe caliber shown in part het, is exception- ally rar. ls assembly required intelligent foresight, dis- criminatiag faste, and financial means. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller possessed all of these. Joponisme in Europe ‘and America from the mid-nineteenth century was stim- ulated by widespread interest in ukiyore prints. Both Westen collectors and artists were fascinated by the ‘unusual compositions. bright colors. provocative subject ‘matter, and high level oltechnical achievement displayed. by Japanese prints and they found chem quite n keeping with a developing image of the “exotk'” Far East. This outside attention would stimulate contemporary interest In ukiyore in Japan, which had yeto retrieve it ull fom lus modem classifcation as a decadent manifestation of Edo culture and one of the period's mast backward ar forms. Bird and flower print anists were generally less con- ‘cerned with scientific observation or materalisic realism than with the portrayal of what is sometimes described as the “spint” of a natural subject, or with interactions be- tween natural elements. But from early times. the Japan- {ese also displayed an interest in depicting and classifying plan, lower, and bird species. Prom the sath century on. ilusirated herbals were imported from China: indepen dent Japanese materia medica and plant studies were pro: duced shortly thereafter" The Eurapesn botanists and zoologists who vsited Japan were quick to note the na- tive interest in artistic and methodological study of the natural world? Dutch landscapes and natural history tea- {ises were among the few Western products that entered Japan through the limited free port of Nagasaki during the Edo period. Certain members ofthe Japanese artistic ‘community took an interest in disseminating the styles they perceived in these works, focusing on mathemat- cally derived perspective and a more objective, material approach to depicting nature. Despite the presence ofthese Western examples, other ways of depicting the natural World persisted im japan, which suggests @ fundamental Giference in aesthet ot philosophic viewpoint. At the risk of oversimplification, I can be said that Japanese n3- ture studies generally showa concern with ie and move- ment. Apart from conscious experimentation in the "Westeen mode,” the Japanese anists' more objective, de tailed approsch to representing nature was a style de rived from Chinese court academy painting i the bird and lower mode. This courtly manner, however. sar fom botanical or ornithological By Western standards ‘Western viewers didnot consider Japanese pints of birds And flowers (0 be natural history studies of the type to hich they were accustomed. But there Was significant Scenic interest in the specks of plants. Nowers, birds, and animals depicted, and attention from other cicles too. Many Impressionists and Post-Impressionists were aware of Such prints and were intgued by the conven: tions they employed. Bird and flower ukiyo-e were in the callections of Monet and other nineteenth-century att- ists, and flower paintings by Van Gogh ~ who painted cop- les of Japanese prints ~ show at least indirect influence Moreover, Japanese bird and flower motifs ~ trom prints and other art forms were adapied for use in Western ‘decoration ats, Their impact onthe twentieth-century Art Nouveau movement was particularly significant. ‘An Edo-period author began his popular novel with 2 description of the ui as the world where Wve live only for the moment, turning our thoughts 10 ‘the moon, the snows: the cherry blossoms, and the maple leaves; singing. dinking, and diverting ourselves Just Jn Mloating, floating, unmoved by the prospect of imm- nent poverty resisting sinking spivts, we ate buoyant, like gourd floating along with the river: this isthe Aoating world ‘Asal Ryoh (16102-1681) Tales ofthe Floating World (ca. 1661)" Asa's description represents one of the earlest recorded ‘occurrences of the term “floating world” used with this particular nuance. For many centuries, Buddhist philoso- ‘hy had employed the term to descnbe the ephemerallty and impermanence of our earthly existence. During the Edo period, however, the acknowledgment of fleeting re “ality flected an unabashedly cavalier atttude toward ie. “pioating world” was prefixed to