Tectonophysics, 187 (1991) 285-303 285

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

The Tertiary Arc Chain in the Western Pacific

E. Honza
Geological Survey of Japan, Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, Japan

(Received by publisher July 31, 1990)

ABSTRACT

Honza, E., 1991. The Tertiary Arc Chain in the Western Pacific. In: T.W.C. Hilde and R.L. Carlson (Editors), Silver
Anniversary of Plate Tectonics. Tectonophysics, 187: 285-303.

The arcs bordering the Pacific Plate on the Western and Southwestern Pacific rim are reconstructed since their initiation in
the Eocene and Oligocene. They occur in a zone forming an arc chain from the Western Pacific tropics to the eastern margin
of Australia. They are the Bonin, Mariana, Yap, Palau, Halmahera, North New Guinea-West Melanesia, Solomon, Vanuatu,
and Tonga-Kermadec Arcs, designated here the Tertiary Arc Chain. They are associated with the formation and consumption
of backarc basins. Reversals of arc polarity and episodic subduction has occurred in some of them.
The Tertiary Arc Chain is characterized by four major stages in its evolution which can be seen characteristically in some
of the arcs. The first stage is the occurrence of the arc chain from the middle Eocene to earliest Oligocene. The second stage is
the formation of the backarc basins from the early to late Oligocene. The third stage is the occurrence of double arcs on the
inner side of the arc chain in the early to middle Miocene and the fourth stage is the reversal of arc polarities due to collisions
since the late Miocene.
The backarc basins associated with the arcs of the Tertiary Arc Chain have fixed limits of duration in their evolution. The
backarc basins initially form 15 million years after the initiation of the volcanic arc. Several to 10 million years after the initial
opening, backarc spreading terminates. Approximately 20 million years after the cessation of the backarc spreading, a second
phase of opening occurs in the backarc region. In the case of arc collision, reversal of the arc polarity occurs if there is oceanic
crust on the backarc side, and opening of a backarc basin occurs within several million years. These occurrences and durations
have a variation of ca. 3-5 million years.

Introduction chain has undergone substantial deformation due

to collisions, especially along the central portion.
Arcs along the Western and Southwestern Many reconstructions have been proposed for
Pacific rim are among the most conspicuous con- the arcs in the Western Pacific rim (Molnar et al.,
sumption zones of the world’s plate boundaries. 1975; Hilde et al., 1977; Nur and Ben-Avraham,
They form in a wide interactive buffer zone, in- 1978; Seno, 1985; Zonenshain, 1985; Molnar and
cluding many small plates, between the Pacific, Stock, 1987). Most of them are the regional recon-
Eurasian and India-Australian Plates. Among structions based on analysis of the arcs and back-
them, the arcs of the outer (eastern) margin of the arc basins. Some of them are based on major plate
buffer zone at the margin of the Pacific Plate can reconstructions.
be traced in an unbroken chain from the northern Marginal basins are commonly associated with
to the southern hemisphere. These are the Bonin, the Western Pacific arcs. Several types of models
Mariana, Yap, Halmahera, North New Guinea- have been proposed for the formation of marginal
West Melanesia, Solomon, Vanuatu (New Hebr- basins (Mckenzie, 1969; Karig, 1971, 1983; Coo-
ides) and Tonga-Kermadec Arcs (Fig. 1). They per et al., 1976; Toksoz and Bird, 1977; Molnar
have many temporal and spatial similarities in and Atwater, 1978; Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979;
their development and seem to have formed a Dewey, 1980; Honza, 1983; Scott and Kroenke,
countinuous arc chain since the Tertiary. This arc 1980; Miyashiro, 1986). In most cases, marginal

0040-1951/91/$03.50 0 1991 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

286 E. HONZA

basins are considered to have formed directly or features are also commonly deformed, have been
indirectly under the influence of subduction of an consumed in subduction or do not outcrop. How-
oceanic plate. The second type of model calls for ever recent geophysical and geological studies of
development in a tensional field which is formed the arcs and backarc basins have nevertheless sub-
in the arc region by the interaction of the major stantially advanced our knowledge of their evolu-
plates. The third type of model is an oceanic basin tion.
being captured by the formation of a new arc in a
mid-oceanic situation such as along fracture zones Stratigraphy and structure of arcs in the Tertiary
or seamount chains. The fourth type is related to Arc Chain
the heating on the backarc region by subduction
of a spreading axis or by the drift of a deep hot Most of the arcs facing the Pacific Plate seem
region. to have originated in the Paleogene, except for a
Most of the arcs in the Tertiary Arc Chain few which apparently commenced their activity in
consist of small islands above sea level which the Late Mesozoic. To understand the evolution of
makes it difficult to study their geology. Geologic these arcs into the arc chain, their geology and

fl I
130 ,.’ 160 170 160 170W 16C

20
PACIFIC

ION

PLATE
SOLOMON BASIN
WOODLARK BASIN

20
TONGA
- AUSTRALIA

, I

Fig. 1. Arcs and backarc basins in the Western and Southwestern Pacific. The outer (eastern) arcs and associated backarc basins
which fomvxl the Tertiary Arc Chain are the main interest in this text.
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 287

