List of Experiments

Experiment No.1 Introduction to Electrical Transient Analyzer and Program (ETAP).

Experiment No.2 Load Flow Analysis with two generators, slack bus and different types of
loads.

Experiment No.3 Short circuit analysis using Electrical Transient Analyzer and Program
(ETAP).

Experiment No.4 Selection of power cables depending upon cable construction, Cable Ratings
and shielding requirements for a given power system using ETAP

Experiment No.5 Symmetrical/Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis using ETAP

Experiment No.6 Implementation of ZBus Building Algorithm in MATLAB

Experiment No.7 Formulation of the YBus of given Power System Network using
MATLAB
Experiment No.8 Formulation of the ZBus of given Power System Network using MATLAB

Experiment No.9 BUS elimination techniques for a BUS system using MATLAB

Experiment No.10 Load Flow Analysis using Gauss-Seidel Method in MATLAB

Experiment No.11 Load Flow Analysis using Newton-Raphson Method in MATLA

Experiment No.12 To evaluate VOLTAGES for a 4-bus system using node eq. in MATLAB
 Tool Required in Lab

Experiments 1-5 Electrical Transient Analyzer and Program (ETAP ver:16)

Experiments 6-12 MathWorks MATLAB R2020a v9.8 (x64)

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 LAB REPORT 1
ETAP introduction:
ETAP is a true 64-bit program developed for Microsoft® Windows® 2008 R2 (SP1), 2012/R2, 7
(SP1), 8/8.1, 10 operating systems. This demo is fully interactive and allows you to make changes
to the one-line diagram, run system studies, graphically review study results just like the full,
commercial release of the program. It gives you the opportunity to explore the many features and
capabilities of ETAP including Arc Flash, Load Flow, AC/DC Short-Circuit (Refer to the demo
restrictions document for a full list of capabilities).

Product description:
ETAP is a fully graphical electrical power system analysis program that runs on Microsoft®
Windows® 2008 R2 (SP1), 2012/R2, 7 (SP1), 8/8.1, 10 operating systems. In addition to the
standard offline simulation modules, ETAP can utilize real-time operating data for Monitoring &
Simulation, optimization, and high-speed intelligent load shedding. However, only offline
simulation modules are included in the ETAP Demo.
ETAP has been designed and developed by engineers for engineers to handle the diverse discipline
of power systems in one integrated package with multiple interface views such as:

• AC and DC Networks
• Cable Raceways
• Ground Grid Systems
• GIS
• Panel Systems
• Protective Device Coordination/Selectivity
• Control System Diagrams.
ETAP allows you to work directly with graphical one-line diagrams, underground cable raceway
systems, three-dimensional cable systems, advanced time-current coordination and selectivity
plots, geographic information system schematics (GIS), three-dimensional ground grid systems.
The program has been designed according to three key concepts:

Virtual Reality Operation:

The program operation resembles real electrical system operation as closely as possible. For
example, when you open or close a circuit breaker, place an element out of service, or change the
operating status of motors, the de-energized elements and subsystems are indicated on the oneline
diagram in gray. ETAP incorporates new concepts for determining protective device coordination
directly from the one-line diagram.

Total Integration of Data:

ETAP combines the electrical, logical, mechanical, and physical attributes of system elements in
the same database. For example, a cable not only contains data representing its electrical properties
and physical dimensions, but also information indicating the raceways through which it is routed.
Thus, the data for a single cable can be used for load flow or short-circuit analyses

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(which require electrical parameters and connections) as well as cable ampacity derating
calculations (which require physical routing data). This integration of the data provides consistency
throughout the system and eliminates multiple data entry for the same element. Simplicity in
Data Entry:
ETAP keeps track of the detailed data for each electrical apparatus. Data editors can speed up the
data entry process by requiring the minimum data for a particular study. To achieve this, we have
structured the property editors in the most logical manner for entering data for different types of
analysis or design.
ETAP’s one-line diagram supports a number of features to assist you in constructing networks of
varying complexities. For example, each element can individually have varying orientations, sizes,
and display symbols (IEC or ANSI). The one-line diagram also allows you to place multiple
protective devices between a circuit branch and a bus. ETAP provides you with a variety of options
for presenting or viewing your electrical system. These views are called presentations. The
location, size, orientation, and symbol of each element can be different in each presentation.
Additionally, protective devices and relays can be displayed (visible) or hidden (invisible) for any
particular presentation. For example, one presentation can be a relay view where all protective
devices are displayed. Another presentation may show a one line diagram with some circuit
breakers shown and the rest hidden (a layout best suited for load flow results). Among ETAP’s
most powerful features are the composite network and motor elements. Composite elements allow
you to graphically nest network elements within themselves to an arbitrary depth. For example, a
composite network can contain other composite networks, providing the capability to construct
complex electrical networks while still maintaining a clean, uncluttered diagram that displays what
you want to emphasize - yet the next level of system detail is within easy reach of your mouse.
Power is at your fingertips. We consider ETAP to be the foremost-integrated database for electrical
systems, allowing you to have multiple presentations of a system for different analysis or design
purposes.

Program Features:
• Five levels of automatic error checking
• Dynamic help line and error messaging
• Message logger to track program usage and access
• Multiple user access levels
• Automatic one-line creation
• Automatic equipment connection mode
• Automated selection of available pins
• Auto connection to closest highlighted element
• Auto Disconnect & Reconnect
• ODBC (open database connectivity) - use SQL
• Manages maintenance data via info, remarks, and comment pages
• Multi-user Management of Project Merge for a single project
• Parallel ETAP project development
• Self-contained snapshots of the parent & branch projects
• Merge Base, Revision Data & TCCs Views

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 • Merge independent ETAP project files
• Integrated 1-phase, 3-phase, and DC systems
• Integrated one-line diagram and underground raceway systems
• Integrated one-line diagram and device coordination/selectivity module
• Common database for all studies
• Simplicity in data entry
• Multiple sub-systems and swing machines
• User-controlled auto save and transaction
• User-controlled default settings for all components
• Typical data for motors, generators, transformers, reactors, governors, and exciters
• Individual LTC time delays (initial and operating)
• No voltage limitations
• Unlimited protective and metering device connections to branches and loads
• Unlimited load connections to a single bus
• Any system frequency
• English and metric unit systems
• 25-character component IDs
• Raw manufacturer data entry
• Individual and global load demand and diversity factors
• Temperature sensitive cable resistance for all studies
• Element navigator
• Lumped loading Getting Started Product Description 6 ETAP Demo
• Equipment cables for loads, eliminating requirement for terminal buses
• Edited by and checked by data stamping
• Date stamping of all data changes
• Intelligent editors with user-defined data fields
• Analysis-dependent data entry requirements
• Multiple user network support
• Compatible database with ETAP Real-Time for real-time monitoring, simulation, and
supervisory control
• Toolbar accessible Preferences pane for preference modification while ETAP is running
• License borrowing.
• ETAP License Manager Configuration Utility
• Keyless network licensing One-line diagrams:
ETAP provides an easy to use fully Graphical User Interface (GUI) for constructing one-line
diagrams. Here you can graphically add, delete, relocate, connect elements, zoom in or out, display
grid off or on, change element size, orientation, change symbols, change equipment/device color,
create personalized viewing themes, hide or show protective devices, enter properties, set operating
status etc.

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 When you create a new one line diagram presentation, you are initially in Edit Mode with
configuration status set to Normal, default condition. Grid and Continuity Check are both switched
off. If you open an existing one line diagram presentation, it opens with all attributes set that were
saved last, i.e., mode (Edit, Flow, Load, Short-Circuit, Motor Starting, etc.), configuration status,
displays options, view size, and view location as the initial condition.
ETAP’s electrical system diagram is a one-line representation of a balanced three-phase system.
This one-line diagram is the starting point for all of your studies. You can graphically construct
your electrical system by connecting the buses, branches, motors, generators, and protective devices
in any order from the One-Line Diagram Edit toolbar. You can connect elements to buses
graphically (by dragging lines from the device element) or by using the Info page of the Device
Property Editor (double-click on the element and its property editor will open). Using these editors,
you can assign the engineering properties of the element, such as its ratings, settings, loading,
connection, etc. You can also elect to set the defaults for each element prior to placing them in the
one-line diagram to minimize the time required for data entry. One-line diagram Features:
• Unlimited one-line diagram presentations
• Single phase system (2 or 3 wires)
• Panel systems
• Unlimited status configurations/scenarios (switching devices motors loads etc.)
• Multiple engineering properties (base and revision data)
• 3-D database
• Data manager
• Integrated ground grid systems
• Multiple loading categories with individual percent loading • Unlimited one-line diagram
nested for sub-systems, MCCS, etc.
• Simultaneous view of one-line diagram presentation
• Simultaneous view of system configuration
• Simultaneous view of different study results
• Phase adapters to convert from three phase to mixed single phase networks
• One-line templates
• Auto-Build
• Automatic bus/node insertion
• Circuit tracing
• Find elements from editors
• Graphical Auto Select
• Graphical symbol selection
• Symbol library
• ActiveX (programmable objects)
• Drag and drop, cut and paste, undo and redo, zooming etc.
• Built-in ETAP CAD system
• XML data exchange
• Export one-line diagrams to third party CAD systems via. dxf and metafile formats
• Import OLE objects (text, pictures, spreadsheets, GIS maps, etc.)

