Synergy between Civil Society and Local Council:

Promoting Livelihood Opportunities for Women

through Climate Change Adaptation
By: Mohamed Shumais, PhD Student, Korea Polytechnic University

Abstract:

The study looks into the role of Women’s Development Committees (WDCs) as an
important civil society group in the Maldives. This includes its role in tsunami recovery
programme by cooperating with other organisations to promote livelihood and
environmental sustainability. Such work had incrementally led to an increase in awareness
on climate change adaptation and disaster management, while also incorporating
empowerment of women. As a case study, the paper looks into perspective of local council
and civil society relations in Ukulhas. The community level leadership though partnership of
WDC and local council facilitated women of fisher families to obtain an alternative income
opportunity through hydroponics development as a climate change adaptation project. The
implementation model of the project facilitated women’s empowerment and success that
can be replicated in other small communities for empowering women through
environmentally sustainable projects. There is a need for recognition and capacity
development of local civil society organisations for collectively achieving sustainability.

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 1. Introduction

The Maldives is an archipelago of over 1192 small coral islands. The altitude ​of 80 percent of
land areas of islands is less than 1 meter above sea level. Highest point in the Maldives is only
2.8m which is the lowest highest point in any country in the world. As a result, many inhabited
islands are ecologically vulnerable on risks of climate and disaster induced changes.

Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) face specific challenges due to the smallness and the
relationship with coastal environment. For sustainable development to be achieved, the state
institutions such as local councils, and civil society can play a role that can be mutually
beneficial. As such this paper describes on the role of Women’s Development Committees
(WDC) with a case study on Ukulhas island where a project was undertaken with assistance
from Mangroves for the Future. It was a programme co-chaired by International Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). It was initially focused on
countries that were worst impacted by the tsunami, to strengthen coastal management
interventions.

According to the UN report evaluating on the graduation of Maldives from the least developed
country status in 2011, progress was still needed on achieving the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) on gender equality and women’s empowerment, and ensuring environmental
Sustainability (UN, 2012). As such in this discussion, emphasis is related on the role of civil
society organisations in ending gender-based discrimination (SDG 5) and strengthening
resilience and adaptation to climate-related and natural disasters (SDG 13).

The paper gives a brief discussion on what constitute a civil society, followed by an overview on
the rise of civil society organisations (CSOs) during tsunami recovery programmes, and the role
of WDC in the Maldives. This is followed by a case study of Ukulhas Hydroponics project, and
how it related with SDG goals, as well as what lessons can be learned from it for other
communities, and recommendations for organizations and government.

2. What constitutes a civil society?

Civil society constitute a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, with a variation in
their degree of formality, autonomy and power (Akermi and Triki, 2017). That space is the arena
in which people associate voluntarily to advance common interests. The notion renders it
possible to account for country-specific variations, but are institutionally separate from the state
(Anheier, 2004). The boundary between the two is not a rigid one given the many hybridized
forms that have emerged (Frentzeskaki et al, 2017). The concept of civil society changes in
scale and scope depending on time period and geographic location (Carr and Norman, 2008).

Civil society play a significant and active role in processes supporting sustainability. When
opportunities are provided, local initiatives can grow and can form new sustainable practices
that can then be learned by other communities, academicians and policy makers, eventually
leading to incremental or radical transformations in practices and ways of managing things. As
such successful case studies need to be presented, so that various communities can learn and
reflect on. Civil society can fill the gaps from the services a state cannot directly provide, due to

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lack of human and financial resources. Civil society, with its volunteerism and social cohesion
can cooperate with the state in identifying activities that can improve the welfare of the
community.

In the context of the Maldives and climate change issues, civil society include non-governmental
organizations, community based organizations, youth groups, WDCs and all other individuals
who are individually and collectively working to protect their communities from the negative
consequences of climate change (Hamid et al, 2013). In the Maldives, diverse groups carry out
activities related to climate change even though they are not particularly registered initially as
environmental or climate change focused organizations..

3. Tsunami recovery programme and the role of civil society

The tsunami struck Maldives on 26 December 2004, directly affecting about one third of the
population. Unlike other countries, the tsunami affected all the regions in the Maldives. All
except nine islands were flooded and the communities in 13 islands were completely evacuated.

The losses were estimated at USD 470.1 million or 62 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). This is still an underestimation of the damage as it does not include many environmental
losses such as the value of the top-soil (MPND, 2005). In most islands, trees such as breadfruit
and mango were badly affected due to salinity. Fishing boats were relatively undamaged as
most fishing fleet were at sea when the tsunami hit Maldives. However, the small-scale fish
processors in the post-harvest sector were more seriously affected (IFAD, 2017). This work was
mainly done in the island by the women, and therefore women were particularly at a vulnerable
position.

In the tsunami recovery process, while the Maldives received international assistance,
coordinating projects directly or even through government ministries were difficult to reach out to
affected communities due to:

● Inadequate human resources: effectiveness of operations was constrained by the

inadequacy of staff in line ministries

● ​ 9 percent of the country being sea, and the dispersed

High internal transport costs​: 9
nature of the islands meant high expense for travel​ ​and delays due to weather conditions

As a result, the best way to minimize the expenses and for coordinating the activities was to
create a partnership with the island office and civil society groups in each of the islands. The
island offices were representative administrative set ups of the state in each of the inhabited
islands. The island offices were led by an island chief. After 2008 with decentralization act the
island offices became known as island councils and the appointed island chief’s role was given
for the elected island councilors.