geological relationships between neighboring arcs collision of the Caroline Ridge with the arc start-
are first reviewed (see Fig. 2). ing in the late Oligocene or early Miocene, for-
ming a transform fault in an E-W direction
Bonin, Mariana, Yap and Palau Arcs (Hawkins and Batiza, 1977; McCabe and Uyeda,
1983).
The Bonin (Ogasawara) Arc has a parallel
arrangement of its dominant N-S trending struc- Halmahera Arc
tural components. From east to west, these are the
Bonin (Ogasawara) Trench, Ogasawara Ridge, The Halmahera Arc contains older rocks of the
Shichito (-Iwoto) Volcanic Ridge, backarc depres- arc chain with Mesozoic sediments and an ophio-
sions, volcanic knolls zone, Izu Ridge and Shikoku litic basement complex on the eastern side, and
Basin. Some of these features are discontinuous Mesozoic sediments and the Pliocene-Quatemary
and some extend throughout the arc. Most of the volcanics on the western side (Sukamto et al.,
features observed in the Bonin Arc can be traced 1981; Hall et al., 1986). The east and west pro-
southward into the Mariana Arc. Narrow backarc vinces are separated by a tectonic boundary. On
depressions in the Bonin Arc, which can be seen the west side of the arc, the Molucca Sea Plate is
immediately on the backarc side of the volcanic subducting and being consumed on both of its
chain, continue their geomorphological expression eastern and western sides, beneath the Sangihe
into the Mariana Trough (Honza and Tamaki, Arc to the west and beneath the Halmahera Arc
1985). on the east, forming a collision zone at the surface
Stratigraphies of the Bonin and Mariana Arcs (Hatherton and Dickinson, 1969; Silver and
have approximately the same sequences. Both of Moore, 1978; McCaffrey et al., 1980; Cardwell
the arcs began their activity with arc volcanism in and Isacks, 1981). The eastern Halmahera
the middle to late Eocene followed by Oligocene (Waigeo) province is characterized by ophiolites
volcanism (Kaneoka et al., 1970; Matsuda et al., and Mesozoic deep sea sediments, imbricated rocks
1977; Ozima et al., 1977; Meijer et al., 1983). with late Eocene-early Oligocene flysch deposits,
However, the oldest Eocene volcanism in the Bonin early Miocene marine carbonates and con-
Arc is a little older than that of the Mariana Arc. glomerates. Oligocene-middle Miocene andesitic
Arc volcanism in the Bonin, Mariana, Yap and volcanics are overlain by late Miocene-late Plio-
Palau Arcs is characterized by three volcanic cene marine elastics and carbonates (Sukamto et
suites: oceanic ridge basalt, exposed as metamor- al., 1981). The western province has been a
phic basement on Yap; arc tholeiites of the Eocene volcanic arc since the Oligocene. The underlying
to early Oligocene, and talc-alkalic rocks of the basement consists of regional metamorphic rocks
late Oligocene to Miocene (Shiraki et al., 1978; and ophiolites. Volcanoes were active in the
Beccaluva et al., 1980). A difference in the stratig- Oligocene-middle Miocene, in the late Miocene-
raphy of the Bonin and Mariana Arcs is the Pliocene and since the early Quaternary as indi-
existence of Miocene volcanic rocks in the Mariana cated by marine volcaniclastics associated with
(Meijer et al., 1983), which are not found in the carbonates (Sukamto et al., 1981). However, Hall
Bonin Arc. These rocks, named the Umatac For- et al. (1986) suggest that the older volcanics are
mation, were earlier thought to be Oligocene in only Pliocene in age.
age (Ladd, 1966). The Halmahera Arc was possibly originally part
The Yap and Palau arcs form a link between of the east facing arc complex that included the
the Mariana and Halmahera Arcs. The Yap arc is Mariana, Yap and Palau Arcs, in Oligocene to
formed of metamorphic rocks and appears to be early Miocene times (Hamilton, 1979; Cardwell
seismically inactive. There is no modern volcanism. and Isacks, 1981). East of the Halmahera Arc,
The Mariana, Yap and Palau Arcs were originally spreading had started in the Ayu Trough by the
aligned. This Proto-Mariana Arc has been seg- early to middle Miocene (Weissel and Anderson,
mented with hundreds of kilometers offset by 1978). Subduction beneath Halmahera may have
288 k. HONZA

reversed its polarity by this time. The Halmahe- metamorphic complex exposed in a jumble of
ra-Palau Transform Fault was lengthened by the fault-bounded blocks and overlain by a thick se-
western movement of Halmahera and by spread- quence of Miocene reef limestone and marl and
ing in the Ayu Trough (Cardwell and Isacks, 1981). younger elastic sediments (Dow and Sukamto,
Moore and Silver (1983) suggested reversal of arc 1984). A further consequence of the collision is the
polarity in the late Miocene. mafic and ultramafic rocks exposed in the north
The Halmahera Arc is bounded on the south by coast range. Most of the igneous basement is of
the left lateral Molucca-Sorong Fault, which ex- Eocene-Oligocene age in northeast Papua-New
tends east toward New Guinea. The Sula Islands Guinea, New Britain and New Ireland. However,
on the eastern ridge of Sulawesi Islands consist of they date from the late Cretaceous in Irian Jaya
the Precambrian and Paleozoic basement and are and from the late Paleocene in northwestern
suggested to have moved westward from western Papua-New Guinea.
New Guinea (Bowin et al., 1978; Hamilton, 1979). Eastern New Guinea is complicated by its as-
This indicates that Halmahera has been moving sociation with several microplates. Collision of the
westward by the subduction of the Molucca Sea West Melanesia Arc with north New Guinea is
plate and had been a part of or was attached to considered to have occurred in the Pliocene
New Guinea before this movement. (Taylor, 1979; Weissel et al., 1982a; Honza et al..
1987). The inverted V-shaped seismic pattern ob-
North New Guinea and West Melanesia arcs served in the Solomon Sea can be traced westward
beneath the eastern Central Orogenic Belt and the
The northerly trending geological features of northern coastal belt (Curtis, 1973; Jaques and
Halmahera change abruptly to west and northwest Robinson, 1977; Ripper and McCue, 1983; Co-
in the New Guinea mainland New Guinea Island oper and Taylor, 1987). Recent work has also
is well known as the site of large-scale collisions in demonstrated that subduction is taking place in
its central erogenic belt with ultramafics along the the Trobriand Trough on the southern side of the
northern slope of the belt. The Central Orogenic Solomon Sea Plate, forming arcs on both sides of
Belt is separated from the uplifted coastal block to the plate (Lock et al., 1987; Honza et al, 1987).
the north by a series of the broad flat depressions. Reconstruction of this area suggests a possible
The stable Australian Continental Platform lies to large backarc basin in the Oligocene and a brea-
the south. The Central Orogenic Belt can be traced kup of New Britain in the Pliocene followed by
eastward into the Papuan Peninsula. The uplifted collision with the western West Melanesian Arc
coastal province can also be traced to the east into (Honza et al., 1987).
the Melanesian province (D’Addario et al., 1976;
Milsom, 198s). Solomon A t-c
The major orogeny of the Central Orogenic
Belt is considered to have taken place in the The eastern trace of the West Melanesian Arc
Oligocene resulting in metamorphism, folding, is the Solomon Arc. The Ontong-Java Plateau
faulting and finally uplift of the mountain range collided with this arc in the middle or late Miocene.
(Milsom, 1985). Metamorphism has been generally Immediately after the collision, in the late
most intense along the outer mountain range of Miocene, subduction in the Solomon Arc has been
the former trough and consists of two types: reversed to face south or southwestward (Coleman
high-temperature Ambunti metamorphics in the and Packham, 1976; Dunkley, 1983). The arc con-
north, and high-pressure/low-temperature Gfug sists of three provinces: the Pacific, central and
gneiss, locally developed near changes of strike in volcanic provinces (Coleman, 1970) neverthless
a major transcurrent fault zone, in the south (Dow Coulson (1985) has suggested that all the pro-
et al., 1972; Milsom, 1985). vinces should be considered as parts of the Pacific
In the north New Guinea province, the base- province. The eastern province is a marginal part
ment is composed of an early Tertiary igneous and of the Ontong-Java Plateau, as a result of the
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 289