many aspects of Edo- period life other than prints. Ukivo fashion colfure, nov- ls, and even umbrellas took on the epithe, epitomizing. okiyo as stylish and risqué. The Edo townsman’s percep- ton of an impermanent world was exacerbated by eco omic disadvantage and governmental resiitions, and by the frequent occurrence of fres, earthquakes, and fam: Ine. tm this way the original meaning of ukiyo and 2 uniquely Edo interpretation ofthe term were merged. ‘Hiroshige’ bird and flower prints are a rich combina tion of classical painting styles. Iterary references, sym- bolic meaning, poet: metaphor. calligraphy, and history They ae olten regarded by both lapanese and Western scholars ag 3 somewhat distinct subject type in the ukiyo-e gene. Although this may be 2 reasonable distinction, Scholars have long resisted categorizing bird and flower prints as foams of Japanese “popular art on the order of ‘ctor, counesan, and other ubiyo-e subjects. Untoriunatey, they are misunderstood as anomalies inthe ukiyore genre labeled as one of several “altemative” themes that arose primary in response toelghteenth- and ninsteerth-cenwury governmental censorship of gure prints. The nature of Firoshige’scharacierite poetic appeaach, the historical continuity ofthe bied and flower tradition, and the cond!~ tions that fostered the natural development ofthis ukiyore genre have ltequently been overlooked. Edo and the Floating World ‘The evolution of the ukiyo-e genre 16 In many ways synonymous with the growth of urban culture during the Edo period. The city of Edo was established in 1590 by Tokugawa leyasu, whose designation as shogun in 1602 (or 1600) by the impensh court at Kota leghmmized his Power and began a long succession of Tokugawa rulers tha lasted und January of 1868. The period boasts well, over two centuries of internal peace. From 1639 the Tokugawa government enforced 2 "closed country” pol ‘ey toward (veigners, allowing only limited contact through the port of Nagasaki on the western sland ol Kyushv. ‘These factors allowed for a relative stably that fostered domestic commerce and Saw an increase in agricultural productivity. The emperor in Kyoto had been rendered powerless by the shogun and feudal lords, or daimy, who vere supported by great numbers of somural, ac vassals ‘The Tokugawa goverment. known as the bak (liter ally, “tent government”), was able 19 check the potential ower of the roughly 250 daimy6, in pan, by requiring them to reside temporanil in Edo — usually for four months ‘of each year. A periad of absence from their domain pres sumably served (0 inhibit any attempts to raise forces against the shOgun, and the constant movement of the daimys in and out of the new capital provided it with revenue ~ depleting their own coffers in the process. ‘Thelongestablished cultural values ofthe Kyoto-Osaka area, known then ag Kamigata or “top rep," distin guished it from the new urban center of Edo. Yer peace- "ume promoted the growh of cites and towns, and brought ‘an inreased level of cultural uniformity: Eéo-period soc ety was essentially one of a samural mentality, ever in the formes capital af Kyoto. Because of the residency requirement forthe fords samurai households represented about ity percent of Edo's population at any given sime. ‘The patronage, habits, and values ofthe urbanized varnior clas influenced developments in the ars. Conversely, the slow absorption of once “exclusive” classical tastes by al the classes, and the popular expression of these tastes through new act forms, are a measure of the great eco- rnomie and social changes experienced by the nation dur ing the Edo period Edo was dependent on the two other urban centers of “Tokugawa Japan, Kyote and Osaka, for goods and ser- vices during much of the period. But by the early nine teenth century, the eastern Tokugawa seat of authority hhad become a city of over one milion, a5 well as the new ‘cultural and economic center of Japan. The pivotal ‘Geral era (1688-1704) is most often cited by histor ans as the me by which Industry, commerce, and im proved transportation showed some effect on both the Urban and rural populations. Ironically, it was the group ‘occupying the mast despised position in the class hierar chy the “parasitic” merchants, who came t9 be most {nlentia in ait bur sivetly