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    Unit 1 Notes

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    Unit 1 Notes

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    Sana Syed
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    Year 11 QCE notes

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    Year 11 QCE notes

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    14 views28 pages

    Unit 1 Notes

    Uploaded by

    Sana Syed
    Year 11 QCE notes

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Te. » fe basic cell types 2 Peo Karuotie Ee Kar: cells yetrc cells Prokary otic cells: ~ RelS4ivly small ~ Simple Sell stvcture - They lack membrane ase organelles. Have membrane avound it outside. =) The cell wall is op a differant composition than a plantor- fingal cell walls. ~ Ne gosnales membrane . ~_Single. cirevlar INA Cheomosome CPlasmid ) nae og ten Unicellulac organism is x bacteria - Ex kecgoties - os = Mace came “cells later tha: prokeryats ter membranes . . oe ern membrane around. “Nevclevs. —- = Membranes _also surround internal sections _| Op _the cell... Organalles - IMuslves! in mets balism ond gantarvation Of | energy wi thia the cell, 1 Mere Mijemeed call forms... “While fe seal and plant cells posses a cell wall, Vonimals Jock a cell wall. | _ ATP- Ente molecule. .o, ae he Ml I, This_is =F a 4 ade during cellular res ptration Phospholipid bu layer memb, Organ elles Cyto plasm: _ _ _-~ The contants. 9, —-— 90% water —. . 7 _ Contains di's solved_salés,enzymesi tons — molecules and organelles: = Cyto sol is water / vido the. tha coll _ercclding-nvcleus. ~ food The cell membrane = —— a — = = Controls. dhe movement of materials — abo om out a the col), a ___ =_Responsible for _cecogn np adhesion and _—~ Chemical communi cation—be tween cells. Nucleus: pe _~ ~ Controls cell activity ~ Contains the Nuc leolins CDNA RNM and prodocing Ribosomes) ___= Is surrounded_by ovclear membranes prepped with nuclear pores scat : —— Ribosqmes = _Peedvee. proteins. 2s + Smooth ( Endoplasmic Recticulm ER) _ ~ Suthesis lipids and Stereids pa rots ports materials. within the, cell + Rovah CRE _ = Contains cibosomes. on the surdéo On _ which sie sise, proteins « _ Mibochondy ra, - = Site ep aerobic respiration = Preduces ATP - _ Double membrane Csmooth Outer and folded inner) -_ &lds ave called ertstae taal A Pipaceoshae ing y secting, processing and > Serves AS collecti disteibution _cen ter. > = devolved _ with secvetion.op materials Crom te _ __cell. i _ The vesicles. SS ___-.__Membrane. bound -organelles “glen associated AT ern et ea atte ace, = Very small ia _—- Single membrane with Fhetdesldes } 4sosome: -Jusose i ——~axd Paced Winchene —_The_cell wall the |= Tt provides supp { well as alloutin. * “hoe or pressure. a develop withou cup fering the cel). Plastids * Double membrane organelles , 3 ty pes - Chlovo plasts *% Contain a 3 . Chlowophyll photos hesis. a a wt Levcoplasts———+ + = _® Coloveless, Involved with storag, reen pigment, nd is. site for .o¢--stavelys————— —- em __ = Chromoplasts- a Contains nen-phote _sythetic — pigments which px ak = Co eees te clowers,fevit ong brees. ——Bpetsally in (lantcellsd Large samen _ < Storage icf substances —in the celle septs > 2 + Animal_cells usally have much _smallec vacuoles dhan + cells... A 1 + _Especinlly in plant calls, the vacuele isthe ____sesmett Codtrel oy the call. tao id im —__Suppoert. : 1 Made. of cell saps». 