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 • Import ASCII project files.
• Built-in conversions for Siemens PSS®E, EasyPower®, SKM® Dapper® & CAPTORTM.
• Execute external programs.
• Customizable graphical display of results annotations
• Customizable graphical display of nameplate data annotations
• Interchangeable ANSI and IEC element symbols
• Multiple sizing and rotation of element symbols
• Multi-color symbols and annotations
• Supports True Type fonts
• Hide and show protective devices per presentation.
• Remote connectors for better one-line diagram layout
• Graphical operation (open/close) of switching devices in edit or study modes.
• Dynamic continuity check shows deenergized devices as “semi-transparent” images and
graphically displays current system configuration.
• Configuration manager to easily compare open/close status for all switching devices.
• Display of fixed tap and load tap changer (LTC) positions on the one-line diagram.
• Direct device coordination from the one-line diagram
• Build elementary diagrams within the same project and integrate with one-line diagram.
• Comprehensive printing/plotting capabilities
• Individual and global section of elements, objects, and composites
• Schedule manager for system components (input data)
• Customizable output reports (Crystal Reports) with find functionality.
• Categorized output report manager for Crystal Reports
• Access database output reports
• Crystal Reports for library data
• Comprehensive summary reports
• Customizable output plots
• Report status of loads and protective devices for all configurations
• System dumpster with unlimited cells for storage and retrieval of deleted components
• Resizable, floating/attachable toolbars for each study
• Keyboard Shortcuts

3-D Database:
ETAP organizes an electrical system into a single project. Within this project, ETAP creates three
major system components:

• Presentations Unlimited, independent graphical presentations of the one-line diagram that

represent design data for any purpose (such as impedance diagram, study results, or plot
plan).
• Configuration Unlimited, independent system configurations that identify the status of
switching devices (open and closed), motors and loads (continuous, intermittent, and spare),

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 generator operating modes (swing, voltage control, reactive power control, power factor
control) and MOVs (open, closed, throttling, and spare).
• Revision Data Base Data and unlimited Revision Data IDs that keep track of the changes
and modifications to the engineering properties (for example, nameplate or settings) of
elements.
These three system components are organized in an orthogonal fashion to provide great power and
flexibility in constructing and manipulating your ETAP project. Using this concept of Presentation,
Status Configuration, and Revision Data, you can create numerous combinations of networks of
diverse configurations and varying engineering properties that allow you to fully investigate and
study the behavior and characteristics of the electrical networks using one database. This means
that you do not need to copy your database for different system configurations, “What If” studies,
etc. ETAP relies on a three-dimensional
database concept to implement all
Presentations, Configurations, and Base and
Revision Data. The use of this
multidimensional database concept allows you
to independently select a particular
Presentation, Configuration Status, or Revision
Data within the same project database.

These selections can be used in conjunction

with multiple loading categories and multiple
study cases to quickly and efficiently perform
system design and analysis, while avoiding
inadvertent data discrepancies created when
multiple copies of a single project file are used
to maintain a record of various system changes.

Revision Data:
Revision Data is the third orthogonal system component provided by ETAP. The engineering data
associated with the elements in your project are stored in the project database. ETAP provides
ready access to an unlimited number of unique engineering Revision Data associated with each
element. ETAP establishes a revision level of zero for the data used as Base Data. You may assign
a revision at any time to distinguish the engineering parameters associated with any or all of the
elements on the one-line diagram without impacting or changing the Base Data. An element cannot
exist in Revision Data without also existing in the Base Data. ETAP constrains your project to
using the engineering data in one Revision Data ID (name) at a time. You must be working with
the Base Data to add or delete system elements or to make connectivity changes to your one-line
diagram. Also, the Base Data must be active (instead of Revision Data being active) for you to be
able to save or close a project. Using “What If” Studies The primary use for Revision Data is to
enable you to run “What If” studies for an electrical system where you vary the engineering data
of the network’s components and compare these results with the Base Data or other Revision Data.
For example, you can change the impedance of a transformer in the Revision Data (leaving the
Base Data untouched) and compare the short-circuit results with the

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Base Data. Other applications of Revision Data allow the creation of future modifications of the
system without changing your Base Data. For example, you can add a new substation to an existing
system and keep all of your modifications in Revision Data. In this example, the Base Data
represents your existing system and the Revision Data represents your design for future
modifications. To take this example further, first add the new elements for the substation to the
Base Data and flag them as Out of Service so they will not affect the study results of the existing
system. In the Revision Data, you then set the flag to In Service and enter all other required
properties. When the new substation is commissioned, merge the Revision Data to Base Data to
implement and save the modification.

ETAP Wizards:
ETAP includes time-saving project management tools called the ETAP Wizards, which allow you
to record and run any study at any time. The ETAP Wizards include the Scenario Wizard, Study
Wizard, and Project Wizard. All three are described in more detail below. The three ETAP Wizards
are located on the System toolbar.
Scenario
Wizard

Study Wizard

Project
Wizard

Scenario Wizard:
A scenario allows you to group all study options into one place. For this reason, scenarios are useful
anytime you want to record a study to be executed. Every project file contains a Scenario Wizard.
Scenarios are created and recorded in the Scenario Wizard and can be run individually at any time.
A project can have an unlimited number of scenarios. Scenarios are composed of the following
parameters:

• System (Network Analysis or CSD Analysis)

• Presentation (e.g., one-line diagram, UGS, or CSD)
• Revision Data (Base or Revision Data)
• Configuration Status (e.g., Normal, Stage 1, or TSEvents)
• Study Mode (e.g., Load Flow or Short-Circuit)
• Study Case (loading and generation system operation factors and solution parameters)
• Study Type (vary depending on Study Mode)
• Output Report (vary depending on Study Mode)
When you run a scenario in a project, it will automatically create an output report or overwrite an
existing report with the same name.

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You can create a scenario either by selecting parameters in the Scenario Wizard or by recording
options you have already selected for your study in the one-line view.

Study Wizard:
Macros reduce the time it takes to run several scenarios. Every project file contains a Study Wizard.
The Study Wizard enables you to sequentially group existing scenarios into study macros. You
must have created the scenarios you want to include in your study macro before you can create the
macro. You create the scenarios using the Scenario Wizard. (See the Scenario Wizard section above
for more information.)

A project may have an unlimited number of study macros. When you run a study macro, all of the
scenarios included in it are run, creating or overwriting the output reports just as they would if they
were run individually. For example, you could group scenarios related to load flow or a specific
type of load flow into one study macro.

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The Project Wizard is project independent and is saved within the ETAP folder. It enables the user
to group existing study macros into project macros. You should use a project macro when you have
several projects from which you want to run multiple study macros and their scenarios
simultaneously. This feature automates opening and closing project files and individually.

executing study macros and their scenarios.

Output Database Comparison Program:

The Output Database Comparison Program (DB Compare Program) is a console designed to
compare two SQL Server Compact Database File (SDF) files as instructed by a third SDF file
(instruction database). This console has been designed to interface with the scenarios in ETAP to
allow the comparison of current ETAP output database results against results from a benchmark
Output Report database. The benchmark results could have been generated using a previous version
or the same version of ETAP.

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 Editors:
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ETAP editors are called “intelligent editors” because they have the following capabilities:

• Minimum data entry required

• Automatic substitution of typical data
• Multiple-page layout for various data
• Check all possible electrical interdependencies of parameters
• Automatic error & range checking of every data field
• Optimization & sizing capabilities
• User-defined data fields
• Navigator, undo, & find commands
• Keep track of changes for every data field Libraries:
ETAP provides extensive user-controlled libraries based on actual manufacturer published data.

• Cable (NEC, ICEA, and manufacturer published data)

• Cable fire coating (manufacturer published data)
• Cable fire stop (manufacturer published data)
• Cable fire wrap (manufacturer published data)
• Motor nameplate
• Motor circuit model (single and double cage motors)
• Motor characteristic model
• Motor load model
• Relay (manufacturer published data)

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 • Recloser (manufacturer published data)
• Electronic Controller (manufacturer published data)
• LV circuit breaker (manufacturer published data)
• HV circuit breaker (manufacturer published data)
• Fuse (manufacturer published data)
• Overload Heater (manufacturer published data)
• Harmonic (IEEE and manufacturer published data)
• Motor overload heater (manufacturer published data)
• Battery
• Reliability index library
• Interruption cost library
• 50,000+ device time-current characteristic curves
• Merge data from different libraries
• Export library data to Microsoft Access file with report manager and Crystal Reports

ODBC (Open Database Connectivity):

ETAP organizes and accesses its database using the latest industry standard, Microsoft® ODBC® (Open Database
Connectivity), allowing ETAP to use any database for which an ODBC driver is available.

• Set ETAP database in Microsoft Access, Oracle, SQL server, etc.

• Access the database from third party database managers
• Integrate other project data into the same database
ODBC enables you to access your ETAP databases via third party software such as Microsoft Access. This
helps you to manage your data and provides a simple method of transferring the data from ETAP into other
media. You may also insert additional fields (along with values provided by ETAP) into the ETAP database
tables.

OLE Client:
OLE is a program-integration technology used to share information between programs. Many Windows
programs, including Microsoft Office, are OLE capable. Within ETAP, you can dynamically embed OLE
objects such as bitmaps, text, spreadsheets, tables, and metafiles into your one-line diagrams.

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Convert to EMF, WMF and DXF files:
Export ETAP one-line diagrams to Enhanced MetaFiles (EMF), Windows MetaFiles (WMF), Extensible
Markup Language (XML), Raw image format (RAW), and AutoCAD DXF files. These files can be imported
into AutoCAD , Microsoft Word , etc.

Printing / Plotting of One-Line Diagrams:

The following options are available for each presentation, including composite motors and networks:

• Print Options
• Printer Setup
• Zoom Level for Print Size
• Print Coordinates & Scrolling
• Customizable Print Preview
• Batch Printing

Active Error Viewer:

ETAP provides five levels of error checking. The active error viewer appears when you attempt to run a study
with missing or inappropriate data. Double-click each individual error message to locate and open the
component editor associated with the cause of the error message.

Application Message Logging:

Track ETAP usage and access using the application message logger. It keeps track of who opens a project,
which level of access they have, and how long they were in the project.

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Output Report Manager:
Provides more than 250 reports in Crystal Reports formats for different studies including the following subsections:

• Complete report
• Input data
• Results
• Summary reports
• Customizable subsections
Select the report and language from the Report Manager. Output Reports are available in 6 languages.

Crystal Reports:
ETAP uses the Crystal Reports program to generate output reports. Crystal Reports is a reporting tool with
customizable report formats with full-color presentation-quality. ETAP provides a number of different report
formats for various analyses, library data, and schedules.

The Crystal Reports browser/printer is available within ETAP. Users can create report formats and modify the
existing ones using the Crystal Reports program. Crystal Reports is a Business Objects product.

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Schedule Report Manager:
Using Crystal Reports, ETAP provides different schedules for elements in the database, such as bus, branch,
load, and cable with the following options:

• Base & Revision Data

• Energized / De-Energized Elements
• Elements in the Dumpster

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 LAB REPORT 2
Introduction:

Load flow studies determine if system voltages remain within specified limits under normal or emergency
operating conditions, and whether equipment such as transformers and conductors are overloaded. Load flow
studies are commonly used to: Optimize component or circuit loading. Develop practical bus voltage profiles.