governmental capacities. AS 10 money managers, the merchants (whose ranks might in- clude both artists and samurai) won appreciable status and power with their liquid income. At the same time, ranks of samurai struggled to maintain an appearance ‘beftring thelr high social status, Mary daimy® incurred huge debts. The provincial regions too, had been affected by a new commercial relationship with the cities. Farm- es, although above both artists and merchants in social lass, were generally impoverished. Before long, however, the rural gentry began 10 look for approximations of uklvo world luxuries. Moreeves, as literacy and political con- sciousness increased, the ants were further affected. ‘The government atlempted to curb the new spending power ofthe chénin (literally, “ownsman”) and to limit, leisure activites. But iese periodic “reforms” only seemed ‘te hasten the spread of comuption and promote a dooms- day outlook that spurred consumption. Excessive and un- sanctioned tases lowed freely like subterranean aquifers beneath a bedrock Tokugawa hegemony, yet external rather than internal pressures finally shifted the weight of the shogunal rule. Beginning in 1792 with Russian demands for trade negotiations —Tolbowed by those of the British, Dutch, and, n 1853, the Americans ~Japan came out of seclusion and faced outside interests, at which time the Moating world” rose to the surface ~ only to dissipate without notice Hiroshige’s World “The ati Hiroshige Was born Ando Tokar in 1797.00 the eve ofthe prospetous Buna (1804-1816) and Bunse {isis~1830) ras, Hiroshige tary, the AndS clan, txenplsed pair £4025 emma Aighesch heredtaysoval group was defined by boundore of de- Cowum and econsmce, tere was sonra ataton imvwath hin each clas Ts explains the phenome nono he wealthy merchant, the ema fare, he Intl no ek ke datmy® Because te sgn fatrenaed his ra, andthe samurai who was fred (0 Fndlterane sources of income, Povery was sometimes incutale for those within the low ranks of any ease Samara, who as member of te warior cat ranked higher inthe Sot! order than al butte shogun and tinperor were adally obligato exchange tee ans sice (which ad ntl ele) for cath wath wich Buy goods Lacing the hl an means wth wich they ould eam alivang he increased numbers of mpover ished samural ranslened more exorbitant taxation {0 the rar mingling, hase poulaons ostensibly tanked meditybetow the war lags Moshe Can wer lowranking mt’ (go tein. who probably narberedove 000 y the ine bes born-The Ane fay eld poss 8 Pikes. coi, that re Agng (tage administrator The lamlyofthe artan be seems tobsve maitaned a cetin soll advantage troughs Giger "Ther home ~and Hrosiges for neal ove years waste emer’ bana loeated nn alhaent ation of Toy called "Daimyo Aly But tel ay trstence was probably far om comfortable ocean Cally stcure The andbawerevaypeat example of Eas those econome status vas Increasingly dminthed When Hreshige’ ther edn 1808 the theem year ol boy was obged to take on the hereditary post of Fikes dein nis motes had eden that oe yes, dri lexs than two Yeas later the teenager was appre teed tothe uty art Lapa Toyo Geni a ies were hequemly engaged tn cotage inductee such tsumbrla natn box coninton, tnd wooden sandal production” Aihough an ars’ apprenieship wae Bvt upon ome pay of sland erst espe Is sak to have shown a fondness for drawing at a young age}, its primary motivation, in Hiroshige’ case and in That of many others was probably toward future economic secur, Hiroshige held the rank of fireman's déshin until, 1822, all the while working under Tayohiro, His social status and chosen profession might appear to be conta dictory, but were notin fact, atypical forthe ime: While Hiroshige was born into the samurat rank and retained certain privileges in accordance with the status, he elec tively tived as a erafisman, ‘The young Tokutaié received the artist's name Utagawa ‘iroshige ("Utagawa," the school: and "hiro," pan of his teacher's name, a$ was the custom). in 1812, alee ony ‘one and a half years of apprenticeship. Many scholars cite this fact to illustrate his early talent, but i a5 com mart practice for apprenitces (0 receive names around the ‘age Of sixtcen, a8 Hiioshige neatly was, Moreover, his ‘extant early work does not Support claims of such prodt- gious skill, His