75 pes of metabolic reactions: * Endergonic - Canabolic) — Require energy * Exergenic ~ Ceatabelic) — Releases energy: Ender ganic Reactions: Building up reactions " Reactions that involve the building up of larger Compler. organic molecules From sma inecganic «Molecules. Energy is required to chemically combine the smalle-— molecules, — ergy isstored in the chemical bonds op the _ _ large* compound. _ ie oe Exergonic Reactions: Breaking down reactions | + Reactions that involve the breaking: down og larger _ —— -oqanic_molecules. inte_smallec Anergan te. moleceles. | Energy is eleased £rem the chemical bonds op _ the Larger Molecvles. 0 Enderaonic Reactions _ 3 : Energy ——— a jp Fo Se Predvet a _______ Keactents QJ —— AG > _— - Exer gonic Reactions | Energy i Reactants woke - rod —— rn = = — fargo Reaction Enzyme 3 _* Bring the substrate a “Trheraes, aga Energy car ying Molecules —————E {Cells continvally reguice o su iy oF ener: 4 x ee a re . Glocese is a. lame energy - eich compound? pve ié_| 's 600. Lage £5" be, readily metabolised by cells bo provide erergy fee the cell, . — = Glucose most first be broken down. and the | eos J0_ik is deanefarred €o_ build up molecules af the AT? Lest. -CSmaller_enegy rich molecules) The AT2 Moleie Enzymes Ace peptides C Proteins) that act be reduce the activagéion energy of a chemical reaction. — 1 They, facilitate bivlegically impo font chemical reachong * Have an cetive site “for The binding ay ahdenicy - Substrates Creactants). v ~ Known as the “Lock and Key Mooe! Sc Lock + KET MovéL Svbsteate . hh —— _* Also has co- factors, another substances _ that binds Loan enzyme to_activate ite (Teen i ton) Co- Factors. ave net genarally involvec_in the reaction — divectly.—_ cr - b- a ne Rte me b f +The whole. complex is Known ag a hele= enzyme, * nN example of enzyme ADH ( Alcohol enase). converts ethyl - alcene] €0_ Ace tal dehyne. = . Photo s4n thesis * Overall equation light 6CO2z+ 6H20 ~—» CoHnoe + 602... Chlocephgll - Radient . ener _ From sunlight is converted Inte chemica! z es lee g: In bends of suger * Osh + enecgy is hoe sy chloro phy Il. “contained in the _ Chloroplasts, ‘ _.* Each chleroplast has an. innemembrane _(Thylakerd membrane) and an_outer membrane that is Gilded. Sided janex ‘ediicaae. CTA tyladenthamams laces) + The enaymes needed) fo drive. pholasyath is ons_~ ae lochtad Inside the chlsroplusts, Some_ace_stared.a : wa and others in the selutron op the stroma. hedl can occurs ia a sevies of complex steps. -Thesé.can be disided —la 2. distict reactions: ~ The light Oependant stare * Occurs during light Takes place ~within the Involves. the trapping oF light energy and i into chemical energy: ee AE. ATP molecules are produced: _ Water molecules are. spli¢_inty hyorrger tens | - —_and_exysen —_C waste product ——* the hyd rigen lous CHt) ave collecteo by a carrier malecule C acceptor molecule “7 NADP) ana of the chlovoplas+ converting NAQP wore eran + Nicotinamide “adenine dineucleotide phosphate. ~— Elgnt—i nde pendant. Sheet a The ATP _and_hydvogen ions ace _vtiliseo Inthe _ pent singe ClightIndopendaut_reac Hons.) ———_ . kes place ja_caylight, _ +t Invalve tes from tot . + Takes place ia: the stow op the chlovoplasr. © : + Stomata, where it diffuses over -shont intercellular _ Spaces until it reaches the mesophyl) cells ‘Once in_mesoph | cells, COg_diffuses.into_the steoma- C02 to the tea, the” careier Ht he reduci jay agent ane) ATP isthe —tneeny Be cabihing COs with Ht tems ‘be —— _, —.crente organic. compounds Cglucese). Cellolac Respiration - : ; -Cellvlac “respiration 4 As ie arate! Dhak releases energy From bends in glucose and captures the energy as ATP. Ealing spine Produces 38 ATP.molecvies from cach —glvcosemolecuie. Net _squation. Cilia 0.4 £0, ——> t7o,4 bund dae ATE _ Shee. Se hier —te konica 2 sant energy 2 There» ere 2 types of. “caspivadions a Aerobie Respiration. : . a Anaerobic Se spirotit + In each -case.; cespiratian ocers in st ee hy step: rencFioas.