A power-flow study usually uses simplified notations such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and
focuses on various aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles, real power and reactive
power. It analyzes the power systems in normal steady-state operation. Obtain the power flow solution by
Newton-Raphson method for the system.
PART1
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit on ETAP:

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After doing load flow analysis on circuit.

Load Flow Report Generated.

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 PART2
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit on ETAP:

After doing load flow analysis on circuit.

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Load Flow Report Generated.

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 EXPERIMENT 3
Short Circuit Analysis of Power System
Introduction:

A Short circuit analysis is used to determine the magnitude of short circuit current, the system is capable of
producing, and compares that magnitude with the interrupting rating of the overcurrent protective devices.

A short-circuit study is an analysis of an electrical system that determines the magnitude of the currents that
flow during an electrical fault. Comparing these calculated values against the equipment ratings is the first step
to ensuring that the power system is safely protected.

.PART 1
Circuit on ETAP:

After doing short circuit analysis:

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ANALYSIS REPORT:

PART 2
Circuit on ETAP:

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After doing short circuit analysis

ANALYSIS REPORT:

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 EXPERIMENT 4
Comparison of Aluminum & Copper Cable in term of Branch Losses in
Load Flow Analysis of a Power System
Electrical Power Cable
Introduction:

A cable used for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy is called electrical power cable. Power
cable consists two or more electrical conductors join with an over sheath. It is used for the transmission of
extra high voltages in a place where overhead lines are impracticable to use like, the sea, airfield crossing,
etc. But underground cable is more costly as compared to aerial cable for the same voltage which is one of
the main draws back of electrical power cable.

Construction of Cable:

The power cable mainly consists

of three main components,
namely, conductor, dielectric,
and sheath. The conductor in the
cable provides the conducting
path for the current. The
insulation or dielectric
withstands the service voltage
and isolates the conductor with
other objects. The main
components of electrical power
cables are explained below in
details.

Conductor:
Coppers and aluminum wires are
used as a conductor material in cables because of their high electrical conductivity. Solid or number of bare
wires made of either copper or aluminum are used to make a power cable. For a conductor having more
than three wires, the wire is arranged around a center wire such that there are six in the first layer, twelve in
the second, eighteen in the third, and so on. The number of wires in the conductors are 7, 19, 37, 61, 91,
etc., The size of the conductor is represented by 7/A, 19/B, 37/C, etc., in which first figures represent the
number of strands and the second figure A, B, C, etc., represents the diameters in cm or mm of the individual
wire of the conductors.

Insulation:
The most commonly used dielectric in power cables is impregnated paper, butyl rubber, polyvinyl chloride
cable, polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene. Paper insulated cables are mostly preferred because their
current carrying capacity is high, generally reliable and having a long life. The dielectric compound used
for the cable should have following properties.

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 • The insulator must have high insulation resistance.
• Should have high dielectric strength so that it does not allow the leakage current to pass through it.
• The material must have good mechanical strength.
• The dielectric material should be capable of operating at high temperature.
• It should have low thermal resistance.
• It should have a low power factor.

The cables used for submarine and damp soil should use synthetic dielectrics like polyvinyl chloride,
polyethylene, etc. These materials are comparatively lighter and have no migratory dielectric. Also, such
type of dielectric material has good dielectric strength, low power loss, and low thermal resistance.

Inner Sheath:
It is used for protecting the cable from moistures which would affect the insulation. Cable sheath is made
up of lead alloy, and these strengths withstand the internal pressures of the pressurized cables. The material
used for inner sheath should be nonmagnetic material.

The aluminum sheath is also used in a power cable because it is cheaper, smaller in weight and high
mechanical strength than the lead sheath. In oil-filled cables and telephone, cables corrugated seamless
aluminum sheath is used because it has better-bending properties, reduced thickness, and lesser weight.

Protective Covering:
Lead sheath cables when directly laid down on the ground are damaged by corrosion and electrolyte. For
protecting the cables against corrosion layers of fibrous material like paper, hessian, etc., or polyvinyl
chloride is used. Layers of fibrous material spread with the waterproof compound to the outside of the
electrical cable are called serving.

Armoring:

Armoring is the process in which layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of metal tape are applied
over sheath for protecting it from mechanical damage. The steel wires are normally used for armoring
because it has high longitudinal strength. Armoring is also used for earthen the cable. When the fault occurs
in the cable (due to insulation failure) the fault current flows through the armor and get earthed.

Over Sheath:
It gives the mechanical strength to the cables. It protects the cable from overall damage like moisture,
corrosion, dirt, dust, etc. The thermosetting or thermoplastic material is used for making over the sheath.

Current Rating of Cable:

The current rating of the cable is defined as the maximum current carrying capacity of the power cable under
normal operating condition. The current rating of power cable decided the upper limit of power transfer by a
cable. It mostly depends on the insulation temperature and electrical resistance of the conductor. The cable rating
is classified under three headings. These are

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 • Normal maximum continuous current rating.
• Over-current rating
• Short- Circuit rating

1. Normal or Safe Current Carrying Capacity

The normal or safe current carrying capacity depends on some factors. Some of the important factor are the
minimum conductor operating temperature, heat dissipating properties of the cables and condition of
installation. For calculating the current-carrying capacity of the cable, the thermal resistivity of the sheath and
cable are neglected. The heat generated in the cable is due to various losses is conducted to the air or ground
through various paths. These paths offer various resistance to the flow of heat.

In the three phase cable, all the three conductors are at the same temperature. The heat produced flows outwards
through the dielectric
in three parallel paths
from the conductor to
the sheaths. The
thermal resistances
between the core and
the sheath may be
assumed to be gc1, gc2,
and gc3. It then passes
through the bedding of
resistance gb, metallic
armoring serving of
resistance g’s. Finally,
it passes into
surrounding air or
ground depending
upon the method of installation of cable.

Let the thermal resistance of the external heat flow path be ge, i.e., ge is the thermal resistance between the outer
surface of the cable and ambient. The thermal resistance of metallic portion namely screens, sheath, and
armoring are negligible. Heat is generated due to the loss in the core.

Where, θ = temperature difference between maximum permissible temperature and ambient and

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The maximum current rating is, therefore, given by,

Where,

Rθ = AC resistance per unit length of the conductor at the maximum operating temperature including
allowance for skin and proximity effects.
n = number of loaded conductor in the cable
gd = thermal resistance of the dielectric
gb = thermal resistance of the bedding between sheath and armoring
gs = thermal resistance of serving
ge = thermal resistance between the outer surface of the cable and ambient
λ = sheath loss factor, i.e., the fractional increment in a.c. the resistance of the conductor to allow for sheath
loss

2. Over Current Rating:

The over current rating depends on the thermal conditions of the cable. The value of maximum continuous
current ratings of cables is supplied by manufacturers. The rating valid for the specified conditions of installation
(depth of laying, ground temperature, air temperature, etc.)

3. Short Circuit Rating:

In short circuit conditions, the current flows through the cables are many times the full load value of the current.
The heat produced in the conductor is proportional to the square of the current. The duration of a short circuit is
very small. The temperature gain under short circuit conditions is greater than the maximum permissible
temperature for continuous rating.

The short circuit rating of the cable depends on upon the maximum current attained by the cable under short
circuit condition. The safe value of limiting temperature is usually taken as 120°C, for a maximum continuous
operating conductor temperature of 80ºC and the permissible temperature rise of 50ºC. The short current is
measured by the formula

Isc = short-circuit RMS current

A = cross – sectional area of conductor
t = duration of short circuit current
k = a constant

The value of current depends on the rise of temperature

Voltage Regulation:
In electrical power systems, voltage regulation is a dimensionless quantity defined at the receiving end of a transmission
line as:

26 | P a g e
 |𝑉𝑓𝑙 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑅 = |𝑉𝑛𝑙 | × 100
|𝑉𝑓𝑙 |
Where, Vnl is voltage at no load and Vfl is voltage at full load. The percent voltage regulation of an ideal transmission line,
as defined by a transmission line with zero resistance and reactance, would equal zero due to Vnl equaling Vfl as a result of
there being no voltage drop along the line. This is why a smaller value of Voltage Regulation is usually beneficial,
indicating that the line is closer to ideal.
The Voltage Regulation formula could be visualized with the following: "Consider power being delivered to a load such
that the voltage at the load is the load's rated voltage VRated, if then the load disappears, the voltage at the point of the load
will rise to Vnl."
Voltage regulation in transmission lines occurs due to the impedance of the line between its sending and receiving ends.
Transmission lines intrinsically have some amount of resistance, inductance, and capacitance that all change the voltage
continuously along the line. Both the magnitude and phase angle of voltage change along a real transmission line. The effects
of line impedance can be modeled with simplified circuits such as the short line approximation (least accurate), the medium
line approximation (more accurate), and the long line approximation (most accurate).

PART 1
• Copper wire
• 50 Hz
• 5KM length

Circuit on ETAP:

27 | P a g e
 After load flow analysis (when switch is open).

Analysis Report:

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After load flow analysis (when switch is close).

Analysis Report:

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 PART 2
• Aluminum wire
• 50 Hz
• 5KM length

After load flow analysis (when switch is open).

Analysis Report:

30 | P a g e
After load flow analysis (when switch is close).

Analysis Report:

Conclusion:

From above it is clear that the line losses in case of Aluminum wire are greater than that of Copper wire.

31 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 5
“Symmetrical Fault Analysis on ETAP”

Symmetrical Faults:

• In symmetrical faults, all phases are shorted to each other or to earth (L-
L-L) or (L-L-L-G).
• The nature of this type of fault is balanced.
• In this type of fault, fault currents in all phases are symmetrical i.e, their
magnitudes are equal and they are equally displaced by angle 120o as
shown in figure

• It is more severe type of fault but it occurs rarely.

• For this reason balanced short circuit calculation is performed to
determine these large currents.
• Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase need to be considered
in calculations since in the other two phases will also be similar.

Power System # 1:

Circuit Diagram on ETAP:

After creating Fault at Bus 3.

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Short Circuit Analysis:

Short Circuit Analysis Report:

Power System # 2:

Circuit Diagram on ETAP:

33 | P a g e
After creating Fault at Bus 7.