collision, and has a basement of non-meta- Basin, behind the collision. The Vanuatu arc
morphosed oceanic basalt. The overlying sedi- volcanism is subdivided into three provinces; the
ments include chalky pelagic carbonates that range western belt of late Oligocene to middle Miocene
from the Cretaceous to Recent in age. These are age, the eastern belt of Mio-Pliocene age and the
oceanic sequences which were either abducted onto central chain, active from late Pliocene to Recent
the northwestern front of the Solomon Arc during time (Carney et al., 1985). There are no confirmed
the Miocene (Kroenke, 1972) or they were de- exposures of sub-arc basement beneath the arc-
formed and uplifted forearc deposits that have derived volcanic or elastic rock sequences in
accumulated within the Solomon Arc since the Vanuatu Islands. However, there exists an ophio-
early Oligocene (Coulson, 1985). The central part litic basement complex of peridotites and
is a by-product of collision characterized by in- serpentinized peridotites associated with amphibo-
tensely faulted pre-Miocene basic lavas, and asso- lite rafts, gabbro intrusions and metalavas. Its
ciated gabbros and dolerites, in part meta- field relationships suggest tectonic emplacement
morphosed to a low grade. They are overlain by a along the axis of a block faulted anticlinal struc-
varied sedimentary succession ranging in age from ture in the Mio-Pliocene arc volcanics. The com-
early Miocene to Holocene. Tholeiitic basalts of plex has been radiometrically dated as 35 to 36
late Oligocene to lower Miocene age, together with Ma. Andesite from Tones Islands is dated as 39 to
intrusive complexes of diorite, are recognized as 37 Ma, in apparent contradiction with the early
an initial phase of arc volcanism. The western Miocene micropaleontological ages obtained from
volcanic province forms a series of emergent nearby sedimentary sequences (Neef, 1982; Car-
volcanic islands and lava piles of subalkaline ney et al., 1985).
basalts and lesser andesites surrounded by varied Major faulting and intrusion occurred in the
sediments of volcaniclastic and biogenic origin. western belt and coarse elastic sediments were
The arc volcanism dates from the Eocene and deposited in the eastern part of the arc in the
volcanism related to the present day subduction middle Miocene. Uplift and erosion are remarka-
constitutes a second phase, from the early Miocene ble in the western belt in the middle-late Miocene.
to Recent time (Dunkley, 1983; Coulson, 1985). This period coincides with the onset of spreading
The absence of allochthonous continental in the North Fiji Basin. Unconformities and/or
material in the geological column indicates that lithologic changes from arc-derived volcaniclastics
the Solomon Islands have evolved in an entirely to mudstones exist in the eastern and western
oceanic environment, and for much of its history belts in the late Miocene. Major vertical move-
havedeveloped through the interaction between ments occurred along the western belt and in the
the India-Australian and Pacific Plates (Coulson, backarc zone in the late Pliocene. Volcanism also
1985). Tectonism resulting in widespread meta- occurred in this period in the central chain.
morphism, thrusting and shuffling of basement
blocks and the emplacement of ultrabasic thrust Tonga Arc
sheets, is considered to be in response to the
initiation of southwesterly subduction of the The basement of the Tonga Arc is considered
Pacific Plate (Dunkley, 1983). to be composed of pre-late Eocene lavas, volcanic
breccias and conglomerates associated with tuffs
Vanuatu Arc and dikes; the composition includes high-alumina
theoleiite, basaltic andesite, quartz gabbro, olivine
The Vanuatu (New Hebrides) Arc is also char- basalt and dacitic tuff (Ewart and Bryan, 1972;
acterized by collision of the Ontong-Java Plateau Tongilava and Kroenke, 1975). Dikes consist of
in the Miocene and the subsequent reversal of arc acidic andesite. The lowest unit resting on base-
polarity. The modern arc also suffered collision of ment is an upper Eocene tuffaceous and for-
the D’Entrecasteaux Ridge from the west, result- aminiferal limestone, suggesting that volcanism
ing in the formation of a deep basin, the Aoba may have been episodic during the late Eocene
290 E. HONZA

(Sterns, 1971). The deep-water carbonates overlie The Eocene volcanic basement of Eua Island is
the above mentioned deposits and are in turn considered to have been formed as part of the
overlain locally by a thick sedimentary wedge, ocean floor extruded from a fissure-type rift zone.
partly of late Eocene age but mostly of middle to The over-all chemistry and mineralogy suggest
late Oligocene age. The next unit overlies the two close similarities with the volcanic and mafic
units of the Eocene tuffaceous limestone and the plutonic components of an ophiolite complex
Oligocene deep-water carbonates conformably. (Fisher and Engel, 1969; Ewart and Bryan, 1972;
This unit is thought to represent the final stage of Sharaskin et al., 1983). However, the concentra-
quite deep-water Oligocene carbonate sedimenta- tion of rare earths (Zr, Rb and Cr) in the volcanics
tion, admixed with elastic debris following uplift is very low (Bryan et al., 1972). Subduction is
of the frontal arc. One more unit overlieing the considered to have occurred in association with
Oligocene deep-water carbonate is limestone con- uplift of the Tonga forearc in the middle to late
taining bedded volcanic tuffs. This debris is indi- Oligocene (Kroenke and Tongilava, 1975). The
cative of a period of submergence (Kroenke and Eua igneous suite evidently represents a very early
Tongilava, 1975). Miocene and early Pliocene stage of arc evolution, similar to the development
volcanism centered along a line extending from in the Bonin and Mariana Arcs.
Tongatapu north-northeast to Vavau. Pliocene to The stratigraphies of the arcs which have devel-
Recent volcanic activity shifted westward ap- oped along the western margin of the Pacific Plate
proximately 50 km to the Tofua Ridge. and which might once have formed a continuous

BONIN MARIANA HALMAHERA N. NEW GUINEA SOLOMON VANUATU TONGA

‘OLCA-’ VOL.