taining asa young bay ina samurai house- hold may have exposed him 10 classical art, erature, and poetry, which are important to the bird and flower tradition. Its perhaps the unusual combination of latent samurai values oF tastes, combined with experience in 3 pragmatic Edo antisan’s world, that lends universal ap- peal t0 Hiroshige’s work: But the artist was not beyond availing himself of the ‘small privileges his samurai status implied, Hiroshige’ ‘most famous landscape series, he Ft.thre Stations on ‘the Tokaid6 (published 1833-34), depicts the way-stations long the highway running between Kyoto and Edo, and it launched his reputation asa leading landscape designe ‘ofthe day. Practically speaking, he series was made pos- sible because Hiroshige, through his samural rank, s2- ‘cured permission fo tavel with a shogunal expe: Kyoto. albeit as an artist who would sketch the fies at the imperial grounds. Hiroshige’s fst landscape work began only thre years ater his master Toyohlvo's death in 1828, and his frst bird and lower designs were produced abour the same time. Both soon met with popular acclaim, I is no coin! dence that wher his reputation as an arust was secured during the 1830s, a substantial cross-section of Japan was ‘becoming familiar with urban pleasures and anistic €n- deavors such a5 Chinese.inluenced painting styles, Ka- bbuki theater, and various forms of new and classical Iiterature and poetry. Along withthe appropriation of upper las tastes, a greater consciousness of prosperous urban life had developed. The new cultural center 10 the enst was increasingly refered to as "Great Edo" and “lowering “edo” in the literature of the eaely nineteenth century. Hiroshige’ bird and flower prints participate inthis com- plex absorption process of traditional values ince popular turban culture Ukiyo-e and its Audience By the eighteenth century, the rypes and numbers of people who could, or cared to, afford ant had grown. The frst half of the nineteenth century witnessed the eifects of varied tastes and audiences on at in a society experi fencing great economic lux. Edo histories have tad tuonally focused on the fist 150 yeas of the period and generally consider the years after 1760 to represent the beginnings ofits demise. The art ofthe period is divided berween “high culture” and "popular culture” ~ for the aristocratic or miliary elite, and for the miasses. And be ‘cause popular art Seen as a relatively new phenome: non in the history of japanese an. a good deat of attention has befallen ukivo-, the infamous paradigm of art by and for the masses. The term "popular culture” is one that has often been used to describe the activites and artistic products of Bu- rope that ra Contrary 0 academic or salon traditions or the culture for which we have fewer records and artistic remains. These distinctions benween wellchronicled at- Uistic traditions and the “other” aim to separate ant = patronized by the ruling class, clergy. and intellectual elite ~ from popular culture. Early wnters on Japanese prints saw an analogy here berveen the art of the West ‘and that of Edo-period Japan, However, much ofthe work fof the ubiyo-e artists’ French contemporaries, for exam- ple, was often stridently political and, moreover, opposed {oV'art pour Far. Ukiyo-eanists delighted in poking fun at ‘political and social events, bu they were more concemed ‘with avoiding governmental notice so that their work could be sold enjoyed, and revised to be sold and enjoyed again. The anists were aware that thet style was diferent rom classical modes, but they did not consciously counter the luer As several modern wriess on French popalar culture (Chanter. de Centeau, and Davis) have set out to show, ‘common use of the word “popular” erroneously assumes the passive or dependent nature of cultural consumption. Prevalent opinion, which holds that ukivo- was made by and for the masses, has been formed, n part by the belle that ukiyo-e images depict the “popula” Popular Edo-period Japan is thus defined asa place of pleasure in an urban “floating world,” oF asa land of happy peasants ina picturesque countryside. Because our idealized vie sion of ublvo culture depends. to a great extent, on the images offered us by the printed pictures and Ierature of the Edo period, we misunderstand the nature