Short Circuit Analysis:

34 | P a g e
Short Circuit Analysis Report:

Unsymmetrical fault:
• These faults involve only one or two phases.
• In this type of fault, three phase lines become
unbalanced.
• Those faults on the power system which gives rise to
unsymmetrical fault currents(i.e, unequal line current
with unequal phase displacement)are called Unsymmetrical fault.
• Such fault occur between line to ground and two lines.
• This type of fault mainly have two types
▪ Shunt Fault
▪ Series Fault
• These faults mostly occurs on power system.
• The calculations of these currents are made by Symmetrical Component method.
• Unbalanced fault analysis is important for Relay setting, single phase switch and system stability studies.

35 | P a g e
 Power System # 1
Circuit on ETAP:

Then we press on short circuit analysis.

Then add Fault at Bus 3 and run 3-Phase L-L, L-G, L-L-G Faults.
Output:

Short Circuit Analysis Reports

Line-to-Line Fault:

36 | P a g e
Line-to-Ground Fault:

Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault:

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 Power System # 2
Circuit on ETAP:

Here S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 are the impedances.

Then we press on short circuit analysis.
Then add Fault at Bus 3 and run 3-Phase L-L, L-G, L-L-G Faults.
Output:

38 | P a g e
 Short Circuit Analysis
Reports Line-to-Line Fault:

Line-to-Ground Fault:

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Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault:

40 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 6
“Implementation of Zbus Building Algorithm in MATLAB”

Example 6.1 (Power System Analysis and Design by Hadi Saadat 2nd edition)
The emfs shown in figure 6.1 using MATLAB find its admittance matrices Zbus.

figure 6.1

Program:
clear all
clc
disp('Zbus Building Algorithm')
data=dlmread('data.txt'); %takes whole matrix of line data
num_bus=max(max(data(:,1),data(:,2)));
sz=size(data);
size=sz(1,1);
buses_added=1;
bus_status=zeros(1,num_bus+1);

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 for n=1:size
if(data(n,1)==0)
temp=data(n,1); % cloumn swaping
data(n,1)=data(n,2);
data(n,2)=temp;
end
if(data(n,1)>data(n,2) && data(n,2)~=0)
temp=data(n,1) % coloumn swaping
data(n,1)=data(n,2);
data(n,2)=temp;
end

end

for n=1:size
if(data(n,1)==1 && data(n,2)==0)
temp1=data(1,:);
data(1,:)=data(n,:);
data(n,:)=temp1;
end
end

for n=1:size
for m=1:size
if(data(m,1)==n)
bus1=data(m,1);
bus2=data(m,2);
p_bus1=0;
p_bus2=0;
for k=1:num_bus
if(bus_status(1,k)== bus1 && bus1~=0)
p_bus1=1;
end
if(bus_status(1,k)== bus2 && bus2~=0)
p_bus2=1;
end
end
if(bus_status(1,buses_added)==0 && bus2==0 && p_bus1==0)
disp('Adding Z=')
disp(data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4))
disp('between buses:')
disp(bus1)
disp(bus2)
disp('This impedance is added between a new bus and reference')
buses_added=buses_added+1;
bus_status(1,buses_added-1)=bus1;
if(bus1==1)
Zbus(bus1,bus1)=data(m,3)+i*data(m,4)
else
ssz=length(Zbus);

42 | P a g e
 Zbus(ssz+1,ssz+1)=data(m,3)+i*data(m,4)
end

disp(' ')
disp(' ')
elseif(p_bus1==1 && p_bus2==0 && bus2~=0)
disp('Adding Z=')
disp(data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4))
disp('between buses:')
disp(bus1)
disp(bus2)
disp('This impedance is added between a new bus and an existing bus')
buses_added=buses_added+1;
bus_status(1,buses_added-1)=bus2;
size_zbus=length(Zbus);
for var=1:size_zbus
Zbus(size_zbus+1,var)=Zbus(bus1,var);
Zbus(var,size_zbus+1)=Zbus(var,bus1);
end
Zbus(size_zbus+1,size_zbus+1)=Zbus(bus1,bus1)+ data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4);
Zbus
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
elseif(p_bus1==1 && p_bus2==0 && bus2==0)
disp('Adding Z=')
disp(data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4))
disp('between buses:')
disp(bus1)
disp(bus2)
disp('This impedance is added between an existing bus and reference')
size_zbus=length(Zbus);
Zbus1=Zbus;
for var=1:size_zbus
Zbus1(size_zbus+1,var)=Zbus1(bus1,var);
Zbus1(var,size_zbus+1)=Zbus1(var,bus1);
end
Zbus1(size_zbus+1,size_zbus+1)=Zbus1(bus1,bus1)+ data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4);
for var1=1:size_zbus
for var2=1:size_zbus
Zbus(var1,var2)=Zbus1(var1,var2)-
Zbus1(var1,size_zbus+1)*Zbus1(size_zbus+1,var2)/Zbus1(size_zbus+1,size_zbus+1);
end
end
Zbus
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
elseif(p_bus1==1 && p_bus2==1 && bus2~=0)
disp('Adding Z=')
disp(data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4))
disp('between buses:')
disp(bus1)
disp(bus2)

43 | P a g e
 disp('This impedance is added between two existing buses')
size_zbus=length(Zbus);
Zbus1=Zbus;
for var=1:size_zbus
Zbus1(size_zbus+1,var)=Zbus1(bus1,var)-Zbus1(bus2,var);
Zbus1(var,size_zbus+1)=Zbus1(var,bus1)-Zbus1(var,bus2);
end
Zbus1(size_zbus+1,size_zbus+1)=Zbus1(bus1,bus1)+Zbus1(bus2,bus2)-2*Zbus1(bus1,bus2) +
data(m,3)+ i*data(m,4);
for var1=1:size_zbus
for var2=1:size_zbus
Zbus(var1,var2)=Zbus1(var1,var2)-
Zbus1(var1,size_zbus+1)*Zbus1(size_zbus+1,var2)/Zbus1(size_zbus+1,size_zbus+1);
end
end
Zbus
disp(' ')
disp(' ')
end

end
end
end
bus_status

for var1=1:num_bus
for var2=1:num_bus
if(bus_status(1,var2)==var1)
zvar1=Zbus(var2,:);
Zbus(var2,:)=Zbus(var1,:);
Zbus(var1,:)=zvar1;

zvar2=Zbus(:,var2);
Zbus(:,var2)=Zbus(:,var1);
Zbus(:,var1)=zvar2;

z_s=bus_status(1,var1);
bus_status(1,var1)=bus_status(1,var2);
bus_status(1,var2)=z_s;
end
end
end
Zbus
MATLAB Output:

44 | P a g e
 MATLAB Ybus.^-1 Output:

Exercise 6.2(Power System Analysis by Hadi Saadat 2nd edition)

The emfs shown in figure 6.18 using MATLAB find its admittance matrices zbus.

Program:
Same as Example 6.1.
MATLAB Output:

45 | P a g e
 Book Output:

Command Learnt:
➢ disp
➢ sum
➢ diag
➢ case
➢ dlmread

46 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 7
“Formulation of The YBus of Given Power System Network Using MATLAB”

Matlab:
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in
familiar mathematical notation. Application development, including Graphical User Interface building.
MATLAB has several advantages over other methods or languages: Its basic data element is the matrix. Several
mathematical operations that work on arrays or matrices are built-in to the Matlab environment.
Power System:
An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to supply, transfer, and use
electric power. An example of an electric power system is the grid that provides power to an extended area. The
electrical power system consists of three major components: generation, a high voltage transmission grid, and
a distribution system. The high voltage transmission system links the generators to substations, which supply
power to the user through the distribution system.
Admittance:

Admittance (symbolized Y ) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current ( AC ) flows
through a complex circuit or system. Admittance is a vector quantity comprised of two independent scalar
phenomena: conductance and susceptance . Admittance is the vector sum of conductance and susceptance.
Susceptance is conventionally multiplied by the positive square root of -1, the unit imaginary number called
symbolized by j , to express Y as a complex quantity G - jB L (when the net susceptance is inductive) or G + jB
C (when the net susceptance is capacitive). In parallel circuits, conductance and susceptance add together
independently to yield the composite admittance. In series circuits, conductance and susceptance combine in a
more complicated manner. In these situations, it is easier to convert conductance to resistance, susceptance to
reactance, and then calculate the composite impedance.

Conductance:

Conductance, denoted G, is a measure of the ease with which charge carriers can pass through a
component or substance. The more easily the charge carriers move in response to a given applied electric
potential, the higher the conductance, which is expressed in positive realnumber siemens . Conductance is
observed with AC and also with direct current ( DC ).
Susceptance:

Susceptance, denoted B , is an expression of the readiness with which an electronic component, circuit,
or system releases stored energy as the current and voltage fluctuate. Susceptance is expressed in imaginary
number siemens. It is observed for AC, but not for DC. When AC passes through a component that contains
susceptance, energy might be stored and released in the form of a magnetic field, in which case the susceptance
is inductive (denoted - jB L ), or energy might be stored and released in the form of an electric field, in which
case the susceptance is capacitive (denoted + jB C ).

47 | P a g e
Bus Admittance:
In a power system, Bus Admittance Matrix represents the nodal admittances of the various buses.
With the help of the transmission line, each bus is connected to the various other buses.
Admittance matrix is used to analyse the data that is needed in the load or a power flow study of the buses.
It explains the admittance and the topology of the network.
Power System:
The Power System that is used for this experiment is taken from Hadi Sadat’s book and that is
shown in figure 1:

Fig 1 Single Line Diagram of Power System

ure
Procedure:
To formulate the Ybus matrix in MATLAB the following procedure must be followed:
• Open Matlab.
• Open a new file and write the code of the Ybus in a new script.
• When the code is completed then save the code.
• Put the values of Zbus by entering the different columns of Zbus. After that run the code. It
will show the Ybus.
Zbus Matrix:
To enter values in Zbus the following method is adopted. First we will enter values in columns and
then we will enter them in a matrix.