7
IICS
‘OLCA- MARIANA

JIGS / LIMESTON IE -

.----- MBOLI
LIMESTONE,
UMATAC LIMESTONE SANDSTONE
ONAT
_-
VOLCANI-
I
CLASTICS &
’ MARL LIME-
LIMESTONE VOLCANICS
G;
.----- 0 1
$1 STONE
_------
25 vllNAMIZAKI LS. 1
s!
VOLCANI-
30 Y CLASTICS
8
: ALUTOM
35
VOLCANICS
SEKIMON LS.
8 CLASTICS
40 8 VOLCANICS

OKIMURA SS. FACPI LAVA

45 y
YUSAN V. & SS.
: -----
50 w
GELEDONGAN

55
LIMESTONE
!e?
60 .------
6
4 DODAGA
65 BRECCIA
,4

Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the arcs in the Tertiary Arc Chain in the Western Pacific. Most of the stratigraphies are based on the
geological data in the ridges which form islands and some of them are based on both the onshore and offshore data.
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 291

Tertiary Arc Chain are summarized in Fig. 2. It is Ages of backarc basins

difficult to compile all of the arc stratigraphies
into a single column. Some of them are based on The Tertiary Arc Chain in the Western Pacific
both onshore and offshore information, however, is associated with backarc basins and microplates.
most of them are derived from onshore ridges in Arc activity may be deduced from the evolution of
which we can expect the arc’s older history and backarc basins. The ages of the onset of arc
volcanic evolution to be exposed. In some of the volcanism and the ages of the backarc basins are
arcs, only younger deposits are exposed. Also there shown in Fig. 3. Some of the backarc basins and
are other possible interpretations of their stratigra- microplates in the Western Pacific rim are located
phies. Recent radiometric age determinations are immediately on the inner side of the Tertiary Arc
refining the correlations. Despite limited informa- Chain facing the Pacific Plate, while others are
tion, it appears that most of the arcs described more distant and separated from the arc by
here commenced their activity in the middle younger backarc basins. The ages of backarc basins
Eocene or early Oligocene. Exceptions are the can be determined by the identification of mag-
Halmahera, North New Guinea and Vanuatu Arcs. netic anomaly patterns, DSDP drilling and sam-
Earlier volcanics in the Halmahera and North pling of basement, and by the ages of the sur-
New Guinea Arcs may be products of older arcs. rounding ridges.
The older volcanics of the western Central Orogen The Tasman Basin opened between about 82
of Irian Jaya have not yet been divided on the Ma and 60 Ma as revealed by magnetic data
basis of their age. The Vanuatu Arc has no evi- (Hayes and Ringis, 1973; Weissel and Hayes,
dence of Eocene arc volcanism. However, Eocene 1977). The Coral Basin opened between 62 Ma
basement exposed on Fiji (Dickinson, 1967) and and 56 Ma (Weissel and Watts, 1979). These are
Tonga is suspected to exist within the volcanic relict basins, seperated from presently active arcs
ridge of Vanuatu, which may formerly have been by younger basins, and are considered to have
adjacent to an older frontal arc along the Vitiaz remained fixed within the India-Australia Plate
Trench (Carney et al., 1985). since the early Tertiary (Fig. 3).

BACKARC BASIN ABSOLUTE AGE N Ma

OR MICROPLATE

SHIKOKU-
W. MARIANA
MARIANA T. - -
10 20

___-
30

MARIANA
40

SONIN ARC
ARC -
4
50 60

1
W. PHILIPPINE --

MOLUCCA ? HALMAHERA ARC cl

E. I W. CAROLINE
N. NEW GUINEA -
BISMARCK
W. MELANESIA ARC _
SOLOMON ____OR__

SOLOMON ARC -
WOOOLARK

N. FIJI _- VANUATU ARC c- - - .I

LAU TONGA ARC c(

S. FIJI -_

N. LOYALTY

CORAL

TASMAN

Fig. 3. Ages of occurrence of the arcs and associated backarc basins of the Tertiary Arc Chain. Arrows indicate arcs, lines indicate
basins.
292 Fe.HONZA