— _ + Each step is « contealled toy = pot ' + There. ove 3. mains tonclin eukaryotic cells.) ce L lyst Conamslute phase) et firtlts glenn Lite: eid i Bt) Electron Transport_chain_. (aevobie phase) —Glycalsis = Stage, t * Oceves in cy toplas — lathes infin) tenetinn Jasling toe bentdn og at onoet “gain of 2: ATP. mptecvies. 2 Hiss Shee Cthe eleetvans) ove cellected by Pat atcentar molecios CN&O) —> (NAOH) Krebs cycle -s tage a * Ty vles enter the matrix. he & pyruvate molec in the mitechendeien | eyes of The pyruvate molecules yn called the = reactions ina eyelical pathwa Kees cycle. ~ Carbon dloxide molevles ave pe e. - by-pvavuct of. this second STA 9% - yoduced Of Electron Transport Chain - Stage IIL * Takes place in the Inner membrane Caristoe) of the ' _mitechondrin. - nel his his. process releases energy. to_drive.most % the ATP protection. + 4 t [ *. The NADH. and EADH2 act os.electvon. carriers, 4 L = - Shutting. the electrons to the protein complex, 4 JK This_process_is a stepwise. -movement of—electeons 4 panier Lowi “hh r—enecgy to.dow energy. . fi The electrons. pass. from. one. cytochrome te the nesct, _ 4 -—— losing their energised state,as they de se, they ove Finally fF —aetepted by oxygen, =e : e + When the oxygen combines with @ pair of electrons, it | ~ Becomes. aegitiviy charged: Then.it reacts with hy drosen jp Cfoemed_in the. inital glyolysis stage). te cvembe. eter: _ ~The-energy “logs” bythe electrons goes. +o. Make + ATL Bom. ADP. a Se - aces _ _ The —electeon_branspoct chain releases: energy For eacl — pale of electrons. tranferred. down the alectron teanasport - enough ener: —!s_celensed to form 2 9-3 ATP moleswies. OP in wy, : Aneevobic respiration se Pryge" isn available , the pathway after glycelysis depends on what enwymes ove present in the organism. "In animal cells, the pyruvate. is converted into lactic adid, ® short Unsustaimable burst of energy: lectin acid Causes Fatiqve. A net yield of 2 ATPS is praduced, o al a . ao No wSy- = fe “D> a s> QD no 32235 o 3 xs 3 3h ery lS e 2 were & => -sS a ZS3ect 42 3 2=.o on & GO 8 3 $a > N 2 4 >» 8 a AON 2. ze Cell differen tia€ion - There are two ty pes. “of. oreo nisms: — > _Unicelluloe YC single celed areas = Mulkiellular Organigms _composed of “many cells) 1 The aa ae oe of unicellular ace: ——_— a ~~ They, include all_arekacy otic sells ond. Some_euKaryetes. 7 One. cell carries ové all life Functions —————————__ — = Micrscopie _in sizes es _ ~ Sheré Iespan _ _ = Mainly asexval reproduction — The_ characteristics af multicellular organisms aces. : _-_ Th — Then cre. only 2 rkaryotrc cells __ — = Gils are specialised bo perform spesi€ic Rinettons ascepic_ in sine, ~ a long lifespan a _ — ly sexual wprodvcbron _+ the advantages of multicellviar organises red £0 unicellviae fife forms: is ~ _ - Longer lifespens _ _ — = Sexual fepraduckian— larger Je_sine ~ _ — Takes_longer bo adapt ind. evolve. bo. ‘ehanges_ evel differentia tign sa + This _is the Process by which vn specialised cells (¢ tom_ mcellc) "bec oine Spedalised cells. KL Bee AN celle) insiaw, eroanism has. the. same seé of DNA, _ st but dye eo: Gene ‘expression C which genes in the PNA ae turned on or Pe), this will determine how eee iid: ccs vy dene,ys theve fore. Ronction. Gell “specialisa¢ion is an advantage becarse: cells oe Be rece. of hirioads!) wey: ec Gelias see ae hase dhan anny: Geem oa ti_an_embeyo: : a The digestive system * The Sigeslive system consiés og all the alimentary cane! fram. the and 1€s accosiated oyaans. The alimentary canal isa | bvbe runnin movth fo tne anus where ingested food is broken down mMEo smaller perces so shat nvbrientsS can. ae absorbed. Un neaded wastes ave eliminated throug. the _anvS» * Sach par€ o¢ the alimentary eanal is specialised bo covey