48 | P a g e
Code:
The MATLAB code of the formulation of Ybus is below:
clc; clear;
[from to R X]=textread('labpsa.txt','%d %d %f %f');
nodes=max(max(from),max(to));%gives the number of nodes
branches=length(from); %gives the number of branches
Y=zeros(1,branches);
for a=1:branches %gives the admittances
Y(a)= 1/(R(a)+X(a)*j);
end
ybus=zeros(nodes, nodes); %ybus matrix for diagonal elements
for b=1:branches
if from(b)>0
ybus(from(b),from(b))=ybus(from(b),from(b))+Y(b);
end
if to(b)>0
ybus(to(b),to(b))=ybus(to(b),to(b))+ Y(b);
end
end
%for off diagonal elements
for c=1:branches
if from(c)>0 & to(c)>0
if from(c) ~= to(c)
ybus(from(c),to(c))=-1*(ybus(to(c),from(c))+Y(c));
ybus(to(c),from(c))=ybus(from(c),to(c));
end
end
end
ybus

49 | P a g e
Matlab output:
The output that Matlab will give us is the Ybus that is formulated by Matlab of the power system
that was under consideration.
ybus =
Columns 1 through 2
0.0000 - 8.5000i 0.0000 + 2.5000i
0.0000 + 2.5000i 0.0000 - 8.7500i
0.0000 + 5.0000i 0.0000 + 5.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i
Columns 3 through 4
0.0000 + 5.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 5.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 -22.5000i 0.0000 +12.5000i
0.0000 +12.5000i 0.0000 -12.5000i

Book Output:
The output of the same circuit in the text book is below:

Figure 1: Output of Power System given in Textbook

We will take another example from the textbook to formulate the Ybus matrix.

Power System:
The following is another example taken from the textbook of Hadi Sadat:

Fi 5 Single Line Diagram of Power System

50 | P a g e
Procedure:
To formulate the Ybus matrix in MATLAB the following procedure must be followed:
• Open Matlab.
• Open a new file and write the code of the Ybus in a new script.
• When the code is completed then save the code.
• Put the values of Zbus by entering the different columns of Zbus. After that run the code.
• It will show the Ybus.
Zbus Matrix:
To enter values in Zbus the following method is adopted. First we will enter values in columns and
then we will enter them in a matrix.

Code:
The MATLAB code of the formulation of Ybus is below:
clc; clear;
[from to R X]=textread('labpsa_2.txt','%d %d %f %f');
nodes=max(max(from),max(to));%gives the number of nodes
branches=length(from); %gives the number of branches
Y=zeros(1,branches);
for a=1:branches %gives the admittances
Y(a)= 1/(R(a)+X(a)*j);
end
ybus=zeros(nodes, nodes); %ybus matrix for diagonal elements
for b=1:branches
if from(b)>0
ybus(from(b),from(b))=ybus(from(b),from(b))+Y(b);
end
if to(b)>0
ybus(to(b),to(b))=ybus(to(b),to(b))+ Y(b);
end
end

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 %for off diagonal elements
for c=1:branches
if from(c)>0 & to(c)>0
if from(c) ~= to(c)
ybus(from(c),to(c))=-1*(ybus(to(c),from(c))+Y(c));
ybus(to(c),from(c))=ybus(from(c),to(c));
end
end
end
ybus

Matlab output:
The output that Matlab will give us is the Ybus that is formulated by Matlab of the power system
that was under consideration.
ybus =
Columns 1 through 2
20.0000 -52.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i
-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -53.0000i
-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i
Column 3
-10.0000 +30.0000i
-16.0000 +32.0000i
28.0000 -63.0000i

Book Output:
The output of the same circuit in the textbook is below:

Figure 8: Output of Power System given in Textbook

Result and Conclusion:

The final output that we got from Matlab is same as that we calculate manually so that gives us way
to check out calculations or just by solving the given power system on Matlab. It is quick and efficient way
to check the Ybus matrix of a Power System.

52 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 8
“Formulation of The Zbus of Given Power System Network Using MATLAB”
LAB TASK:
For the given Zbus :
1 2 3
𝑍𝐵𝑈𝑆 = [4 5 6]
7 8 9
➢ CASE 1: Adding impedance from a new bus to the reference bus.
Add new impedance
Z=10
➢ CASE 2: Adding impedance from a new bus to the reference bus.
Add new impedance
Z=10
➢ CASE 3: Adding impedance from an existing bus to the reference bas.
Add new impedance in last bus
Z=10
➢ CASE 4: Adding Impedance between two existing buses.
Add new impedance between bus 2 and 3
Z=10
MATLAB CODE:
CASE 1:
function [Z]=Case1(zold,zb) % Modifying Z bus matrix
l=length(zold); %length of orignal matrix
for i=1:l+1
for j=1:l+1
if i<=l && j<=l
Z(i,j)=zold(i,j); %Put values of zold in new matrix of order (n+1)
elseif i==l+1 && j==l+1 %Access last element of the New matrix
Z(i,j)=zb; %Adding new impednce as Last element of z
else
Z(i,j)=0;
end
end
end

CASE 2:
function [Z]=Case2(zold,zb)
l=length(zold); %length of orignal matrix
row =zold(l,:); %Extract last row of orignal matrix zold
column =zold(:,l); %Extract last column of orignal matrix zold
for i=1:l+1
for j=1:l+1
if i<=l && j<=l
Z(i,j)=zold(i,j); %Put values of zold in z order (n+1)
elseif i==l+1

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 for p=1:l
Z(i,p)=row(p); %Copy & Paste Last row in z from zold.
end
elseif j==l+1 %Copy & Past Last Column in z from zold.
for q=1:l
Z(q,j)=column(q);
end
end
if i==l+1 && j==l+1 %Access last element of the New matrix.
Z(i,j)=zb+zold(l,l); %Adding new impednce into Last element of zold
end
end
end
CASE 3:
function [Z]=CASE2(zold,zb)
l=length(zold); %length of orignal matrix
row =zold(l,:); %Extract last row of orignal matrix zold
column =zold(:,l); %Extract last column of orignal matrix zold
for i=1:l+1
for j=1:l+1
if i<=l && j<=l
Z(i,j)=zold(i,j); %Put values of zold in z order (n+1)
elseif i==l+1
for p=1:l
Z(i,p)=row(p); %Copy & Paste Last row in z from zold.
end
elseif j==l+1
for q=1:l
Z(q,j)=column(q); %Copy & Past Last Column in z from zold.
end
end
if i==l+1 && j==l+1 %Access last element of the New matrix.
Z(i,j)=zb+zold(l,l); %Adding new impednce into Last element of zold
end
end
end
Z11=Z(1,1); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 1
Z12=Z(1,2); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 2
Z13=Z(1,3); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 3
Z14=Z(1,4); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 4
Z21=Z(2,1); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 1
Z22=Z(2,2); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 2
Z23=Z(2,3); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 2
Z24=Z(2,4); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 4
Z31=Z(3,1); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 1
Z32=Z(3,2); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 2
Z33=Z(3,3); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 4
Z34=Z(3,4); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 4

54 | P a g e
 Z41=Z(4,1); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 1
Z42=Z(4,2); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 2
Z43=Z(4,3); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 3
Z44=Z(4,4); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 4
%After Node elimination, the new matrix Znew is given as
Znew=[(Z11-((Z14*Z41)/Z44)) (Z12-((Z14*Z42)/Z44)) (Z13-((Z14*Z43)/Z44));
(Z21-((Z24*Z41)/Z44)) (Z22-((Z24*Z42)/Z44)) (Z23-((Z24*Z43)/Z44));
(Z31-((Z34*Z41)/Z44)) (Z32-((Z34*Z42)/Z44)) (Z33-((Z34*Z43)/Z44))]

CASE 4:
function [Z,Znew]=CASE2(zold,zb,n1,n2)
l=length(zold); %length of orignal matrix
row =zold(n1,:)-zold(n2,:); %Extract last row of orignal matrix zold
column =zold(:,n1)-zold(:,n2);%Extract last column of orignal matrix zold
for i=1:l+1
for j=1:l+1
if i<=l && j<=l
Z(i,j)=zold(i,j); %Put values of zold in z order (n+1)
elseif i==l+1
for p=1:l
Z(i,p)=row(p); % Inserting last column in Z.
end
elseif j==l+1
for q=1:l
Z(q,j)=column(q); %Inserting last column in Z
end
end
if i==l+1 && j==l+1 %Access last element of the New matrix Z.
Z(i,j)=zb+zold(n1,n1)+zold(n2,n2)-(2*zold(n1,n2));
end
end
end
Z11=Z(1,1); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 1
Z12=Z(1,2); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 2
Z13=Z(1,3); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 3
Z14=Z(1,4); %Access Element of Row1 and Column 4
Z21=Z(2,1); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 1
Z22=Z(2,2); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 2
Z23=Z(2,3); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 2
Z24=Z(2,4); %Access Element of Row2 and Column 4
Z31=Z(3,1); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 1
Z32=Z(3,2); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 2
Z33=Z(3,3); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 4
Z34=Z(3,4); %Access Element of Row3 and Column 4
Z41=Z(4,1); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 1
Z42=Z(4,2); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 2
Z43=Z(4,3); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 3
Z44=Z(4,4); %Access Element of Row4 and Column 4

55 | P a g e
 %After Node elimination, the new matrix Znew is given as
Znew=[(Z11-((Z14*Z41)/Z44)) (Z12-((Z14*Z42)/Z44)) (Z13-((Z14*Z43)/Z44));
(Z21-((Z24*Z41)/Z44)) (Z22-((Z24*Z42)/Z44)) (Z23-((Z24*Z43)/Z44));
(Z31-((Z34*Z41)/Z44)) (Z32-((Z34*Z42)/Z44)) (Z33-((Z34*Z43)/Z44))]

RESULTS:

>> Case1
zold=[1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] % zold=origional impedence matrix
zb=10 % zb=impedence currently added
Case1(zold,zb);

zold =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
zb =
10
ans =
1 2 3 0
4 5 6 0
7 8 9 0
0 0 0 10
>> Case2
zold=[1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] % zold=origional impedence matrix
zb=10 % zb=impedence currently added
Case2(zold,zb);
zold =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
zb =
10
ans =
1 2 3 3
4 5 6 6
7 8 9 9
7 8 9 19
>> Case3
zold=[1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] % zold=origional impedence matrix
zb=10 % zb=impedence currently added
Case(zold,zb)

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 zold =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
zb =
10
Znew =
-0.1053 0.7368 1.5789
1.7895 2.4737 3.1579
3.6842 4.2105 4.7368
ans =
1 2 3 3
4 5 6 6
7 8 9 9
7 8 9 19
>> Case4
zold=[1 2 3; 2 5 6; 3 6 9] % zold=origional impedence matrix
zb=10 % zb=impedence currently added
n1=2; %1st existing bus to which zb is added
n2=3; %2nd existing bus to which zb is added
Case4(zold,zb,n1,n2);

zold =
1 2 3
2 5 6
3 6 9
zb =
10
Znew =
0.9167 1.9167 2.7500
1.9167 4.9167 5.7500
2.7500 5.7500 8.2500
ans =
1 2 3 -1
2 5 6 -1
3 6 9 -3
-1 -1 -3 12

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 EXPERIMENT 9
“BUS Elimination Techniques For a BUS System Using MATLAB”
In this lab we are given a Ybus matrix. We are asked to perform BUS reduction technique in MATLAB.
There are two main methods to remove a bus from Y matrix without drawing the modified power circuit.