In the tsunami recovery program civil society’s role increased as there was a need to carry out
activities simultaneously in all around the Maldives. Some associations targeted at specific
issues such as supporting children, and others supporting physically handicapped, and others

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on sports. Their contribution served the islands at a time it was crucially needed. This varied in
different islands, but in all islands what was commonly seen was the key role of WDCs as a civil
society group even when other active Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) were absent.

4. Women’s Development Committee (WDC) in the Maldives

Despite the fact that WDCs have existed as a platform for women going back as far as early
1980s, and that WDCs were established in each inhabited island by 1990s, there have been
limited documentation on the role of WDCs. Amongst the limited literature available prior to
tsunami, the country briefing paper on women prepared for ADB by Dayal and Didi (2001)
suggests on improving women’s decision-making role in administration and island management
as an objective and highlights the following as strategies:

● Leadership training
● Better child-care facilities
● Proactive measures to identify competent women who will play a greater role in national
atoll and island administration
● Stronger role of WDCs

WDCs have in fact undertaken activities on the first three strategies along with trying to develop
WDC itself. Traditionally, in the absence of Community-based Organisations (CBOs) focused on
women’s empowerment, the WDCs were the main space that promoted women’s empowerment
and collective action at the community level voluntarily. WDCs played an important role in
mobilizing women by providing an avenue for women to network, fundraise, collaborate and
implement initiatives for community development (Hamid et al, 2015). The work was carried out
informally with minimal regulations.

In 2010, the Decentralisation Act was passed as way to empower local communities. With this,
island offices were replaced with councils, and it further stipulated that a WDC should be formed
in each island. It specified a set of mandates that include:

(a) Advising Island Council on issues related to island development and municipal services
provided by the Council;
(b) Conducting activities for income generation and for the development of women;
(c) Working to uphold the rights of women;
(d) Working to increase political participation of the women

(MHA, 2010)
When the elections were introduced, it created reluctance by women to initiate as a candidate
as it was a new system compared to the previous system in which women appointed leaders
through a participatory discussion. The proponents of the system argued it will bring a modern
democratic change.
However, in some islands there were none or fewer than required number of candidates. In
other islands women did contest and WDCs were formed. According to a survey on the those
who contested, the intentions included empowering women and work towards development of

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the island. As per the same survey in islands where women did not contest, it reveals that
women were reluctant to go through a formal process in case it could be seen as a political
activity, and felt there was a negative attitude towards women leaders in public spheres (Hamid,
et al, 2015). Therefore, in islands where WDCs that were formed, evaluating the experiences
become important. Their experience in terms of acceptance within the communities, the support
from the island councils, and how they can become successful in women’s empowerment, and
as a development actor would be seen as examples for other islands in the Maldives or small
communities in general. Following the new system, by 2015 WDCs were formed in 61 islands.
These WDCs continued the culture of volunteerism as was practiced before. While work carried
out by island councils have been formal, the work of WDC have been informal and act as a civil
society group.
However, the Decentralisation Act caused misinterpretation by some international organizations
and thereby excluded WDCs as a part of civil society. Therefore, explanation of WDC’s role as a
civil society in the context of the Maldives becomes important. Although a term committee can
mean a group of people officially delegated to perform a function in English language, in
practical terms it is much wider as a large number of women participate in the work. Maldivians’
general understanding is that WDC refer to the larger group that volunteers in each of the
island. How the Maldivians differentiate in local language is the “​hinga committee”​ (the steering
committee) and then the Women’s Development Committee (WDC) in general which constitute
all participating women in a community. Thus, there has been a need to clarify, and document
the unique context of WDCs in the Maldives.
Although WDCs under some circumstances can get a small amount of allowance from the
government as an incentive, to a large extent the work undertaken by the WDC as a group has
been voluntary and organized by themselves. Moreover, the activities undertaken are not
political or influenced by the island councils or government.
.
4.1. WDC’s role for climate change and disaster management

In principle, WDCs are platforms for women leaders at the community level to actively engage in
improving women’s social and economic conditions, and can be taken as a stepping stone for
women to work towards empowering women while also achieving various sustainable
development goals. For climate change initiatives, WDCs can be involved because

● WDCs would be able to cooperate with island councils and other civil society groups
● WDCs could contribute to work on disaster and climate resilience and take ownership in
projects for improving livelihoods for women.
● WDCs would be able to get volunteerism and mobilize individual responsibilities that
could enhance societal responsibilities for sustainability

With regard to food security, apart from tuna and few agricultural products, most of the food
items are imported (IFAD, 2017). Therefore, it is expected that the importance of farming will
continue to increase. The growth of the agriculture sector in the Maldives is however
constrained due to the lack of land available for farming, poor condition of soil and fresh water
shortage. In the dry season, many islands now runout of drinking water. Increase in population,
and unpredictable rainfall and inefficiency in water management are also reasons for shortage

5
of fresh water. In such situations WDCs have played an important role in monitoring water tanks
in households and raising awareness among communities.
More than 54 percent of the registered farmers are women. These farmers usually do not own
the land on which they farm. They are allowed to farm, but if a need arises the plots can be
taken by the council. Therefore, a collective voice of the women has been essential. Moreover,
support from island councils by allocating certain areas for farming and when making land use
plans is crucial.