ovt povticular steps in the-process of sigestipn « 7 * There are A main parte ep the alimentary canal hese ove? oe _ = Movth- — Epigloteis _ Smal) inbestine. ~ lage inferstine. — + In the mouth. eeth_mechanieally break. Peed ino small _ peiees, : + Saliva Ivbrieates food Coceves in the movth) _ . Anatase digests \ bo. maléose C Sugac). Coceves in meth) 7 Amylase breaks down corbohysraées info sugars. * The epiglottis closes off the windpipe so the Sood gees. dawn the Peso phagus: The oesophagus uses peristalsis bo carry Goo be the stomach. !s a muscular tvbe — Pevistalsis is the movemen€ op bolus through the contraction op muscles. The liver produces bile that emulsifies Cat. C breaks up fb into Liny droplets veody Foy enayme action Ly lipase. . The gall blader stores bile, S€omach: — Mechanically contracts and relaxes muscles ~ Seeveates gastric Juices HCl - Secreted by oxyntic cells fo PH 1-2 * Muces- Protect stomach wall (Proteix ) Enaynes - protease breake down proteins into Gmino acids Carbohydrates digestion ceases- foncreas : . ° ~ Involved in the production of enzymes. Seme of these ena are . Amylase: Break downs carbohydrates nto sugars. + Protease: Breakdoon proteins into amino acids. + lipase! Breakdown op fats and eils inte glycersl and = fly eed. Beeateoan op nveleaic acids, tion is < completed -by en: rages Fn the. pares he. coal tersine iésell - Ny beeinds.ac, absorbed by the vill + Inclodes the eclon Gail Dladderl(ab) = Bacteria. di igects Fibre inte iy actds - Produce vitamin Ko | — Absorbed inte walls. + Whole process takes about 2 hews - \ Buccal Caviby > Salivary lands - Salivary Amylase AT Phargase, Epiglotts \Sineeeyrei sto aed = tpn cells > Hel (eh) ——— Dvedenum Peptic cells + Persia PHIS-2 oer {Bitar Rares 7 Ren Teivme Pancreatic ducty Ancreabic Amylase \ Smal | Viaterstine.- Pancreatic protease casaase ! Cc Becky nlearge Intevstine » Nuclease x | Respirator sustems ot te respiration fo occur, ovganisms need Co be able bo supply oxygen do she cells and remove carbon dioulde. This is called gps erchanges . Resplieatory surfaces that. facihtate. gas exchange mus be: ___= Mois se O2 ond C02 can+ disselve so they can: Jditfse = across the membrane. —— = = Have a large suefce area co allew maximum diffusion. — Have a rrcta blood supply Go vemeve Oz once i has been __bSer bed so more Oz cam be absorbed. ____ 3e_thin 0 reduce the amoné op siffision aeeded- a The hima cespica tory, system: : tlh homans_atc_enter the nostrils; lavels.fo.1the pharynx, and then _the_techea ,lwiadpipd The. epialottis” isa small fap that _—_ Fae hho the tvacheo. 2 The byyns. (voice bere) is o¢ the top op the trachen: + the teochea splits inko_2 bronchi, which each enter a lung and — branch info smaller fobes called bronchioles. ___________ * The bronchivles end in_aie sacs called alveoli which have a ¢hin_ _ __epithelivn_soreoonded_by a nekwavk o¢ capillaries fx gas exchange. ___* Os diffuses across the wall ef the aly into the bleod in the _ __capillary_and Cox oiPfses out op “he bloodstyeam into the alveal* _t In the capilavy Oz attaches to _hoemeglobla of a ced_blood cell £0 hea exy haemoglobin. Mis is then, Franspoveed! bo the heave _ 7 in. thepulmonow uy vein a 7 + Breathing is the process op getting air into and out ap the. lungs: __ * Each long is in a plevval cavity which is surrounded Oy a plevval membranes _ + Inspiration occurs when there is a Fall in ale pressure in the lungs. €9. when diaphram contracts and pulls lungs downwards. Clnhalagion). * Expiration occurs when there is a rise In aie pressure. eq: When Ivhas shank and inspiradory mvscles relaxes a F P 3 thes respizadorsy Evacé + lor lobules ove blinds. ends Of Senn terminal _beonchiolese—— ae Respiratory lobules consists