1. KRON-REDUCTION method:
This method has following steps.
• Move the bus to be removed at the end of matrix.
• Divide matrix in 4 parts.

Yaa Yab

Yabt Ybb

• Now the new Ybus matrix will be:

−1 𝑡
Y𝑏𝑢𝑠.𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑌𝑎𝑎 − (𝑌𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑌𝑏𝑏 ∗ 𝑌𝑎𝑏 )
2. DIRECT method:
• In this method we compute each element of new Ybus matrix using following formula:

𝑌𝑖𝑘 ∗𝑌𝑗𝑘
𝑌𝑖𝑗𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑌𝑖𝑗 − 𝑌𝑘𝑘
Where k is the bus we want to remove.
LAB TASK:
For the given Ybus:
−9.8𝑗 0 4𝑗 5𝑗
0 −8.3𝑗 2.5𝑗 5𝑗
𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 =[ ]
4𝑗 2.5𝑗 −14.5𝑗 8𝑗
5𝑗 5𝑗 8𝑗 −18𝑗
➢ CASE 1:
Remove last 2 buses using KRON-REDUCTION method.

➢ CASE 2:

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 Using direct method:
i. Remove BUS 4.
ii. After removing BUS4, remove BUS3 from the resultant matrix.

MATLAB CODE:
CASE 1:
Y= [-9.8j 0 4j 5j
0 -8.3j 2.5j 5j
4j 2.5j -14.5j 8j
5j 5j 8j -18j];

Yaa= [Y(1:2, 1:2)];

Yab= [Y(1:2, 3:4)];
Ybb= [Y(3:4, 3:4)];

fprintf ('Y matrix after the removal of BUS3 and BUS4')

Ynew= Yaa- (Yab * (inv(Ybb))*(Yab.'))
CASE 2:
Y= [-9.8j 0 4j 5j
0 -8.3j 2.5j 5j
4j 2.5j -14.5j 8j
5j 5j 8j -18j];
Ynew1= [];
k=4;
for i=1:3
for j=1:3
Ynew1(i,j) = Y(i,j)- ((Y(i,k))*(Y(k,j))/Y(k,k));
end
end
fprintf ('Y matrix after the removal of BUS4')
Ynew1
fprintf ('Y matrix after the removal of both BUS3 and BUS4')
Ynew2=[];
k=3;
for i=1:2
for j=1:2
Ynew2(i,j) = Ynew1(i,j)- ((Ynew1(i,k))*(Ynew1(k,j))/Ynew1(k,k));
end
end
Ynew2
RESULTS:
On running the written code, Following results will be obtained in the main MATLAB window
CASE 1:
Y matrix after the removal of BUS3 and BUS4
Ynew =
0 - 4.8736i 0 + 4.0736i

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 0 + 4.0736i 0 - 4.8736i
CASE 2:
Y matrix after the removal of BUS4
Ynew1 =
0 - 8.4111i 0 + 1.3889i 0 + 6.2222i
0 + 1.3889i 0 - 6.9111i 0 + 4.7222i
0 + 6.2222i 0 + 4.7222i 0 -10.9444i
Y matrix after the removal of both BUS3 and BUS4
Ynew2 =
0 - 4.8736i 0 + 4.0736i
0 + 4.0736i 0 - 4.8736i

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 EXPERIMENT 10
“Load Flow Analysis using Gauss-Seidel Method in MATLAB”
Example # 6.9:
Load flow analysis using Gauss-Seidel method.

MATLAB Code:
basemva = 100;
accuracy = 0.001;
accel = 1.8 ;
maxiter = 100;
busdata = [ 1 1 1.06 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
2 2 1.043 0 21.7 12.7 40.0 0 -40 50 0
3 0 1 0 2.4 1.2 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 1.06 0 7.6 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
5 2 1.01 0 94.2 19 0 0 -40 40 0
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 0 1 0 22.8 10.9 0 0 0 0 0
8 2 1.01 0 30 30 0 0 -10 40 0
9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 0 1 0 5.8 2 0 0 0 0 19
11 2 1.082 0 0 0 0 0 -6 24 0
12 0 1 0 11.2 7.5 0 0 0 0 0
13 2 1.071 0 0 0 0 0 -6 24 0
14 0 1 0 6.2 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
15 0 1 0 8.2 2.5 0 0 0 0 0
16 0 1 0 3.5 1.8 0 0 0 0 0
17 0 1 0 9 5.8 0 0 0 0 0
18 0 1 0 3.2 0.9 0 0 0 0 0
19 0 1 0 9.5 3.4 0 0 0 0 0
20 0 1 0 2.2 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
21 0 1 0 17.5 11.2 0 0 0 0 0
22 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 0 1 0 3.2 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
24 0 1 0 8.7 6.7 0 0 0 0 4.3
25 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
26 0 1 0 3.5 2.3 0 0 0 0 0
27 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
28 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
29 0 1 0 2.4 0.9 0 0 0 0 0
30 0 1 0 10.6 1.9 0 0 0 0 0];

linedata = [1 2 0.0192 0.0575 0.02640 1

1 3 0.0452 0.1852 0.02040 1
2 4 0.0570 0.1737 0.01840 1

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 3 4 0.0132 0.0379 0.00420 1
2 5 0.0472 0.1983 0.02090 1
2 6 0.0581 0.1763 0.01870 1
4 6 0.0119 0.0414 0.00450 1
5 7 0.0460 0.1160 0.01020 1
6 7 0.0267 0.0820 0.00850 1
6 8 0.0120 0.0420 0.00450 1
6 9 0.0 0.2080 0.0 0.978
6 10 0 0.5560 0.0 0.969
9 11 0 0.2080 0.0 1
9 10 0 0.1100 0.0 1
4 12 0 0.2560 0.0 0.932
12 13 0 0.1400 0.0 1
12 14 0.1231 0.2559 0.0 1
12 15 0.0662 0.1304 0 0 1
12 16 0.0945 0.1987 0.0 1
14 15 0.2210 0.1997 0.0 1
16 17 0.0084 0.1923 0.0 1
15 18 0.1073 0.2185 0.0 1
18 19 0.0639 0.1292 0.0 1
19 20 0.0340 0.0680 0.0 1
10 20 0.0936 0.2090 0.0 1
10 17 0.0324 0.0845 0.0 1
10 21 0.0348 0.0749 0.0 1
10 22 0.0727 0.1499 0.0 1
21 22 0.0116 0.0236 0.0 1
15 23 0.1000 0.2020 0.0 1
22 24 0.1150 0.1790 0.0 1
23 24 0.1320 0.2700 0.0 1
24 25 0.1885 0.3292 0.0 1
25 26 0.2544 0.3800 0.0 1
25 27 0.1093 0.2087 0.0 1
28 27 0.0000 0.3960 0.0 0.968
27 29 0.2198 0.4153 0.0 1
27 30 0.3202 0.6027 0.0 1
29 30 0.2399 0.4533 0.0 1
8 28 0.0636 0.2000 0.0214 1
6 28 0.0169 0.0599 0.065 1];
lfybus
lfgauss
busout
lineflow
Result:
Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel Method

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 Maximum Power Mismatch = 0.000908417
No. of Iterations = 30

Bus Voltage Angle ------Load------ ---Generation--- Injected

No. Mag. Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Mvar

1 1.060 0.000 0.000 0.000 261.038 -17.940 0.000

2 1.043 -5.494 21.700 12.700 40.000 45.911 0.000
3 1.023 -8.027 2.400 1.200 0.000 0.000 0.000
4 1.015 -9.689 7.600 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 1.010 -14.364 94.200 19.000 0.000 34.463 0.000
6 1.015 -11.437 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
7 1.005 -13.166 22.800 10.900 0.000 0.000 0.000
8 1.010 -12.104 30.000 30.000 0.000 -1.479 0.000
9 1.053 -14.422 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
10 1.047 -15.986 5.800 2.000 0.000 0.000 19.000
11 1.082 -14.422 0.000 0.000 0.000 14.947 0.000
12 1.059 -15.311 11.200 7.500 0.000 0.000 0.000
13 1.071 -15.316 0.000 0.000 0.000 9.528 0.000
14 1.044 -16.206 6.200 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000
15 1.039 -16.302 8.200 2.500 0.000 0.000 0.000
16 1.047 -15.869 3.500 1.800 0.000 0.000 0.000
17 1.042 -16.158 9.000 5.800 0.000 0.000 0.000
18 1.030 -16.886 3.200 0.900 0.000 0.000 0.000
19 1.027 -17.039 9.500 3.400 0.000 0.000 0.000
20 1.032 -16.835 2.200 0.700 0.000 0.000 0.000
21 1.030 -16.623 17.500 11.200 0.000 0.000 0.000
22 1.029 -16.667 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
23 1.028 -16.747 3.200 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000
24 1.021 -17.007 8.700 6.700 0.000 0.000 4.300
25 1.023 -16.626 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
26 1.006 -17.038 3.500 2.300 0.000 0.000 0.000
27 1.033 -16.129 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
28 1.022 -12.232 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
29 1.013 -17.330 2.400 0.900 0.000 0.000 0.000
30 1.002 -18.201 10.600 1.900 0.000 0.000 0.000

Total 283.400 126.200 301.038 85.430 23.30

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 Line Flow and Losses
--Line-- Power at bus & line flow --Line loss-- Transformer
from to MW Mvar MVA MW Mvar tap