ofthe prob- ‘em when we ask whether it's appropriate to define ukiyo-e 3S papular art. First, the meaning of popular” should be questioned, Popular culture isnot the ato literature that We single out as representative: i isa relationship be: ‘eveen the product and ts audience. Who determined the themes and contents of ukiyo-e? who purchased k? and whe created i? are all questions that need to be asked: ‘The answers should necessarily include the audience. ‘The great range of ukiyoe presentations ~ satirical toncal affectionate. poze, pornographic, humorous, sober symbolic, or graphic — suggests the complexity of the Fe lationship between print and viewer Ukivo-e prints could be used as advertisements fr Kabuki plays or "teahouse” courtesans, or serve as indnect devices to exc and please the imagination. They were pasted on walls, pillars, oXes, ‘and screens, mounted in albums and on fans, set aside fon desks, collected in quantiles, traded, given as souve- nirs, and discarded when fashions changed. They were ‘offered singly and in sets. Prints as well as illustrated nov- els or picture books were sold in ciny publishers’ store- fronts or by itinerant peddlers, or given away to pations A distinct type of deluxe print, called surimono, was used for pnvate distribution, primarily within poetry coteres. By the mid-Edo period, print production was usually orchestrated by the publishers, who also oversaw dist bution. They served, in effect, as interpreters of an envi sioned public's demand, The voice of the ukivo- artist was at least of equal importance in determining subject And content. Each artist had stylist tradematks and the- matic preferences, and each maintained a mutually influential relaonship with publisher and audience. But even the mos talented or enterprising designers might be dependent upon the publisher's vital sponsorship. In order tobe more economically ndependent, some print design= ‘erswwere themselves publishers and owners of bookshops, for they were otherwise employed. Asone atist being pres- sured by a publisher explained, “Poverty the common fate ofthe samurai, so why should I break my back fora few bushels of ice [the same that he receives as stipend? Besides the publisher and designer. there were two other ‘important participants in ukiyo-e production, the engraver and the colorist/prinier? Without each member of the “Ukiyowe quartet,” as Volker calls them, the gente as we know It would not have materialized. Both the engraver ‘and the prinier (often working n groups) were frequently tunder the direction ofthe publisher. The chOkd, or block ‘carver, possessed great technical shill. Records indicate that designers someumes requested particular engravers Ii the hands of the engraver, precise, fine lines and pro- fuse detal belie che inherently ngid nature of the block. ‘Hiroshige’ bird and flower prints utlize many special painting and carving elects. These include scraping the Surface of the wood (lla-bokashi) to produce a tactle or volumetaic quality inthe color areas, carving lines in the manner of brush steokes, using blind printing (Rorazuri) for an embossed ellect, and wiping color across the blocks (fuks-bokash) before printing to produce graded color ef fects. With the advent of fllcolor printing around 1760, the printer, to0, became a vinuoso technician. For a sin= fle print, a printer oF a group of printers, might coordi- hate as many as aventy different color blocks with a black Hine “key” bYock made from the arist’s sketch, rubbing the back ofeach inked black with just the right pressure for the desired effet. Sometimes the publisher and printer, rather than the designer, determined the colors, Just as, the engraver familiar wth an artist's style or current fash- ton could independently execute the background or de- tails such 28 kimono patterns. However, the fine sense of color exhibited in the works of Hiroshige and other art ist, and Miroshige’s consistent use of certain pigment com- binations, support the opinion thar many talented artists themselves specified the colors for their print designs. Einally, a5 tothe purchasers of prints, there Is reason to believe that an extremely heterogeneous audience existed: from the farmer who retumed to the countryside after an Edo business trip with a freshly llustrated