The South Fiji Basin opened by spreading sur- The North Fiji Basin is postulated to have
rounding a RRR triple junction between either 35 opened since the late Miocene (Falvey, 1978;
Ma and 29 Ma (Watts et al., 1977a, 1977b), 36 Ma Malahoff et al., 1982a). This is supported by rota-
and 25.5 Ma (Malahoff et al., 1982a) or between tion of the Fiji and Vanuatu Islands observed in
34 Ma and 27 Ma (Davey, 1982) depending on paleomagnetic studies (Malahoff et al., 1982b).
magnetic pattern interpretations. The North Prior to spreading within the North Fiji Basin, the
Loyalty (South New Hebrides) Basin can be traced arc was evidently located above the convergence
northwestward from the South Fiji Basin. How- zone of the Pacific Plate beneath the India-
ever, the age of this basis is thought to be older Australian Plate. Inception of the backarc basin
than the South Fiji Basin. Here, the magnetic formation was triggered by a reversal of the arc
anomaly lineations trend NE-SW and are inter- polarity to its present west-facing subduction along
preted to be 55 Ma to 42 Ma in age with increas- with subsequent migration with rotation of
ing crustal ages to the north (Weissel et al., 1982b). Vanuatu to the southwest.
Most of the southern North Loyalty Basin and the The Bismarck (Manus), Woodlark, North Fiji
northern South Fiji Basin have been consumed and Lau Basins are modern basins with active
under the Vanuatu Arc to the northeast. The spreading centers associated with the Bismarck,
North Loyalty Basin is bounded on its northern Trobriand, Vanuatu and Tonga Arcs respectively.
margin by the D’Entracasteaux and Torres Ridges. Both the Bismarck and Woodlark Basins have
The southwestern South Fiji Basin is thought to opened since 3.5 Ma (Milsom, 1970; Luyendyk et
be subducting under the Three Rings Rise (Watts al., 1973; Taylor, 1979; Weissel et al., 1982a).
et al., 1977a; Malahoff et al., 1982a). However, the The West and East Caroline Basins are consid-
Three Rings Arc might be facing westward erd to form a separate Caroline Plate from the
(Kroenke and Eade, 1982). This arc apparently Pacific Plate (Bracey and Anderson, 1974;
originated due to the subduction of the Norfolk Hergarty et al., 1983). The age of the basins has
Basin. been interpreted from magnetic anomalies (Bracey,
The Solomon Sea Basin is being consumed on 1975) re-identified to be between 34-29 Ma in
both its north and south sides (Honza et al.. 1987; age (Weissel and Anderson.1978). The Caroline
Lock et al., 1987). Magnetic anomalies are identi- Plate bounds the Pacific Plate along the obliquely
fied ranging from 34 Ma to 28 Ma for the case of extensional Sorol Trough and the compressional
the northern limb of the spreading axis and from Mussau Trench. The Ayu Rift is considered to
39 Ma to 36 Ma for the case of the southern limb have opened since the mid-Miocene forming the
(Joshima et al.. 1987). Ayu Trough along the western margin of the
The position of the spreading axis of the Lau Caroline Plate. The southern boundary of the
Basin has not yet been established, neverthless Caroline Plate is being subducted under the North
several models have been proposed (Karig, 1970; New Guinea belt.
Sclater et al., 1972; Hawkins, 1974; Lawvers et al., There are many interpretations for the age of
1976; Weissel, 1977; Falvey 1978; Cherkis, 1980; the West Philippine Basin on the basis of mag-
Eguchi, 1984). The oldest oceanic-type crust is netic anomaly pattern. The age is still prob-
probably of early Pliocene age (Coleman and lematic. A model of entrapment of Mesozoic or
Packham. 1976). Changes in volcanism in Fiji Paleocene lithosphere by the formation of a new
between 8 Ma and 5 Ma end with the cessation of subduction zone along a transform fault or frac-
typical arc andesite volcanism at about 3 Ma (Gill ture zone has been proposed (Hilde et al., 1977:
et al.. 1984) and uplift of the Tonga forearc at Watts et al., 1977b: Matsuda, 1979; Shih, 1980:
about 5-4 Ma (Scholl et al., 1985) may indicate Mrozowski et al., 1982; Ben-Avraham and Uyeda,
the initial rifting of the Lau Basin. Opening of the 1983; Hilde and Lee, 1984). This entrapment was
Lau Basin is thought to have commenced at about followed by a phase of opening along the axis of
4 Ma (Malahoff et al., 1982a,b). the Central Basin Fault between 45 and 35 Ma or
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 293

40 and 26 Ma. A model has also been proposed Mesozoic arcs is suggested by arc volcanism and
which suggests that the West’ Philippine Basin ophiolites in the Central Orogenic Belt of New
opened as a backarc basin associated with an arc Guinea, the Rangitata and Northland (Kaikoura)
on the northeast side (Kobayashi and Isezaki, orogenies in New Caledonia and in New Zealand
1976; Seno and Maruyama, 1984) or on the south- (Brothers, 1972; Crook and Feary, 1982; Milsom
west side (Lewis et al., 1982) with the opening of 1985; Paris and Lille, 1977). The Mesozoic arcs
the basin between 50 Ma and 42 Ma or between ceased their activity by the Paleocene to early
46 Ma and 40 Ma. A model of one-limb opening Oligocene and new arcs, the Tertiary Arc Chains
of the basin based on the identification of anoma- formed on the northern or eastern side of the
lies as 134 Ma to 108 Ma in age has also been Mesozoic arcs along the western margin of the
proposed (Watts et al., 1977b). Pacific Plate.
Basement rocks and sediments resting upon the It is suggested that the Mariana, Yap, Solomon,
basement obtained by DSDP drilling in the West Vanuatu and Tonga Arcs developed in the Eocene
Philippine Basin show basement ages between 49 to early Oligocene within mid-oceanic crust. How-
Ma and 42 Ma (Karig, Ingle et al., 1975; Ozima et ever, there are no remnant or trapped oceanic
al., 1977). Their ages and the distribution of sam- basins on the backarc sides of these arcs, except
pled sites support the hypothesis that the West possibly the older oceanic West Philippine Basin.
Philippine Basin opened with two-limb spreading This suggests that most of arcs in the Tertiary Arc
in the early Tertiary (Hilde and Lee, 1984; Seno Chain formed near the former Mesozoic arcs or at
and Maruyama, 1984). The West Philippine Basin, the continental margins at the western and south-
which has an average depth of 6, km, is more than western margins of the Pacific Plate.
1 km deeper than other oceanic basins according Several calculations have been proposed for the
to the relationship of depth and age determined movements of the major plates (Johnson and
by Sclater et al. (1976). This is the reason for the Molnar, 1972; Minster et al., 1974; Minster and
suggestion that the West Philippine Basin is of Jordan, 1978; Engebretson et al., 1985; Gordon
Cretaceous age. However, other basins in the and Jurdy, 1986). The calculations by Engebretson
Philippine Sea which have younger ages, are also et al. (1985) are preferred for the reconstruction of
deeper by more than 1 km (Louden, 1980). the Tertiary Arc Chain, the plate motions of the
The Shikoku Basin opened either between 30 Pacific, India-Australian and Eurasia plates and
Ma and 22 Ma (Kobayashi and Nakada, 1979) or their interactions.
27 Ma and 19 Ma (Watts et al., 1977b). The
Parece Vela (West Mariana) Basin opened be- Reconstruction in the Late Eocene
tween 30 Ma and 18-17 Ma (Mrozowski and
Hayes, 1979). The Mariana Trough has been ac- Two types of model are postulated for the
tively spreading since 3 Ma (Karig et al., 1975) or evolution of the West Philippine, Shikoku and
since the latest Miocene (Bibee et al., 1980; Hus- West Mariana Basins. A model of the approxi-
song and Uyeda, 1981). These basins opened on mately fixed position of the Bonin and Mariana
the eastern side of the West Philippine Basin Arcs during their development since the Eocene
associated with the subduction of the Pacific Plate requires the entrapment of the normal oceanic
under the Bonin and Mariana arcs. crust of the West Philippine Basin. However, ages
of basement rocks in the basin and paleomagnetic
Reconstruction of the Tertiary Arc Chain data from the Bonin and Mariana islands seem to
support trench retreat to the northeast (Seno and
The stratigraphy of the Tertiary Arc Chain in Maruyama, 1984) without any consideration
the Western Pacific suggests that most of arcs whether there was entrapment of the older oceanic
have formed since the Eocene, although some arcs basin or not (Fig. 4A). The paleolatitude of the
existed west of the Tertiary Arc Chain during the West Philippine Basin was 5 “S-10”s in the
Mesozoic and earliest Tertiary. The existence of Eocene (Louden, 1977; Kinoshita, 1980). The
294 E. HONZA