The WDCs themselves were active in the islands even before the tsunami. The table 1 gives an
idea on the type of activities WDCs did in Isdhoo Kalaidhoo, which was one of the communities
that were badly hit by tsunami.

Table 1. Some activities undertaken by Isdhoo Kalaidhoo WDC

Activities How activities were carried Other support

out

Farming Divided members into groups Youth Association

Volunteering days With the help of women in the Households

island, WDC members visited
houses, and offered work on a
weekly basis

Conduct pre-school Paid teachers to conduct the -

classes classes

Cleaning the island Carried out the activities on a -

weekly basis on Sundays by
dividing into 2 groups

Participated in the Divided the committee and he Individual

construction of jetty women into 4 groups and households
collected coral stone needed for
construction. Provided
refreshments to the workers.

Construct a building for Contracted out from committee -

pharmacy budget

Planting trees on Divided women into 2 groups to Individual

sidewalks of the main carry out the activities households and
road businessmen

Getting aid for farmers Aid received from the Ministry Mendhoo Research
of Agriculture, was distributed to Centre
the community

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Laying cables for the Dividing the women into 2 Individual
phone booth groups, and dug pathway households and
between two villages in the businessmen
island.

Planting coconut trees on Each woman planting a tree. -

sides of the road and jetty
area.
Adapted from BRC (2006)
There is evidence that even in such a small community, there were cooperation between civil
society groups, such as youth associations with WDCs. In environmental matters the WDCs had
involved in planting trees, controlling mosquitoes and cleaning islands. In terms of economy
they have worked in running pharmacies and cafes. In terms of social activities, they used to
participate in boat landing, running preschools for children and conducting different awareness
activities. The activities were mainly financed by income received from income earning activities
or through fundraising. Most activities were small scale in nature, but it was important for them.
The small scale was also a reflection of the limited financial resources available to them (Ritchie
et al, 2014).
Concept of climate change is in reality relatively recent in the environmental management
discourse. Adaptation was not a significant part of the discussions when climate change came
onto the international policy issues at the UN General Assembly in 1988 (Ayers and Forsyth,
2009). In fact, it was Maldivian President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom who in 1987 for the first time
brought the attention on the potential danger of climate change while addressing at the United
Nations.
Therefore, government of Maldives recognized the need for incorporating adaptation measures
for climate change. However, there was a limited involvement of CSOs on climate change
adaptation and disaster management. In fact, disaster management was not a key focus prior to
tsunami of 2004. However, the past activities of WDCS on keeping the island clean and
controlling mosquitos, did contribute to work undertaken to overcome disease prevalence, some
of which have a risk of increasing with climate change. With such contribution by WDCs and
island offices, Maldives remains free of malaria, and lymphatic filariasis was eradicated in 2016.
However, other vector-borne diseases are re-appearing. Dengue became endemic in 2004 and
data suggests that the epidemic pattern of dengue fever are impacted by climate variability
(Ibrahim and Mathur, 2017). Therefore, there is a need to continue working closely with
community level organizations to carry out activities to reduce risks for new issues that arise.

4.2. Role of WDC in tsunami recovery programme.

In contrast to many other countries that were impacted by the tsunami, the Maldives did not a
have disaster management institution or a Red Cross or a Red Crescent society. In addition, the
Maldives did not have experience in dealing with huge disasters. However, on several islands,
NGOs, sports clubs and WDCs were formed. Following the tsunami these groups as a network
of civil society, including the WDCs were mobilized as local responses.

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There was pressure for the government to provide humanitarian services quickly. However, the
geographical dispersion of the islands, and the emphasis of the international organizations to
have a participatory approach led to a system with close working relationships with civil society
groups in the islands. In order to do this the UNDP worked closely with the WDCs and other
NGOs to reach out to affected families (UNDP, 2008). This includes finding shelter and also
developing livelihood opportunities.
In the initial identification process of the beneficiaries for lost assets, people who worked in
informal sector were not included on livelihood assistance. Most of the people who were
negatively affected were the women as they had mostly worked on informal economic activities.
In the Maldives, women with small businesses often had no official business registration
documents. These women could not prove that they had lost their livelihoods. Therefore, they
did not qualify for initial assistance programmes (Scheper et al, 2006). As a result, the women
were at a vulnerable position.
Ministry of Gender and Family (MGF) decided to have a verification process in order to help
those who were marginalized. For example, in Meemu and Thaa atolls, which were the regions
that were most hit by tsunami, the MGF requested assistance of WDC to identify beneficiaries.
As such through a participatory verification process beneficiaries were identified by WDC
(UNDP, 2008).
The slogan opted by the Maldivian government was to build back better after the tsunami, with
an intention for forward looking approach. This was not to replace the lost facilities, but also to
build better and also to increase capacities of the communities. As such the UNDP developed a
programme to help communities develop livelihood activities. Women were particularly targeted
among the internally displaced populations, and the activities were those that also promoted
adaptation on climate change. These include those on sustainable agriculture and food security.
Following are some examples:

In Alifushi island, the WDC promoted farming as a way to build back better. Due to absence of
materials farmers were obtaining materials far from the capital Male’. Due to limited knowledge
on the best ways to use fertilizers, often excess and unsustainable materials were used. This
had the risk of further polluting groundwater that were already impacted by salt intrusion in
tsunami. As a result, WDC decided to establish a sales centre in Alifushi keeping supplies. As a
result, famers from Alifushi and other neighbouring islands were able to get items on a more
regular and less expensive basis, while also enabling to seek guidance on pest control
measures and other inputs to be used in a sustainable way. Prior to the opening of the centre,
one of the youth underwent training in Sri Lanka and that had helped the WDCs to start the
activity (UNDP, 2008).