novelete, to the high-ranking samurai we find — presumably ~ caught In¢he at of indulgence in several contemporaneous book illustrations. What we know of Edo culture, however, Is confined to the cultural products we have probed. The Inherent nature of uktyore was not one that aspired 0 permanence or exclusivity. Itis fair to surmise that ukiyo-e prints were more widely enjoyed than any other nom functional Japanese artform up to the time of thelr de- velopment, but just how widely cannot be accurately determined. The variety of themes available to the con ‘sumer Indicate the range of tastes; silary the degree of elaboration in printing techniques and coloration reflect fan audience with a wide range of financial means, “Popular” culture is best evaluated as both the “art of doing” and the “art of doing with."* People read printed books in many ways, as there existed various degrees of, Iieracy and understanding. Many popular novel forms ‘and countless guide books ~each with varying emphar S¢5 on text and ilusration~ existed during the Edo pe- riod. Single sheer prints could also be "read in various ways dependingon a viewer's particular knowledge or view of contemporary culture, history. and literature. Socal sta- tus and education were a major determinant in the Inter- pretation of printed images, But these were not the only factors. Bird and flower Imagery i heavily dependent on ‘metaphor and symbolism. While they can be fully en- Joyed by someone who does not understand these refer fences, bird and flower pri might possess a certain appeal {a the viewer who recognizes other levels of meaning. tn any case, the “popular” nature of ukiyo-e prints involves ‘a complex relationship of attitudes, expectations, consump: tion, and production. Though bind and flower prints do not actualy depict the world of urban pleasures often as- 12 sociated with ukiyore prints as a gemre, the, too, partci- pated In. popular urban culture as images to be enjoyed by the widest possible audience, Edo Painting Schools and Sources for Bird and Flower Prints Various schools of painting that reflect the intelectual allegiances, privileges, and limitations ofthe socal classes. flourished during the Edo period. All reveal some debt to schools that developed in the anclent cultural cegion cen tered around Kyoto. Many of these artistic traditions were derived from styles introduced by several waves of Chi- ‘nese influence that reached Japan prior to and during the Edo period. Irs to these traditions that one must tumn (0 search forthe sourcesof Japanese bid and awe painting. Invercourse with China was limited during the Heian period (793-1185), and “native” modes developedin sev- eral directions. The heavily pigmented, static, and sche- matized Interior court scenes and landscapes of the ‘Yamato ("Japanese-pkctures") school are cypical of the work ofthe imperial painting ofice (-dokoro) during this Period. Painters attached othe court also produced ively genre-scene handscrolls. Literary references also indicate that a Chinese-derived ink tradition of landscape, bid, and flower themes existed at the court, 'An imperial court painting atller had shus already ex- ‘sted for centuries when the Ashikaga shoguns occupied Imperial Kyoto from the mid-fourteenth century The new Wwarsiar-lass rulers fancied the ink-painting syle of Chi: nese Chan (Zen) monks, which now challenged the supe- ‘honity of the court tradition. During the subsequent ‘Momoyama period (15é8- 1603), the military elite estab lished a shogunal academy, with an independent lineage and style, led by the Kand school. They employed Kand fants to decorate the sliding doors, screens, and ceilings ‘of castle and residential building interiors; this lasted well into the Edo period. ‘The Kan3 were the main proponents of a Chinese- enved style, and the early Kand anists were greatly Influenced by the influx of Zen-assoclated painting. The predominant Kand themes were birds and flowers of the four seasons, mythical orhistorcal figures, and landscapes, all of which the school produced fer both the shogun and Buddhist temples. Kan6 works gradually came tobe char- acterined by eclectic borrowing 2nd innovations ina wide range of styles. The Edovperiod Kan6 ais varied the eather (primarily Ink) tepertoire ofthe school with many works