I I
1500 1600 1eoa 18’00

MIDDLE EOCENE EARLY OLIGOCENE

+( 45 Ma I + +(35Ma) +
30 N

t +X + oo-

I
MARIANA

ARC

‘1,/ PROTO -
SOLOMON

LATEST OLIGOCENE MIDDLE MIOCENE

+ (25 Ma 1 + +(15Ma) + _

00 + +Y +
HACMAHERA
ARC f CAROUJE SASNS ’ \
\

Fig. 4. Reconstruction of the Tertiary Arc Chain since its occurrence in the late Eocene and earliest Oligocene. Barbed
line = subduction; open triangle = inactive; double line = spreading axis; straight line = transform fault; broken and dotted lines =
possible buried traces of these features; thick arrows = major plate movement.
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 295

Bonin and Mariana Arcs have rotated 30-90 the northern margin of Australia in the earliest
clockwise since the Eocene and Oligocene (Louden, Oligocene. This arc is characterized by high-tem-
1977; Kodama et al., 1983; McCabe and Uyeda, perature metamorphism in the north and high-
1983) although Fuller et al. (1980) suggested a pressure/low-temperature metamorphism in the
smaller rotation. The alternative argument is that south (Dow et al., 1972). This suggests that there
these are local rotations. had been an arc with subduction toward the north
On the basis of these data, the Bonin and the in pre-Oligocene time involving the subduction of
Mariana Arcs formed in the Eocene in a tropical an oceanic basin and formation of a suture zone.
area and extended NW-SE. The northern Bonin This suture zone may be traced as the Central
Arc might have formed first with subduction to- Orogenic Belt from Irian Jaya to Papua Peninsula
ward the south. Most of the northern Bonin Arc and possibly to the Woodlark Ridge. After the
has subsequently been consumed below the Eura- collision along the Central Orogenic Belt of New
sian Plate. The Mariana Arc seems to have formed Guinea in the earliest Oligocene, a reversal of arc
along a transform fault which had been developed polarity occurred and the Solomon Sea Basin
earlier during the formation of the West Philip- opened on its southern side.
pine Basin (Fig. 4A, B). Reconstructions of the The Caroline, Solomon and South Fiji Basins
West Philippine Basin suggest an older basin in opened in this stage or a little later. An arc associ-
the southern margin of the basin (Hilde et al., ated with the Loyalty Basin, which had subduc-
1977; Taylor and Hayes, 1983; McCabe and Cole, tion toward the northwest, ceased its activity and
1987). new subduction started toward the west, forming
Arc volcanism has been active since the middle and linking the Fiji-Tonga-Kermadec Arcs.
Eocene in the eastern North New Guinea Arc and
has been active since the late Cretaceous or Reconstruction in the Latest Oligocene
Paleocene in the western North New Guinea Arc.
This arc was facing southward as may be deduced The Shikoku and the Parece Vela Basins began
from its metamorphism discussed in the next stage to open between the Kyushu-Palau Ridge and the
and may be traced eastward to the Solomon area, Bonin and Mariana Arcs in this period. These
despite the lack of evidence of a southward facing basins and the West Philippine Basin moved to-
arc in the area. There may also have been a ward the northwest accompanied by subduction
southeast facing arc in the southeast of the North along the Eurasia Plate. The Bonin and Mariana
Loyalty Basin that was an extension of this sys- Arcs moved eastward relative to the Yap, Palau
tem, although direct evidence is lacking. and Halmahera Arcs by the formation of these
Initiation of an arc facing toward the Pacific basins. The opening of the Parece Vela Basin did
Plate along the Fiji to Tonga trend is possible in not extend to the south in the Yap-Halmahera
the middle or late Eocene. The uplift of pre-late sector. The relationship of these basins to the
Eocene basement on Eua Island occurred at this cessation of opening in the West and East Caro-
time (Bryan et al., 1972; Kroenke and Tongilava, line Basins is not clear. Older basement in the
1975; Ballance et al., 1982). southwestern portion of the Halmahera Arc which
is considered to be the same sequence as those in
Reconstruction in the Early Oligocene New Guinea migrated westward along the left
lateral Sorong Faults (Hamilton, 1979; Bowin et
The openings of West Philippine Basin ceased al., 1978; Audley-Charles, 1981; Barber et al.,
during the Oligocene (Fig. 4B). The Bonin, 1981). The Eocene basement in the eastern belt of
Mariana, Yap, Palau and Halmahera Arcs were New Guinea is possibly the same sequence as is
aligned to form an arc chain. The West Philippine seen in the Yap and Mariana Arcs formed at the
Basin had its maximum area in this period. The initiation of subduction. The Solomon and South
Central Orogenic Belt of New Guinea seems to Fiji Basins ceased to open and had their maximum
have been formed by the collision of an arc with area in this period (Fig. 4C). The Oligocene North
296 F. HONZA