ep nespirm sallveolaw ducts and alver|te te ee tocvy lovenchioles y—- + 1 Alveoli are dead-end _mulei=labed_.aic so Cirevlabory system + There ace 2 upes op circvlabory sjstems — Open circulatory system Clusects) ~ Closed exreviabow system CHumans) 7 Closed circulatory system _* Blood is required bo carry matertal and is in a closed fubviar network, therefeve can be ~under - pressure and vebvwas bo ihe heart quickly. —_ = + Particles can diffuse ovk o¢ the small bleed vessels — Aud inko sucroundivey. cells and yice-vesa. Bod oo __° Bleed is composed og + S02) eels ee Plasma oe a — = ‘ _Liguid port og blood __ ee ____* Waker with dissolved oxygen minerals ,i0ns, hovmones, — nevtrients Com digestion, waste predectse — ___ ed blood ells (ci) een ence eee _* Geneval Featres - — — Bioconcave shape ——___________ © Made in bone marrow a MOET! Notvecclevs, lo ee a ____= live Sor 120. days - a = Mosk nymerovs of all bleod-cells ae On __ — . — Oo = 716 cary Or to all calls ap the. body . __- RBC ave made o¢. am iron based protein called haemo globin avd combines. Go oxygen bo corm oxy hacineqlo bin « 7 + C02 “ts 20x move. yer Oz in Heo Oxygen trans poy € - + O2 15 reletavely insoluble in HzO , therefore ves ~ VieHe. dissolves” im blood. plasma- " Instesd O2 combines to has lobine ——— This is a veversable reaction Gud depends om the Concentm€rons. c¢ reacting Jobstancese Corbon dioxcede transport Oe + 16 veacts with H20 o Civet Con _coubour ¢ eer) and then hysvogon and bicarbenate ions, _ C024 hoe H, C03 = HE + HCO37 ee me CC haste fags apse ap Set GU ent this te ae re eee — Whike bleed cells CWBC) 6 General featoves ae * Sphive shaped = Some con change shape lo i Poneto wy, - [Sa ____sqyeeze betweon fissuese ~~ —. Many are _phagocucic Cinjest foveigin ~ arertewial) 6 Far lees numerous — Vaaua 2BC _ + Made in bore. oncoutnadlymph start — Combat inGection P late lets i * Cenewal geatures _ — Specialised Fragment 5 26. lowg ew calls __ - More nunavous Wan Wiac but less thon —— RBC. — “Patelets + Play A mayor role in blood €loéti o Ave very Creole, Cuts oben creabe re ugh ae Wien platelets bump inte theses 4 Wn zemk. apoE amd velease ther contents. + These contents brine 7 About the conversion of __ the plasma _preteln Fibrinogen Cselvble) bo * Fibrin Linsolv bite, gel-liee form) this Cems a (hrou 3 mesh which traps blood cells _ cand forms a plugy—eehich pvevents hy ther bleod | Blood vessels. 1 Are tubes that corns lalood * thee we 3 tapes. — i) Avtevies i) sp ilete.s WS) Veins. — Aetevies. 7 = Corns blond _awass roar tte lem 6 + Have thick, Musculac and elastic vallg fo wai. _presSvvee ___* Branch into sinallesr ovrberres Cartevioles). Capillaries. — Fi - j + Arter igles branch iv TT SE Ce er—s—C—C—C 1 Body cells ove within, — asmal] distance Cow capillaries. Materials dittuse. Ahceugle the. capillavy walls to the —__Surroynsing cellse Veins ya + Bre the tubes carrying, blood back towards the _ heak, a —* Capillavies branth and goin rato small _ veins Cvewules) — - Thin walled vessele (Dve fo lower blood pressure) . 8% Contain valves_to__keep— blood Flowing Ao Ae. __ —__ Ptvection. Skeletal muscle contractions A'So___ assist hig, — Gompacisens. 