characterized by crisp, fine outlines in bold pig rmenis, AS in previous centuries in the Chinese court acad- cemy of painting, assemblies of natural objects in seasonal settings were a favorite seventeenth-century theme. An ‘example ofthe Edo-period Kans style is ilusrated in figure 2. Shown isa detail from one ofa pair of shold screens, fof the Four Seasons attributed to fith-generation Kang palnter, Sanraky (1559-1635), The screens were orig nally owned by a daimyo of the powerful Owari domain, west of Edo. ‘Sanraku was the best ofthe Kan® patnters who remained in Kyoto after the school formed a main branch in the new capital of Edo during the early 16006, Hie tye rep- resents the school at its most confident. Although Kand Sanvaku sometimes worked in ink alone, these screen paintings are executed like many of his other works, in Fich colors on gold leaf and gilding. In addition to the cock and hen beneath a blossoming plum tee, the full screen shows ducks ina pond cranes, a vanety of lowers. ‘and mary smaller bis in tees. Thig profusely detaled made is derived from 2 Chinese cour style that was known {0 Japanese artists from paintings that were brought back 2 Detal atte Kand Sana Bir and Flowers ofthe Four Seasons. Ealy 17th century. Pair of shcfold screens nk, colors ad gold leal on paper. 1584 » 355.6 em. each “Tokugawa Art Museum to the islands by priests and envoys prio tothe Edo pe riod. Many elements of Santaku's style are derived from the Chinese academic tradition: the portrayal ofthe birds and flowers in overlaid pigments with fine outines ~ or ‘vith no outline at all ~Known as the “boneless” mode; the formal and relatively static presentation of an cute door scene; the schematized and highly ordered sparia arrangement of pictorial elements; the depiction of space through ascending rather than illusionisically receding forms: the standardized bird types: and the profusion of, symbolic natural elements. Evident, (00 ate featutes de- rived fram the ¥amato-e style, such as the rounded land forms aad the lozenge-shaped gold cloud at the upper left Several of Hiroshige’ bird and lower prints, such as the Peacock and Peonies of plate 25, the Wild Duck of plate 5, and the Pheasant of plate 65, show indebtedness toa Chinese-derived Kand style. ‘The appellation used here, “Bird and flower pictures, 1m Japanese koché-ais the generic abbreviation fora tr dlonal Chinese classification of painting that is, i fact, not limited to bird and flower subjects. Along with figure ‘and landscape painting, it constitutes one of several major thematic groups and concentrates on lowers, plants, grasses, es, birds, animals, shes, and insects. In ap: nese the larger category is sometimes called Racho fogetsu (Ikerally, flower and bind, wind aad moon ~that 1s, na tue). The charming color print of a cat eying sore but- terfles near a begonia plant (fig. 1), dated in the 17605, and atirbuted 10 the well4iown utivo-e artist Suzuki Harunobu (1674-1770), is'20 example of this broadly defined achive tradition. Bird and flaver painting, fostered by imperial patron ‘age, lowished during the Chinese Song dynasty (960 1297). The Song emperor Hui Zong (t. 1101 1126) was himself 2 painter of natural subjects, and itis recorded that he had a collection of over 2.700 bird and flower Works in his possession, Much of the flower, plant, and animal symbolism that had developed earlier in Chinese 13 lerature was adopted by painters during the Song dy- nasty and made iis way to Japan during the fourteenth century Flowers were also used in early Buddhist art as symbols of purity Later, the Iiteat! added new meanings 0 natural elements and singled out certain plants and flowers such asthe bamboo or the plum blossom to serve 1s Keone for theit world view In the Kan screen detal discussed above (fg 2), the peonies in the left foreground land the plum branch above the rooster ate classical Chi nese symbols of summer and early spring that were by this time part ofthe Japanese versacuta ‘Neary all the birds and Mowers used in Hiroshige’s achd-e prints derive from Chinese or Japanese literary and anistic sources. Flowers are particularly admired by both cultures, and nearly all have anthropomorphic or symbolic meanings, Many natura elements nthe ans of both China and japan a¥e invested with