1 261.038 -17.940 261.654

2 177.695 -22.129 179.067 5.458 10.508
3 83.361 4.247 83.469 2.813 7.097

2 18.300 33.211 37.919

1 -172.236 32.637 175.301 5.458 10.508
4 45.739 1.552 45.766 1.103 -0.536
5 82.861 1.716 82.879 2.986 8.139
6 61.965 -2.676 62.023 2.051 2.262

3 -2.400 -1.200 2.683

1 -80.548 2.850 80.598 2.813 7.097
4 78.135 -4.234 78.249 0.772 1.344

4 -7.600 -1.600 7.767

2 -44.636 -2.088 44.685 1.103 -0.536
3 -77.363 5.578 77.564 0.772 1.344
6 70.280 -20.046 73.083 0.615 1.213
12 44.110 15.053 46.608 -0.000 4.691 0.932

5 -94.200 15.463 95.461

2 -79.875 6.424 80.133 2.986 8.139
7 -14.336 8.955 16.903 0.138 -1.724

6 0.000 0.000 0.000

2 -59.914 4.939 60.117 2.051 2.262
4 -69.665 21.259 72.836 0.615 1.213
7 37.665 -0.494 37.669 0.368 -0.605
8 29.525 3.409 29.721 0.103 -0.561
9 27.368 -6.974 28.243 0.000 1.540 0.978
10 15.648 0.668 15.662 0.000 1.243 0.969
28 19.398 -23.020 30.103 0.105 -13.106

7 -22.800 -10.900 25.272

5 14.473 -10.679 17.987 0.138 -1.724

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 6 -37.298 -0.112 37.298 0.368 -0.605

8 -30.000 -31.479 43.485

6 -29.422 -3.971 29.688 0.103 -0.561
28 -0.639 -27.446 27.454 0.020 -44.099

9 0.000 0.000 0.000

6 -27.368 8.514 28.662 0.000 1.540
11 -0.006 -14.554 14.554 0.000 0.397
10 27.365 6.131 28.043 -0.000 0.780

10 -5.800 17.000 17.962

6 -15.648 0.575 15.658 0.000 1.243
9 -27.365 -5.351 27.883 -0.000 0.780
20 9.320 3.704 10.029 0.086 0.192
17 5.678 4.702 7.373 0.016 0.042
21 22.247 13.429 25.986 0.214 0.461

11 0.000 14.947 14.947

9 0.006 14.951 14.951 0.000 0.397

12 -11.200 -7.500 13.479

4 -44.110 -10.363 45.311 -0.000 4.691
13 0.071 -9.417 9.417 0.000 0.111
14 7.911 2.428 8.275 0.075 0.156
15 18.066 6.874 19.330 0.221 0.435
16 6.918 3.143 7.599 0.049 0.102

13 0.000 9.528 9.528

12 -0.071 9.528 9.528 0.000 0.111

14 -6.200 -1.600 6.403

12 -7.836 -2.271 8.158 0.075 0.156
15 1.620 0.648 1.745 0.006 0.006

15 -8.200 -2.500 8.573

12 -17.845 -6.439 18.971 0.221 0.435
14 -1.614 -0.642 1.737 0.006 0.006
18 5.769 1.582 5.982 0.036 0.072

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 23 5.581 2.968 6.321 0.037 0.075

16 -3.500 -1.800 3.936

12 -6.870 -3.041 7.512 0.049 0.102
17 3.370 1.184 3.572 0.010 0.022

17 -9.000 -5.800 10.707

16 -3.361 -1.162 3.556 0.010 0.022
10 -5.662 -4.661 7.334 0.016 0.042

18 -3.200 -0.900 3.324

15 -5.733 -1.510 5.928 0.036 0.072
19 2.496 0.612 2.570 0.004 0.008

19 -9.500 -3.400 10.090

18 -2.492 -0.604 2.564 0.004 0.008
20 -7.006 -2.910 7.586 0.019 0.037

20 -2.200 -0.700 2.309

19 7.024 2.947 7.617 0.019 0.037
10 -9.234 -3.512 9.880 0.086 0.192

21 -17.500 -11.200 20.777

10 -22.033 -12.968 25.566 0.214 0.461
22 4.555 1.664 4.849 0.003 0.005

22 0.000 0.000 0.000

21 -4.552 -1.659 4.845 0.003 0.005
24 4.573 1.690 4.875 0.026 0.040

23 -3.200 -1.600 3.578

15 -5.544 -2.893 6.253 0.037 0.075
24 2.389 1.276 2.708 0.009 0.019

24 -8.700 -2.400 9.025

22 -4.547 -1.650 4.837 0.026 0.040
23 -2.379 -1.258 2.691 0.009 0.019
25 -1.835 0.487 1.899 0.007 0.011

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 25 0.000 0.000 0.000
24 1.842 -0.476 1.903 0.007 0.011
26 3.522 2.351 4.235 0.044 0.065
27 -5.351 -1.826 5.654 0.033 0.064

26 -3.500 -2.300 4.188

25 -3.479 -2.286 4.163 0.044 0.065

27 0.000 0.000 0.000

25 5.384 1.890 5.706 0.033 0.064
28 -18.703 -5.248 19.425 0.000 1.401
29 6.152 1.640 6.367 0.084 0.158
30 7.086 1.654 7.277 0.159 0.299

28 0.000 0.000 0.000

27 18.703 6.649 19.850 0.000 1.401 0.968
8 0.659 -16.652 16.665 0.020 -44.099
6 -19.292 9.914 21.690 0.105 -13.106

29 -2.400 -0.900 2.563

27 -6.069 -1.482 6.247 0.084 0.158
30 3.732 0.622 3.784 0.033 0.063

30 -10.600 -1.900 10.769

27 -6.927 -1.355 7.059 0.159 0.299
29 -3.699 -0.559 3.741 0.033 0.063

Total loss 17.700 -17.57

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 EXPERIMENT 11
“Load Flow Analysis Using Newton-Raphson Method in MATLAB”
Example # 6.11:
Load flow analysis using Newton Raphson method.

MATLAB Code:
clear; clc;
basemva=100;
accuracy=0.001;
maxiter=12;
busdata=[1 1 1.06 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
2 2 1.043 0 21.70 12.7 40.0 0.0 -40 50 0
3 0 1.0 0 2.4 1.2 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 1.06 0 7.6 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
5 2 1.01 0 94.2 19 0 0 -40 40 0
60100000000
7 0 1 0 22.8 10.9 0 0 0 0 0
8 2 1.01 0 30 30 0 0 -10 40 0
901 00000000
10 0 1 0 5.8 2 0 0 0 0 19
11 2 1.082 0 0 0 0 0 -6 24 0
12 0 1 0 11.2 7.5 0 0 0 0 0
13 2 1.071 0 0 0 0 0 -6 24 0
14 0 1 0 6.2 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
15 0 1 0 8.2 2.5 0 0 0 0 0
16 0 1 0 3.5 1.8 0 0 0 0 0
17 0 1.0 0 9 5.8 0 0 0 0 0
18 0 1.0 0 3.2 0.9 0 0 0 0 0
19 0 1 0 9.5 3.4 0 0 0 0 0
20 0 1 0 2.2 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
21 0 1 0 17.5 11.2 0 0 0 0 0
22 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 0 1 0 3.2 1.6 0 0 0 0 0
24 0 1 0 8.7 6.7 0 0 0 0 4.3
25 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
26 0 1 0 3.5 2.3 0 0 0 0 0
27 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
28 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
29 0 1 0 2.4 0.9 0 0 0 0 0
30 0 1 0 10.6 1.9 0 0 0 0 0];

linedata=[1 2 0.0192 0.0575 0.02640 1

1 3 0.0452 0.1852 0.02040 1
2 4 0.0570 0.1737 0.014840 1

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 3 4 0.0132 0.0379 0.00420 1
2 5 0.0472 0.1983 0.02090 1
2 6 0.0581 0.1763 0.01870 1
4 6 0.0119 0.0414 0.00450 1
5 7 0.0460 0.1160 0.01020 1
6 7 0.0267 0.0820 0.00850 1
6 8 0.0120 0.0420 0.00450 1
6 9 0.0 0.2080 0.0 0.978
6 10 0.0 0.5560 0.0 0.969
9 11 0.0 0.2080 0.0 1
9 10 0.0 0.1100 0.0 1
4 12 0.0 0.2560 0.0 0.932
12 13 0.0 0.1400 0.0 1
12 14 0.1231 0.2559 0.0 1
12 15 0.0662 1.1304 0.0 1
14 15 0.2210 0.1997 0.0 1
16 17 0.0824 0.1923 0.0 1
15 18 0.1073 0.2185 0.0 1
18 19 0.0639 0.1292 0.1 1
19 20 0.0340 0.0680 0.0 1
10 20 0.0936 0.2090 0.0 1
10 17 0.0324 0.0845 0.0 1
10 21 0.0348 0.0749 0.0 1
10 22 0.0727 0.1499 0.0 1
21 22 0.0116 0.0236 0.0 1
15 23 0.1 0.2020 0.0 1
22 24 0.1150 0.1790 0.0 1
23 24 0.1320 0.27 0.0 1
24 25 0.1885 0.3292 0.0 1
25 26 0.2544 0.38 0.0 1
25 27 0.1093 0.2087 0.0 1
28 27 0.0000 0.3960 0.0 0.968
27 29 0.2198 0.4153 0.0 1
27 30 0.3202 0.6027 0.0 1
29 30 0.2399 0.4533 0.0 1
8 28 0.0636 0.2000 0.0214 1
6 28 0.0169 0.0599 0.065 1];
lfybus
lfnewton
busout
lineflow

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 Result:

Power Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson Method

Maximum Power Mismatch = 7.80426e-07

No. of Iterations = 4

Bus Voltage Angle ------Load------ ---Generation--- Injected

No. Mag. Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Mvar

1 1.060 0.000 0.000 0.000 261.104 -17.937 0.000

2 1.043 -5.495 21.700 12.700 40.000 45.900 0.000

3 1.023 -8.029 2.400 1.200 0.000 0.000 0.000

4 1.015 -9.691 7.600 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000

5 1.010 -14.364 94.200 19.000 0.000 34.402 0.000

6 1.015 -11.439 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

7 1.005 -13.166 22.800 10.900 0.000 0.000 0.000

8 1.010 -12.105 30.000 30.000 0.000 -1.548 0.000

9 1.053 -14.426 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

10 1.047 -15.991 5.800 2.000 0.000 0.000 19.000

11 1.082 -14.426 0.000 0.000 0.000 14.971 0.000

12 1.059 -15.316 11.200 7.500 0.000 0.000 0.000

13 1.071 -15.316 0.000 0.000 0.000 9.557 0.000

14 1.044 -16.213 6.200 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000

15 1.039 -16.311 8.200 2.500 0.000 0.000 0.000

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 16 1.047 -15.875 3.500 1.800 0.000 0.000 0.000