Amongst the communities of 13 islands that were completely evacuated, majority of Vilufushi
island community were moved to Buruni island in the same Atoll. Buruni was one the smallest
inhabited islands with less than 500 people. The island accommodated about 1900 people from
Vilufushi (Oughton, 2009). There was an urgent need to find new livelihood activities through
new skill formation in order to minimize the sudden increased pressure for resource needs.
Vilufushi was one of the first examples of hyroponics systems in a local community in the
Maldives. The Vilufushi island was one of the two islands rebuilt as a safe island by elevating
the ground level of the whole island higher and further reclamation to enlarge the island. The

8
community was moved back to Vilufushi in 2009, the same year in which the Government
dissolved WDCs in all islands before it was allowed to reestablish in 2010. That had adversely
impacted women networks in many islands.

The projects had challenges to sustain for a longer period. However, the projects gave a lasting
legacy. For example with regard to the Vilufushi community, although they did not continue as a
collective group, the individual responsibilities and awareness, inspired many of them to carry
out home gardening activities. The case studies of Alifushi and Vilusuhi communities offer
indications that the skills gained were useful and it gave an opportunity to understand the
potential risks of unsustainable farming practices. In addition, for Vilufushi community it was a
learning experience to understand the implications of limited resources when they were
displaced in Buruni.
One of the characteristics of the tsunami recovery programme was that international
organizations helped to improve capacity of the communities, while also creating a wider
awareness on the climate change and disaster management issues at a national level. In fact,
the Government also formed Community Organizations Development Council in order to
empower civil society groups.

5. Ukulhas hydroponics project

UNEP (2012) GEO 5 report identifies hydroponics as one of the ways that can be used change
behavior and consumption patterns, reduce pollution and depletion of non-renewable resources
and share sources, and improve water productivity, that can contribute to the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Therefore, it can also be an important way that can be developed
to achieve sustainable development goals. The reason for Ukulhas in starting the project in
2015, was to utilize limited resources available to them and come up with a technologically
innovative system for farming by looking at some of the experiences in the past.
In addition, the another motive was to empower women by giving an opportunity to be involved
in an income earning opportunity while working as a group. Although WDCs have done a lot of
work voluntarily, opportunities for earning an income was important for improving the wellbeing.
In the early assessments in the tsunami recovery programme, in some islands communities
expressed an interest in hydroponics agriculture, but was not sure if that was technically
feasible (Kute and Ronchini, 2005). Ukulhas WDC saw an answer to this by initiating to do it as
a collective activity as had done by Vilufushi community in Buruni. As it was a new initiative,
emphasis was given on the capacity building and enhancing leadership. Initially the targeted
crops of the communal land were sweet melon and cucumber.

5.1. Training and increasing awareness

Training was given on different types of hydroponic systems available and how it can be
undertaken at different stages. This included how seeds can be sowed and how planting can be
done in coco peat and jiffy pots. In addition, an emphasis was given on how the hydroponics

9
activity can be done as a group involving different WDC members. They were taught on the
impacts of pesticide, and therefore only minimal amount of pesticides were used. Instead they
used a small amount of organic fertilizers.
One of the most important principles in ecosystems approach is the principle of precaution, and
therefore minimizing the use of chemical pesticides was taken into consideration since the
inception stage. In many islands where land is less fertile, the farmers increase pesticide and
chemicals expecting an increase in yield. However, in reality such practices degrade the land
and contaminate the ground water. Therefore, as a precautionary principle of environmental
management and adaptation, the community has to go for alternate means, to conserve the
ground water. The training had spillover effects as the participants were inspired and used the
knowledge in order to start home gardening to produce lettuce, cabbage, brinjal, chili, pumpkin
and cucumber in their homes.
This also influenced the island council for preservation of other trees in the island. In particular,
older trees in the island were figured out and information were displayed on billboards about the
trees and the need to conserve such resources. This information was directed to both the
community members, children as well as tourists in the island.