spiritual, lectual, and symbolic values. These assoctations are mythological. religious, tterary political natural, and ex: periential In Japan, flowers in particular convey a reserve {€f subjective emotions in addition to their standard sea- sonal associations: plum or cherry for spring, peony for summer, chrysanthemum or morning glory for autumn, and camellia or the bamboo plant for wines. The chery, for example, stands for ephemeral beauty, the plum and narelssus represent swin purities of emotion; the mamning ¢lory is olten mentioned in erature asa symbol of ici Tove: the peony represents regal wealth; and the peach suggest spintualfteedom. Particular bieds or animats are associated with these flowers or have similar symbolic ‘meanings, for example, the pheasant i associated with Autumn and the chrysanthemusr the kingfisher, with the tas; the wagall (sehen, with sexual love; the sparow or swallow, with cametia (or the swallow with the peach blossom); the courtly peacock, with peonies, symbols of ‘opulence: the falcon, with royalty or riltary sength; the ‘rane and the pine ~ representing 1,000 and 10,000 years, respectively - with longevity; the crow, with the gods, as their messenger: the cuckoo (hotologisu), with summer; the pavwlonia tree, with recaude; rabbis and the moon, ‘with ferry ducks, with conjugal fidelity: geese andthe rightingale (ugusu), with autumn, The hist goes on, Some ‘of the ealiest bird and animal associations relate to the lanclent Chinese zodiac: the lon, rooster, and rabbit are favorites in art, “Ancient Chinese painting texts taught artists to imitate the work of the masters, fo transform these models, to ‘observe nature, and (0 develop personal expression and Individual vinuosity. To capkure the essence of natu, ‘one did not work directly from scenery or specimens; rather, fone observed the natural world, conceptualized It, and painted from the understanding captured in the mind's ye. In the course of this stay, a great reverence forthe iatural world developed. The “Eastern” philosophy ofthe natural world, so widely publicized in the West, derives from Buddhism. Generally speaking, humankind is seen 4s a nonoblrusive pamicipant in the natural world. The “alist, therefore, aims to eapture the spit oF essence of the abject depicted, no strictly ts material form, Alhough particular attitudes and philosophies coward nature are Evident of latent in at, we should be cautious about de: ‘ving conclusions regarding an individual's or group's per ception af a flower, for example, from its painted form. ‘A Kyoto-based school of painting that onginated inthe carly Edo period, known today as Rimpa, draws much of 1s Subject matter from nature. The painter Tawaraya Sats (f. 1630-1850) and the calligrapher Hon’am) Koetsu (1558-1637) were the nucleus of an arts group that produced not only paintings, but also ceramics, tex” Illes, and lacquerware. The earliest Rimpa designs are bold a 3. Nakamura HBchd. Plovers ond Woves, from Kin Gof (Kors Sketches, compled by HEchd). 1826 (sec- ‘ond dion) Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Colleton, Museum ‘of Ar, Rhode Island Schoo! of Design and abstract interpretations of natural elements. Ogata nia (1658-1716), an important Rimpa arts, lived and ‘worked in both Kyote and Edo during the culturally pros- erous Genroku era (late seventeenth century) In virtually Unprecedented fashion, K6rin sketched from nature. His final designs ~ first used on pottery made by his brother, Kenzan, and then on painted screens and handscrolls ~ transformed his Ink impressions of grasses, owers, and birds ino stylized designs that belie the realistic detall of his original drawings. His designs were also used on kt mons, incense wrapper. fans, cloth, and other practical ems. Many of Korn’ designs were copied by eighteenth: and nineteenth-century Rlmpa artists for use in printed ‘books. One fine example, shown in figure 3, isan illustra- tion of plovers and waves fromthe picture Book KBrin Gof (Kérie's Sketches), compiled by the early nineteenth-century (Osaka artist Nakamura Héchd. Ass typical of many impa works, he Image can be read as either “pictur for “design.” Most studies of Edo art doweplay any real Rimpa impact on Edo and insist thatthe styles a para-

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