New Guinea-Melanesia Arc may be traced east- forming volcanic knolls on the backarc side of the
ward to the Bougainville and Woodlark Islands. Bonin Arc, finally forming discontinuous backarc
The same development is observed in the depressions. The Yap, Palau and Halmahera Arcs
Solomon-Tonga Arcs facing the Pacific Plate asso- were further segmented. There is no obvious arc
ciated with the maximum widths of the North associated with the formation of the West and
Loyalty and South Fiji Backarc Basins in this East Caroline Basins. A possibility is the Caroline
period. Ridge on the northern side of these basins. The
Caroline Basins may have been subducting north-
Reconstruction in the Middle Miocene ward beneath the Caroline Ridge.
The collision of the North New Guinea-West
The Shikoku and Parece Vela Basins ceased to Melanesia Arc occurred by the consumption of
open in the middle Miocene. The triple junction of the western part of the Solomon Sea Basin in the
the Bonin, Japan Trenches and the Nankai Trough middle to late Miocene times. This collision and
is approximately in the same position as at pres- the subsequent reversal of arc polarity resulted in
ent. the complicated structure of the North New
A little prior to this stage, new subduction Guinea-West Melanesia Arc to New Guinea
zones were established on the inner sides of the Mainland (Jaques and Robinson, 1977). A reversal
Solomon Sea and on the northeast side of the of arc polarity occurred in the eastern part of the
South Loyalty and Norfolk Basins. Subduction North New Guinea-West Melanesia, Solomon and
resulted in the Trobriand and Loyalty-Three Vanuatu Arcs by the collision of the Ontong-Java
Rings Arcs (Fig. 4D). The Trobriand Arc was Plateau in late Miocene time. The North Fiji
more active than the arc on the outer side as Basin opened immediately after the collision at
deduced from the extent of the volcanism. The about 8 to 10 Ma. In the later phase of the
Trobriand Arc may have extended throughout the consumption of the Solomon Sea Basin, the Bis-
north coast of New Guinea and the Woodlark marck and the Woodlark Basins began to open, at
Ridge along the whole southern margin of the about 3.5 Ma.
Solomon Sea Basin (Honza et al., 1987). The Three Three Rings Arc ceased its activity in response
Rings Arc may have extended from northern New to the cessation of the subduction of the Norfolk
Zealand to southeastern New Caledonia, bounded Basin from the west, and the Lau Basin has been
by the Cook Fracture one. The northern trace of opening since 3 or 4 Ma.
the arc is possibly the Loyalty Arc, which can be
traced northwestward along the northern side of
New Caledonia and the South Loyalty Basin Evolution of arcs and backarc basins
(Lapouille, 1977; Ballance et al., 1982; Malahoff
et al., 1982a; Kroenke and DuPont, 1982; Kroenke Occurrences of backarc basins are temporally
and Eade, 1982). It faced toward the west (Kroenke and spatially variable in the Tertiary Arc Chain of
and DuPont, 1982; Kroenke and Eade, 1982). The the Western Pacific, whereas arcs associated with
Loyalty-Three Rings Arc seems to have ceased its backarc basins seem to be continuously active for
activity by the reversal of the Vanuatu Arc polar- longer periods-tens of million years. Initiation of
ity, triggered by the collision of the Ontong-Java some of the arcs began in mid-oceanic environ-
Plateau on the outer side of the arc chain in the ments. In these cases trapped oceanic crust may
late Miocene or Pliocene. The age of the Norfolk exist in the backarc region. However, most of the
(Gazelle) Basin is unknown. backarc basins have been formed in association
with active arcs. Numerous studies have shown
Evolution from the Middle Miocene to Recent that backarc basins which form in association with
active arcs have some regular evolution (e.g. Watts
The Mariana Trough opened several million et al., 1977b; Scott and Kroenke, 1980; Honza,
years ago. Volcanic material was widely developed 1983; Hilde and Lee, 1984).
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 291

In the Tertiary Arc Chain, backarc spreading The Mariana Trough opened between 4 and 6
occurs approximately 15 m.y. after the initiation Ma, about 15 m.y. after the Parece Vela Basin
of arc volcanism. The Solomon Sea and South Fiji ceased opening at about 19 Ma. The Bismarck and
Basins developed 13 to 18 m.y. after the initiation Woodlark Basins commenced opening at about
of the North New Guinea-West Melanesia, 3.5 Ma, about 25-30 m.y. after the cessation of
Solomon and Tonga Arcs. The Bonin-Mariana opening in the Solomon Sea Basin. The North Fiji
Arcs and the Shikoku-Parece Vela Basins devel- Basin opened at about 10 Ma, 19 m.y. after the
oped approximately 16-18 m.y. after the initiation cessation of the opening in the South Fiji basin
of volcanism in the arcs. These relationships sug- which ceased its spreading at about 29 Ma. The
gest that the formation of backarc basins generally Lau Basin opened at about 4 Ma, about 25 m.y.
occurs 15 * 3 m.y. after the initial arc volcanism after the cessation of opening in the South Fiji
(Fig. 5). Most of the backarc basins seem to Basin. The Bismarck and the Woodlark Basins
remain active for several to 10 m.y. However opened on opposite sides of the older backarc
subsequent consumption of some backarc basins basin, and are considered to have opened as a
by subduction makes it difficult to determine their result of the collision between the North New
full age range. Exceptions to this approximate 10 Guinea-West Melanesia Arc and the New Guinea
m.y. limit are the Tasman and West Philippine mainland. The North Fiji Basin has the same
Basins which had spreading periods of 20 m.y. or history as the Bismarck and Woodlark Basins
more, are older than the Tertiary Arc Chain and having opened on the opposite side of the older
which have less clear arc associations. backarc basin. It is inferred that approximately

STAGE I COMMENCEMENT OF SUSDUCTION

STAGE A ON THE CASE OF COLLISION

REVERSAL OF ARC POLARITY

STAGE II 15 f 3 MY,. AFTER STAGE I

SACKARC SPREADING

STAGE S W,TH,N A FEW TO SEVEVERAL MYr. AFTER COLLISION

COMMENCEMENT OF SACKARK SPREADING

STAGE III SEVERAL - 10 MYr. mR STAGE II

CESSATION OF EACKARC SPREADING

I==‘I 4TH STAGE VOLCANICS

m SRD STAGE VOLCANICS

STAGE IV 20 + 5 MYr. AFTER STAGE ,I,
2ND PHASE SACKARC SPREADING
m 2ND STAGE VOLCANICS

IST STAGE VOLCANICS

SACKARC BASIN VOLCANICS

SEDIMENTS

CONTINENTAL BASEMENT

Fig. 5. Evolution of the Tertiary Arc Chain of the Western Pacific.