5.2. Women leadership

An additional motive of the project was to inspire women leaders in the island, and as the work
was carried out in groups in different days, leadership was required to organize the activities.
This also included on the management side on planning inventories, record keeping, reporting
and evaluation. By doing so the WDC was able to minimize costs and receive an income while
also distributing a share for each of the family participating in the activities. As per the council
they also wanted to see that women can assume leadership roles with support and guidance
from the island council.
The limited space of the greenhouses was a constraint as it does not allow all the interested
women to work. However, while working in the field is important, the WDCs devised a plan to
assist that other women can also be involved with alternatives. These include planting trees in
the homes, planting fruit trees and marketing of products.
In order to assist planting trees in homes, WDC devised a plan with a membership fee to join,
which is to make a self-help group under the WDC and thereby could provide compost,
seedlings, equipment, storing, supplying and marketing. The individuals then can make an
income by doing different associated activities.
The WDC also came up with ideas to market value added products. As guesthouse tourism has
been booming in the island, there is a potential market among tourists if products could be
marketed in a way that interests them. Therefore, cooperation was established with restaurants
in the islands, with new ways to promote products. This was a type of vertical integration in the
supply chain.
In order to facilitate more women, it is planned to change into a cooperative. What needs to be
recognized is that informal system can provide opportunities to experiment and grow to become
formal systems such as cooperatives which are formal kind of civil society. Allowing and
supporting this process is important as formal cooperative has been a new system in the

10
Maldives. In the past it did not work when international organizations or government projects
intervened to form cooperatives because formal systems, procedures and requirements were
found to be difficult to follow for small communities.

5.3. Sustainable livelihood

In fishing islands, traditionally women worked and cooked and dried the fish brought by the
fishermen. This was a centuries old practice by women, and it facilitated as a significant income
source for Maldives particularly by exporting dry and salted fish to Sri Lanka. Therefore,
women’s role was invaluable for the economy of the Maldives for centuries. This type of fish
processing has continued to this day, but diversification in fisheries and other economic
activities have reduced the scope of it.
In Ukulhas fish processing became reduced as fishermen from Ukulhas began selling ice
preserved yellowfin tuna to companies that export frozen fish. This change of fisheries activity
by the men were also related to tsunami recovery programme. Ukulhas was one of the islands
that received an ice plant under the tsunami recovery programme (IFAD, 2017). However, this
impacted on women losing their role. Therefore, women who used to cook and dry fish did not
have a regular economic activity to participate
In the case of fishing it also varies based on seasonal changes, and thus income of the fisher
families varied. Therefore, in such seasons the entire families get vulnerable. Therefore,
alternative opportunities that are resilient to climate and seasonal changes became crucial as
safety nets.
It was expected that such an emphasis will also make people aware of the importance of
sustainable development for livelihood. It was also expected that increase in awareness, would
help to minimize future pressures that may occur for unsustainable extraction of coastal
resources that has been associated in the past in some islands, such as illegal sand mining,
catching of turtles or over fishing of certain marine species. It is important that activities which
negatively impact on the coastal resource be discouraged by developing alternative strategies
as a precautionary principle.

6. Ukulhas hydroponics project and SDGs

6.1. Ending gender based discrimination

When women participate in community projects, that also encourage other women to participate
by following them. There are women who are reluctant to participate initially. This could be due
to shyness or due to not knowing how to do a particular activity. When projects are done
through WDC even people who stay at home gets mobilized.
While many men from Ukulhas work as fishermen out in the sea or in the capital Male in other
occupations, women’s role becomes particularly important in the island. Women need to get
opportunities to engage in livelihood opportunities. When looking at agriculture the land is
limited, but they got the chance to engage in a hydroponics project through the initiative of the

11
WDC. Similarly, as guesthouse tourism is booming in the recent years, WDC could further play
a role in engaging women by training in various professions that can relate to tourism.
By giving opportunities to women, and finding opportunities to get income for women, their
wellbeing will improve and it will also improve the wellbeing of the families and communities as a
whole. It can contribute in achieving gender equality with opportunity for earning income, and
thus result in potential benefits for women’s welfare. It can also help countries to reach out to
higher potential for development.

6.2. Climate change adaptation and disaster management

In the Maldives, a number of islands have been experiencing salt intrusion of groundwater. This
is a type of slow onset disaster as it impacts on the variety of crops that can be grown.
Communities can plant more crops that are resilient, and or can introduce technologies that can
be resilient to impact of salinization.
Ground water used to be the main source of water in the Maldives for drinking, bathing and
cooking along with rain water that were used to drinking. Although rainwater is collected, due to
seasonal variations rain water drinking water gets scarce. Therefore, in this project WDC tried to
learn and start an alternative approach that will require minimal level of water.
Ukulhas has a land area of only 22 hectares and therefore land is limited. However proper
planning and assigning a space that many families can use for agricultural purposes can allow
increase in food security with intra-generational equity. Using the limited space and allowing
more space for other purposes is a consideration on inter-generational equity.
The hydroponics equipment was initially imported from abroad. However, resources such as the
compost is obtained from Ukulhas rather than importing from elsewhere. Compost is produced
at the Waste Management Centre. WDC has supported this through increasing awareness in
the island on the household responsibilities on waste management. In the past the waste was
not separated and waste was burned in various places or dumped to the beach and sea. The
adverse impact was felt by the whole community and also polluted the lagoon and beaches. The
waste management programme in the island between 2007 and 2012 had helped transform the
island as a model in the Maldives. WDC can use the compost with confidence that it is produced
in an organic manner and are free from chemicals. As it is obtained from Ukulhas, it increases
the reliability, and reduces the environmental footprint.
WDC is also aware that the compost was produced through a waste management system that
also caused reduction of the cases of children’s diarrhea in the island as flies got lesser. These
factors motivated community in Ukulhas to work more on sustainable development.