14. blood “veseels 1 Actevies = Mai la_teanspaces oy axigenased) bl cod * Ae terieles eeeeereee Biante 18 edusted bo rege late bleed — Slow. 2 Copilaces . _ : = Diftficion_ccurrs across thin walls, Removal of wastes : , + All living, thmgs metabolise: and the chemical reaction s _ Prpdvce. waste products. . This means all living shings ave capable o¢ excretion - the removal of metabolic wastes. a * In animals ailro gen ous compounds are formed by ane deartina dion of amino acids Corina, ammonia which is_ mehls jexic — 2 and selvble im water. - te a * Mammals esckrebe nikvogenovs washeS as oyeom _ —_ food substances that cannot be. nbsorhed owe. excreted __ os Srecess — Emerton “organs: . - The luags ier ccebe most dgutbe.! — -_es Seat qlandasia, thes skin ercrrete S- 10% 9 all metabolic — wonsheste 2844. ete Exeve ber waste prodvets. in, the sweat taclade purea_dnd _ uric acto. ee wastes from carbohydrate *|n the livee,-. rons are denminabed leasing bo the Tormation .o¢ utem -anslucte actde 1 The lver is also dhe site og breakdown of: WRBQ. which (rms. _bile ‘piqments, which are. excreted by the liver ante the _ntevseine 0 pass oul. op the — bedy with the faeces. _* ei excretory organ vemavina _ —hikvogenous wastes. and_condvolling the wAberd Sale oe — fg tha tedys oe a + The human urinatory system * seretee allrejensts wates, Osmoreguiation mantaining, the unter potential e¢ the blood ond bodu Fluids, jonic reqviation mantaining lon levels: Requiotion og blood PH and Reqularion of blood pressure. la Abe lonsy tem. The kidnen, + The. kidney, has dual Gnebions op excretion and - osmeresy tation: wo Mesullo Types. o¢_neprens | _ — Cor bee. The fine onal navies dhe id te called neplvou. st pn oe fans Sees A a = ovstamalory, nephrons 2 Bach pean. ds 3p et ome 7 Bowmans/ capsule _ ~ — ~_Glomerviys _ _ uc Tvbsle. ‘ Cine. praticed 3 athe ine can. be. A times More. 2 concent merallze akion - : Occurs in the Joneculus - ood Pressure Forces water, salés and other small soluees From ae blood info Bowman’s capsule: fd larger blood components, like REC and proteins ove: boo lawge 6 Silke Ahovgh the Linh poves in, Bowmars capsule Reabsorbtion 1 Oceves in the bobles C Proximal and. Distal bobvies and ‘the, ____loep o¢ Henle) 7 — 1 Centvols_the _concentvation o¢ substances “ia_body 2ivid 1 Amine acids, glucose, vitamins, water and seme sales are. ce absorb + Reabvsevbtion involes both passive and eres ene on Ef move. by aetive transport vsiag ee energy. Walee meat pessiaby, bu. oa manian . This is because —_____Salé moving out. 26 the blavies « Shanges the concenbenlicn ——— inten and winter wil passively fella ——— _ Secee tion “+ Occurs in -praximal esl c's fal bubvies -and.adds subs favees such ag H*, Kt, NHJ and some drags bo Ie. gilbrate.. 2 FE may iavowe passive ov. active Frans pares _L€ is highly selective— as Ht mantains PH og bled ond. ses — active Tansoorks WHE stops (ilkvate ¢rom becoming tee low. Nati wo Cote Oe ykr Not ee hoes” . Prorimad Types +. HzO Passive and aclive Gllecting dve Uren and He Beteia eee peer ANS poe G Gas excchanoe in vasestar plants Sbomates- asses: 60 Ii ffuse Ave specialised: structures that.allow snbercellular atc between dhe atmosphere andthe Spaces belween the leaves - ___* Llecated in the underside og the leaves: > They consist of 1 pore and 2 gvard cells: . 1 Aquatic. species have stomate, on uppen S¥v ‘Stomiake, densits, __* Stonates vara, ia density anv size “ ___*_ Determined bu genetic ano enviromental Cacbors Plants grown in high light intensities and lous CO2- revels have nigher stomatn) censiLies. a +. .Shade plants frat recieve less light have fewer ______Stemeales. This is. becavse less light. cavses_ plant — - be net photosuthestse, quickly and thevedore. have higher _chlowaplast oensreu. asst *_Stomaites also open when dheve is low Cor - ~Sbomote open... Usually strates open during the dag ko goo for photo'sythesls. As, Li ies he pees ale ercchange — 1 Stomate usually open shan uigve ts Abundance oop uaten — Tissues insive a leak. - + Veper and lower suv face of & leat haga layew o¢ cells called the epithermis. they Cit closely, together to reduce. evaporation from the leaf and Stop baetevia and ono fom enter’ ® Stomates ave vevall the found in the

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