29X t. HONZA

20 k 5 m.y. after the cessation of backarc spread- Daito and Kyushu-Palau Ridges. The opening of
ing, a new backarc basin starts to form in the the West Philippine Basin might have then oc-
immidiate backarc region. In the case of arc colli- curred, following the Daito Arc collision, as the
sion, a new backarc basins starts to form im- initial backarc basin of the Bonin Arc in middle
mediately or within several million years on the Eocene time. The Mariana Arc may have subse-
opposite side of the older basin associated with quently initially developed along a transform fault
the reversal of arc polarity. When backarc basin is which extended from the southern Bonin Trench
formed after arc collision, it may be necessary for to the western margin of the North New Guinea
an oceanic basin on the opposite side to reverse Trench (Fig. 4A, B).
arc polarity. The Molucca Plate, which is presently being
consumed on both its east and west sides, was
possibly originally part of the West Philippine
Discussion Basin. Another possibility is that the Molucca
Plate was formed as a backarc basin of the
Several earlier reconstruction of the Western Halmahera Arc. In the latter case the basin may
Pacific have been proposed which attempt to ex- have approximately the same age range as the
plain the evolution of these arc-backarc basin Solomon Basin, as deduced from the finit duration
complexes. The reconstruction proposed here dif- of the formation of backarc basins.
fers in some respects from all of them, being based The formation of the Solomon, Vanuatu and
primarily on volcanic history, collisions and polar- Tonga Arcs is possibly a consequence of the colli-
ity reversal, plus the apparent systematic timing of sion and subsequent cessation of activity in the
backarc basin developed in relationship to arc west facing Rangitata and Noarthland Arcs. East-
volcanism. ward subduction and related arc volcanism in
In the Eocene, the arcs of the Western Pacific New Caledonia ceased in the late Eocene (Paris
were arranged in a general NW-SE direction (Fig. and Lille, 1977). Following collision and reversal
4A). Since the change of the Pacific Plate motion of subduction polarity, a new arc developed that is
at about 42-43 Ma (Morgan, 1972; Clague and considered to be the initiatial stage of the modern
Jarrard, 1973; Molnar and Stock, 1987), the north- Solomon, Vanuatu and Tonga Arcs.
ern and southern Arc Chains have tended to evolve The origin of the West and East Caroline Basins
to a more N-S direction and be accompanied by is problematic. The Caroline Ridge to the north of
the formation of backarc basins, while the these basins might have been an arc behind which
Melanesia-New Guinea part of the system has the West and East Caroline Backarc Basins were
remained oriented generally NW-SE and involved formed. Seno (1985) proposed the North New
a complex history of collision and backarc basin Guinea Plate located on the southwestern side of
formation. the Pacific Plate, separated by ridge and transform
The Daito Paleo-Arc is considered to have been fault boundaries. In this case the Caroline Basins
active in pre-Eocene time (Mizuno et al., 1978; are possibly parts of the North New Guinea Plate,
Klein et al., 1980). Prior to the formation of the originally formed behind the North New Guinea
Bonin Arc and the West Philippine Basin, the Arc.
paleo-position of the Daito Arc might be just west Initial rifting to form backarc basins is consid-
of the North New Guinea Arc as deduced from ered to be slow, followed by rapid spreading.
subduction rates in the northwestern trenches. The Therefore the initial age of rifting may be much
Daito Arc most likely faced southward as a west- older than the age of a backarc basin as de-
ern trace of the North New Guinea Arc. The termined by magnetic lineations and basement
Bonin Arc was possibily formed by the reversal of ages. Backarc rifting seems to occur immediately
the Daito Arc polarity as a result of collision of on the backarc side of the volcanic chain. A
the Daito Arc with other arc or thick crustal spreading center subsequently develops which
structures. Small basins remained between the generally produces symetrical spreading.
THE TERTIARY ARC CHAIN IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC 299

Clearly, the developments of backarc basins are The Tertiary Arc Chain is characterized by four
closely associated in time and space with subduc- major stages. The first stage is the formation of
tion and volcanic arc processes. The formation of the arc chain from the middle Eocene to earlest
backarc basins is a phenomenon that occurs sub- Oligocene; the second stage is the formation of the
sequent to subduction and arc volcanism, and is backarc basins from the early to late Oligocene;
caused by the formation of a tensional field in the the third stage is the occurrence of double arcs on
immediate backarc region. If the tensional field is the inner side of the arc chain and the fourth stage
caused by the interaction of the surrounding plates is the reversal of arc polarities due to collision.
or by the gravitational pull of the subducted slab, Backarc basins associated with the Tertiary Arc
the formation of the backarc basin is a regional Chain display considerable regularity in their
problem. However, it is necessary to explain their duration of formation and their characteristics.
regular period of active formation. One possibility Initial backarc basin formation generally follows
is that maturation of the arc is required to initiate initial arc volcanism by 15 m.y. Several to 10 m.y.
backarc basin formation. Cessation of backarc after this opening, backarc spreading terminates.
formation may not be controlled by the matured A second phase of opening may occur approxi-
arc on account of its distance to the spreading mately 20 m.y. after the cessation of the initial
center (Karig, 1971). Another possibility is that backarc spreading episode. In the case of arc
arc volcanism and backarc formation are episodic collision, a reversal of arc polarity takes place. If
(Scott and Kroenke, 1980; Honza, 1983). In these oceanic crust exists on the backarc side, the open-
cases, there may be tensional field over the back- ing of a backarc basin appears to occur im-
arc region to form backarc basin. mediately or within several million years. These
Backarc basins without modem spreading in- occurrences and durations for activities may vary
clude the Japan, Kuril and Aleutian Basins which by ca. 3-5 m.y.
are not active, are associated with the modem
Tohoku, Kuril and Aleutian Arcs. These backarc
Acknowledgements
basins and their associated arcs appear to have
experienced different tectonic histories. The Bonin
I would like to thank A.J. Barber for his helpful
Arc, which has depressions immediately on the
suggestions on the geology of Halmahera and his
backarc side of the volcanic chain, may be an
critical reading of the manuscript. I would like to
intermediate arc between the northern and south-
thank T. Seno for his helpful suggestions on the
em arc chains.
plate movements and his critical reading of the
manuscript. I would like to thank T.W.C. Hilde
Conclusion
for his critical reading of the manuscript.

The arcs facing the Pacific Plate in the western

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