7. Lessons from Ukulhas hydroponics project by WDC

7.1. Importance of recognizing women’s role

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It is important to see if there was a need and how such project can be connected to community
and how women’s needs can be met. Women’s self-help groups do exist in many countries.
What is best for different countries will depend on the locality and culture. We need to recognize
the importance of women’s groups for sustainable development, and platforms need to be
facilitated for women’s group to do activities that can increase unity and empowerment.
As there is social cohesion and cooperation, women can help each other as community
members in projects on climate change adaptation. The local council of Ukulhas, being close to
the community understood the potential of cooperating with WDC on women’s empowerment
and undertake a project for sustainable development. It will be beneficial if other organisations
also understand the local contexts. This can only be understood fully when consultation is done
with local communities.
7.2. Local government council and civil society partnership

The project was proposed by the WDC with a partnership with the island council. The island
council played a facilitating role when communicating the funding organisation on behalf of the
WDC and in procurement process.
While the WDC did not have a separate office space for their activities, they were provided
space within the island office and the resources was available for communication purposes. The
island council also facilitated in finding a co-sponsor from a tourist resort who could arrange
hydroponics training for the WDC participants.
The WDC and island council jointly coordinated the project in various stages. This included the
levelling of the land and fencing of the area. In some of the past project land clearing was a
major obstacle to starting a project. As Ferreti (2012) indicated about the constraints the Ministry
of Fisheries and Agriculture had in implementing a project in the Goidhoo island where the costs
of land clearing were estimated to be higher than the total funds available for a farming project.
In the Maldives people are allowed to plant coconut trees in any area in the woods, or in any
area that is not a private housing area, or public areas such as sports fields or harbor front
areas. Those coconut trees that are not registered under people are owned by the state, and
thus administered by the island council. If a land is going to be used for another purpose the
coconut trees has to be compensated to those who registered those coconut plants at a registry
at the island council offices. Some project funding does not include funding or prior planning for
such activities.
Such a tradition in the Maldives for protection of trees, and in particular coconut trees indicates
the importance of trees in the Maldives historically. Such trees provided timber for boat building
and housing, and also provided food and medicinal values to the local people. Moreover,
coconut palms are amongst the most resilient even under salt intrusion to the land, and it also
protect from beach erosion. Therefore, coconut palms need to be conserved and planted more
as a climate adaptation measure. As a result, under the Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) regulation (2007) of the Maldives any project that causes loss of a large number of
coconut trees requires a full Environmental Impact Assessment. In the case of Ukulhas the land
for hydroponics was identified in a location that would require removal of no coconut palms. In
all this decision process, the island council jointly facilitated WDC for the project in various
stages. This included the beginning with the levelling of the land and fencing of the area. Thus
obstacles on projects can be overcome more easily when state authorities, in this case island

13
councils within the respective communities play an important role rather than be directed from
Ministries. As in the case of Ukulhas it was the island council that found the solution for the land
and supported the WDC. However, on major issues seeking guidance from the Ministries is also
crucial, such as mentioned above on EIA as it requires technical familiarity, and it is always
important to take a precautionary approach when it comes to sustainable development.
While it is important that institutions at policy level needs to support and facilitate assistance,
that does not mean island councils need to dictate on WDCs. Rather, the councils must
encourage WDCs to make decisions themselves. They must have the independence and must
feel they are making decision freely. It will help them to enhance leadership. If council always
intervene WDC will not get a chance to enhance leadership.
The island council provided assistance in procuring the equipment by finding suppliers and
doing evaluation. This reduced the costs borne by the WDC in the procurement process. The
island council members also involved in the activities and it gave encouragement for the WDC
members to carry out the activities. The island council provided the land to the WDC to conduct
hydroponics project. The land was provided free to the WDC in order to provide support to the
WDC in their initiative.
Proper planning and monitoring and evaluation was also an important factor that contributed to
the implementation of the project. The MFF national steering committee itself consisted of
representatives from different state ministries, academia and NGOs. The steering committee
received support from the secretariat of MFF in Bangkok in terms of technical evaluations and
trainings for the local counterparts to produce full proposals after the initial brief proposals.
Representatives of the steering committee included professionals from various backgrounds
and the project itself was required to target on achievement of sustainable development goals.
However, even then success depended on how the project implementers use the opportunity to
seek technical assistance in terms of guidance. The WDC by liaising with the island council
always kept documentations on the expenses on the project and made plans to reach targets.
This is very important in order to utilize the funding efficiently and effectively and to carry out the
project as planned on time.

8. Recommendations

In this section challenges the WDC and civil society are discussed alongside opportunities for
improvement. As such it is identified how governments, and development actors, how CSOs like
the WDCs can be engaged in climate change adaptation.

8.1. The need for capacity development

As WDCs constitute of different individuals of different backgrounds, they are able to pool in
their knowledge and skills to start different activities. However, with new challenging issues such
as the impacts of climate change, the communities need technical assistance. Local
communities, often only have a limited understanding of climate change. As a result, civil
society groups often do not know what kind of interventions can be suitable to do with a long
term perspective on sustainable development. In this endeavor the research institutes and

14
other CSOs that have special capabilities can play a role in guiding and facilitating. A pool of
volunteers could be registered with a body that can be of help to civil society.

In order to do a project CSOs need to have a certain level of capacity. However, at the
community level, certain smaller civil society groups may not have the knowledge or experience
in formulating project proposals or knowhow about technology. As a result, it is important that
there are facilities to get support from individuals or academic institutes or NGOs that can
further support. When Ukulhas WDCs applied for a grant, the process required a lot of
documentations and revisions, and it must have been hard for such communities. In the case of
Ukulhas, in the project formulation they received assistance from another NGO Live and Learn
Environmental Education, which is registered in the Maldives as a local NGO, but it is part of the
network of Live & Learn Environmental Education NGOs working in nine countries in the Asia
and the Pacific. Within the network the information on various projects is shared thereby
improving the capacity of the local NGO members. This has helped local staff to assist Ukulhas
WDC in the project proposal documentation. Through project development it is important that
participants’ capacity become increased. Such networks can help overcome the lack of
capacity of civil society when advocating for mainstreaming climate change adaptation, and also
to take a focus on gender issue. Partnership between civil society groups at various levels can
also provide benefits in improving capacity and achieving results.
However civil society still face challenge to play an important role influencing policies. Civil
society lack the capacity to fully engage with the government on gender equality issues (ADB,
2014). In reality, after the tsunami, the government established an organization called
Community Organizations Development Council to empower civil society groups with
information and training opportunities. However, with the change of government it was closed in
2008.
When the WDCs were abolished by the government in 2009, it disintegrated the women
networks in the islands which had existed for many years. When it was re-established in 2010
under the Decentralisation Act, it created misunderstanding by communities as well as other
development partners if it was an institution within the government and thus excluded
recognition as a CSO.

Most of the WDCs operate with minimal resources with volunteerism to great extent. Although
the island councils provided spaces for meetings and did consultation, such cooperation had no
political motive and was only directed on achieving sustainable development in the island by
including women. Although it was accepted by the IUCN MFF programme for the Ukulhas
hydroponics project, it was a challenge for the WDCs as some other UN networks such as
Global Environmental Facility (GEF) programme in the Maldives, excluded WDCs as a part of
civil society, on the assumption that WDCs are an institution of the government, following the
Decentralization Act.

The concept of decentralization seems to be misunderstood. In practice, decentralization

comprises of transfer of authority and power from:
● Higher levels to lower levels in government or from national to subnational hierarchy of
government.

15
 ● Government to legally independent state institutions.
● Government to for profit and not for profit organisations.
WHO (2007)
In this way, when the Decentralisation Act stipulates on forming WDCs it is empowering women
lead civil society, rather than classifying WDC as a state institute. One of the reasons for the
misunderstanding was that WDCs have to submit monthly reports to the local island councils.
The purpose of this was to minimize corruption in project management, and also to create a
close relationship with the WDC and the island council. This policy is similar to the cases on
NGOs which also requires yearly reports to be sent to the Ministry of Home Affairs. It must be
noted that island councils operate under the Local Government Authority which is also
accountable to the Ministry of Home Affairs. In that cases WDCs and NGOs are under the same
authority in the higher level of the hierarchy. As WDCs have to send monthly reports to the
island council, it encourages them to be active in the society and also transparent in fund
management. As an organization that work towards for the sustainable development of the
community as a whole with women’s empowerment, such a system actually compels them to be
responsible and proactive. Historically in most islands island offices or island councils were the
only places in the whole island where telecommunication or even photocopy services were
available. Therefore, it served as a facility that helped the whole community. Therefore, it was
natural to form a close cooperation of civil society groups and island offices or councils even in
the past.
In order to resolve the challenges in recognition, the government could assist WDCs by
providing a certificate of registration. In some islands where there are no NGOs, the only civil
society group that work for the women used to be the WDC. Even at national level, few NGOs in
the Maldives target on women’s issues apart from the WDCs, and there are few opportunities to
focus on women’s agenda (Fulu, 2007). As “Leaving no one behind” is a central principle of
SDGs it would be beneficial if international organizations also understand and encourage
consultation with the local councils and civil society groups including WDCs when designing
development projects. Such consultation can be based on the Pacific islands’ concept of
“talanoa” process which is designed to facilitate participation to share views, in the hope that
others can learn and benefit from their views, ideas, experiences and reflections, so that
capacity of all stakeholders will improve in terms of knowledge required for location specific
climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures. As civil society groups exist in
various form in different countries, it is important to recognize the local context.
Alternatively, WDCs could be empowered if WDCs are recognized as a special organization or
network under a Civil Society Act. At the moment the NGOs and sports clubs are run under the
Associations Act, and WDCs are under the Decentralization Act. In the same way cooperative
societies are under the Cooperative Societies Act. However, there is no Civil Societies Act,
unlike many other countries which takes a more holistic framework on the civil society, that can
also recognize networks. The Maldivian Youth Network that worked between 2010 and 2012
faced obstacles as such networks were not recognized by the Associations Act. It was a young
women lead network that strived for educating youth and facilitated different opportunities for
discussion and participatory learning. A Civil Society Act with a broader and flexible concept is
something that needs participatory discussion between the government, and the civil society by
also involving women’s groups such as WDCs.

16
Women’s organizations such as WDC, especially from the rural areas are still underrepresented
in the decision making processes in policies of national agencies. The needs of women are not
adequately represented in the development process. Although a gender responsive national
communication toolkit was produced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCC) in 2015, such an approach was not included in the second National
Communication to UNFCC in 2016. Empowering the civil society through involving WDCs and
other CSOs in planning process will be of benefit to the government as evidenced in the
tsunami recovery work, the WDCs played an intermediary role between the government, island
offices (as the councils were called then) and the communities.

On the islands where WDCs have successfully functioned, cooperation from the island councils
have been important. However, this is the not the case with all islands. Therefore, there is a
need for government to make enabling environment for increasing awareness among councilors
on the benefit of working cooperatively with civil society. Such a process does not have to be
top down process, but a process that can be designed in a participatory way.
Another important reason for successful project sustainability is also good management of
projects with appropriate strategies on production and marketing. This is an area in which
WDCs lack capacity and is thus a challenge. Therefore, assistance is needed on innovating and
diversifying products that can be produced. As the islands are dispersed, often the farmers are
unable to send items to markets either because of time delays or because supply boats do not
have enough capacity to take all the products. This was the case of Isdhoo Kalaidhoo island for
instance in the farming program when they tried to uplift their livelihood after tsunami. While it
was an agricultural island, they did not have their own boat to transport and relied on boats from
neighboring communities. Product innovations with new ways to process food is something
Maldivian CSOs can learn from other countries on product diversification and marketing.
Another area is the knowledge on different aspects of climate change impacts. In general, the
knowledge is limited in the communities. ​If civil society groups in different countries of similar
nature can share knowledge, this can improve the knowledge base, and civil society groups can
start new innovative programmes.
The local CSOs can also play a role in revitalizing the indigenous knowledge in the country.
Over the years Maldives has to large extent diminished its level of agriculture and lot of
indigenous knowledge has been forgotten. The types of crops such as finger millet served as
nutrition and also as a natural insecticide. However, finger millet as a part of diet of Maldivians
have become rare, with increased imported food. A program can be established to promote it as
it can be grown in the Maldives as a climate resistant crop. On the other hand, planting trees
that were impacted on tsunami such as breadfruit need special consideration. While new
techniques such as hydroponics are introduced, importance of preservation of biodiversity and
food security with a broader concept is needed. For this increasing awareness of the
communities focusing on change of individual behavior towards sustainability is crucial.

8.2. Need to promote individual responsibilities for collective action

Economists' view of how society should be managed has relied on two factors. Firstly, the
invisible hand of the market, as described by Adam Smith, which influences demand and supply

17
in an economy and on what activities will be undertaken led by profit motive or self-interest.
Secondly, the state’s role is to correct failures of the market to uphold welfare by redistributing
income and resources, and correct externalities as the markets has no role to fit societies moral
standards (Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J, 2010). However, both efficiency and society’s moral
standards cannot be achieved without individual responsibilities.
Therefore, civil society as a third sector becomes more important to shape and inspire individual
responsibilities. As suggested by a model proposed by Anheier (2004) individuals influence and
shape institutions and utilize the organizations or service provided.

Adapted from Anheier (2004)

In the case of Ukulhas individuals through their discussions came up with the idea on the best
way to undertake the project as a collective action. Related to this it was the WDC and council
with their cooperation inspired the women in the island to decide to do a project on climate
change adaptation and take up a new sustainable livelihood activity. This can also be related to
how state and local council’s policies can be changed as inspired by knowledge, lessons and
examples from individuals. It is notable that Ukulhas council was inspired by the training and
observation in Sri Lanka’s compost production site in Weligama.
In 2013, a group of councilors were sent by the government to Weligama to learn how
composting is done. During this training, Ukulhas councilor saw the local mayor visit the
compost production site and encouraged the workers while practically involving in the work. As
a useful lesson learned, this proactive attitude was used in Ukulhas in its implementation of
waste management programme, and then also in supporting WDC.
Such change of views on individual responsibility was reflected as the role of the island council.
Therefore, in order to make projects successful, it is very important to focus on individual
learning and action in a way it will influence social cohesion to bring change as collective action
for sustainable development. ​As suggested by Tompkins and Adger (2004) the concept of
collective action seems to offer a solution to resource management. By working together, civil
society and local council can synergize achievements, and communities can become more
resilient to better cope with the impacts of climate change and disaster management.

18
 9. Conclusion

WDCs have worked in the islands of the Maldives as a civil society and has helped the
communities by empowering women through volunteerism as well as through income earning
opportunities. This was significant in the tsunami recovery work which required cooperation of
agencies at multiple levels. The process resulted in an increase in awareness of the importance
of climate change and disaster related activities in the years that followed. A case study on
Ukulhas hydroponics project indicates that cooperation of the island council and the support
from other civil society groups have been significant for undertaking the project. Training and
facilitating leadership roles can help women to organize income earning activities. Utilizing
resources that are available locally such as the compost that were used in Ukulhas is a
remarkable difference compared to past projects. With technical assistance women led civil
society groups such as WDC have the potential to play a proactive role in the promotion of
SDGs. Individual responsibilities encouraged by the collective actions and opportunities for
capacity development are potential keys for a sustainable change.

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Shaukath Ibrahim, Aminath Nashwa, Ibrahim Mohamed, Shifa Mohamed,
Aishath Farhath Ali, Abdulla Makhzoon, Muaz Adnan, Adam Abdulla, Mohamed Ilham,
Fathimath Shafeeqa and Aishath Niyaz for the useful information provided.

19
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