17 1.042 -16.163 9.000 5.800 0.000 0.000 0.000

18 1.030 -16.891 3.200 0.900 0.000 0.000 0.000

19 1.027 -17.045 9.500 3.400 0.000 0.000 0.000

20 1.032 -16.838 2.200 0.700 0.000 0.000 0.000

21 1.030 -16.630 17.500 11.200 0.000 0.000 0.000

22 1.029 -16.674 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

23 1.028 -16.758 3.200 1.600 0.000 0.000 0.000

24 1.021 -17.012 8.700 6.700 0.000 0.000 4.300

25 1.023 -16.629 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

26 1.006 -17.043 3.500 2.300 0.000 0.000 0.000

27 1.033 -16.130 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

28 1.022 -12.236 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

29 1.013 -17.337 2.400 0.900 0.000 0.000 0.000

30 1.002 -18.203 10.600 1.900 0.000 0.000 0.000

Total 283.400 126.200 301.104 85.344 23.300

Line Flow and Losses

--Line-- Power at bus & line flow --Line loss-- Transformer

from to MW Mvar MVA MW Mvar tap

1 261.104 -17.937 261.720

2 177.726 -22.136 179.099 5.460 10.514
3 83.378 4.199 83.484 2.814 7.100
2 18.300 33.200 37.909
1 -172.266 32.650 175.333 5.460 10.514
4 45.742 1.534 45.768 1.103 -0.536
5 82.853 1.714 82.870 2.985 8.136

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 6 61.971 -2.698 62.030 2.051 2.264
3 -2.400 -1.200 2.683
1 -80.565 2.902 80.617 2.814 7.100
4 78.165 -4.102 78.272 0.772 1.345
4 -7.600 -1.600 7.767
2 -44.639 -2.070 44.687 1.103 -0.536
3 -77.393 5.446 77.584 0.772 1.345
6 70.297 -20.063 73.104 0.615 1.214
12 44.134 15.086 46.642 0.000 4.697 0.932
5 -94.200 15.402 95.451
2 -79.867 6.422 80.125 2.985 8.136
7 -14.333 8.980 16.914 0.138 -1.723
6 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 -59.920 4.962 60.125 2.051 2.264
4 -69.682 21.277 72.858 0.615 1.214
7 37.638 -0.410 37.640 0.367 -0.607
8 29.484 3.504 29.691 0.103 -0.562
9 27.384 -6.934 28.248 0.000 1.541 0.978
10 15.658 0.677 15.673 -0.000 1.245 0.969
28 19.438 -23.075 30.171 0.106 -13.105
7 -22.800 -10.900 25.272
5 14.471 -10.703 17.999 0.138 -1.723
6 -37.271 -0.197 37.271 0.367 -0.607
8 -30.000 -31.548 43.535
6 -29.381 -4.066 29.661 0.103 -0.562
28 -0.619 -27.483 27.490 0.020 -44.101
9 0.000 0.000 0.000
6 -27.384 8.475 28.665 0.000 1.541
11 0.000 -14.573 14.573 0.000 0.398
10 27.384 6.098 28.055 0.000 0.780
10 -5.800 17.000 17.962
6 -15.658 0.567 15.668 -0.000 1.245
9 -27.384 -5.318 27.896 0.000 0.780
20 9.311 3.727 10.029 0.086 0.192
17 5.662 4.665 7.336 0.016 0.041
21 22.269 13.358 25.968 0.214 0.461
11 0.000 14.971 14.971
9 -0.000 14.971 14.971 0.000 0.398
12 -11.200 -7.500 13.479
4 -44.134 -10.389 45.341 0.000 4.697
13 -0.000 -9.445 9.445 0.000 0.111
14 7.914 2.402 8.270 0.075 0.156
15 18.108 6.832 19.355 0.221 0.436
16 6.912 3.100 7.575 0.048 0.102
13 0.000 9.557 9.557
12 0.000 9.557 9.557 0.000 0.111
14 -6.200 -1.600 6.403
12 -7.839 -2.245 8.154 0.075 0.156

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 15 1.639 0.645 1.761 0.006 0.006
15 -8.200 -2.500 8.573
12 -17.887 -6.396 18.996 0.221 0.436
14 -1.633 -0.640 1.753 0.006 0.006
18 5.732 1.581 5.946 0.035 0.072
23 5.588 2.954 6.321 0.037 0.075
16 -3.500 -1.800 3.936
12 -6.863 -2.998 7.490 0.048 0.102
17 3.363 1.198 3.571 0.010 0.022
17 -9.000 -5.800 10.707
16 -3.354 -1.176 3.554 0.010 0.022
10 -5.646 -4.624 7.298 0.016 0.041
18 -3.200 -0.900 3.324
15 -5.697 -1.510 5.894 0.035 0.072
19 2.497 0.610 2.570 0.004 0.008
19 -9.500 -3.400 10.090
18 -2.493 -0.602 2.565 0.004 0.008
20 -7.007 -2.798 7.545 0.018 0.037
20 -2.200 -0.700 2.309
19 7.025 2.835 7.576 0.018 0.037
10 -9.225 -3.535 9.879 0.086 0.192
21 -17.500 -11.200 20.777
10 -22.055 -12.898 25.549 0.214 0.461
22 4.555 1.698 4.861 0.003 0.005
22 0.000 0.000 0.000
21 -4.552 -1.693 4.857 0.003 0.005
24 4.552 1.693 4.857 0.026 0.040
23 -3.200 -1.600 3.578
15 -5.551 -2.880 6.253 0.037 0.075
24 2.351 1.280 2.676 0.009 0.018
24 -8.700 -2.400 9.025
22 -4.527 -1.653 4.819 0.026 0.040
23 -2.342 -1.261 2.660 0.009 0.018
25 -1.832 0.514 1.902 0.007 0.011
25 0.000 0.000 0.000
24 1.838 -0.503 1.906 0.007 0.011
26 3.544 2.366 4.261 0.044 0.066
27 -5.382 -1.863 5.696 0.034 0.065
26 -3.500 -2.300 4.188
25 -3.500 -2.300 4.188 0.044 0.066
27 0.000 0.000 0.000
25 5.416 1.928 5.749 0.034 0.065
28 -18.693 -5.249 19.416 0.000 1.400
29 6.188 1.664 6.408 0.085 0.160
30 7.089 1.657 7.280 0.159 0.299
28 0.000 0.000 0.000
27 18.693 6.649 19.840 0.000 1.400 0.968
8 0.640 -16.618 16.630 0.020 -44.101

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 6 -19.332 9.969 21.751 0.106 -13.105
29 -2.400 -0.900 2.563
27 -6.103 -1.504 6.286 0.085 0.160
30 3.703 0.604 3.752 0.033 0.062
30 -10.600 -1.900 10.769
27 -6.930 -1.358 7.062 0.159 0.299
29 -3.670 -0.542 3.710 0.033 0.062
Total loss 17.704 -17.555

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 EXPERIMENT 12
“To Evaluate VOLTAGES For a 4-Bus System Using Node Eq. in MATLAB”

This lab is very simple. In this lab we are given a Ybus matrix and a current matrix and we have to find the
corresponding voltages for the given system.
Before going to Lab task some important definitions are needed to be revised.
NODE:
node refers to any point on a circuit where two or more circuit elements meet. For two nodes to
be different, their voltages must be different.
ADMITTANCE:
Admittance (Y) is a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as
the inverse of the impedance (Z). The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (symbol S).
Ybus MATRIX:
In power engineering, admittance matrix or Ybus matric is an n x n matrix describing a power system with n
buses. It represents the nodal admittance of the buses in a power system. The Y Matrix is also one of the
data requirements needed to formulate a power flow study.
SELF ADMITTANCE:
The Y Matrix diagonal elements are called the self-admittances at the nodes, and each
equals the sum of all the admittances terminating on the node identified by the repeated subscripts.
MUTUAL ADMITTANCE:
The non-diagonal elements of Ybus are the mutual admittances of the nodes, and each equals the negative of
the sum of all admittances connected directly between the nodes identified by the double subscripts.

PROPERTIES OF Ybus MATRIX:

Following are some general properties of Ybus matrix.
i. It is always a symmetrical matrix
ii. Its Diagonal elements are +ive.
iii. Its Non-diagonal elements are _ive.
iv. It is a complex matrix.
v. Mostly it is non-singular matrix.
vi. It is a sparse matrix. i.e. most of the entities are zero

LAB TASK:
For the given Ybus and I matrices, find corresponding V matrix.
9.8𝑗 0 4𝑗 5𝑗
0 −8.3𝑗 2.5𝑗 5𝑗
𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 = [ ]
4𝑗 2.5𝑗 −15.3𝑗 8𝑗
3𝑗 5𝑗 8𝑗 −18𝑗

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 −1.2𝑗
−0.72 − 0.96𝑗
𝐼=[ ]
−1.2𝑗
0

𝑉 = [? ]
We know that
𝑉 = 𝐼∗𝑅
Or
𝐼
𝑉 =𝑅 =𝐼∗𝑌
This is the basic formula that we are going to use in our MATLAB code.
MATLAB CODE:
Y_BUS = [ 9.8j 0 4j 5j
0 -8.3j 2.5j 5j
4j 2.5j -15.3j 8j
3j 5j 8j -18j];
I = [-1.2j
-0.72-0.96j
-1.2j
0];
Z= inv(Y_BUS)
V=Z*I
RESULT:
On running the written code. Following results will be obtained in the main MATLAB window.
Z=
Columns 1 through 3
0 - 0.0634i 0 - 0.0492i 0 - 0.0534i
0 - 0.0377i 0 + 0.1703i 0 + 0.0485i
0 - 0.0439i 0 + 0.0461i 0 + 0.0804i
0 - 0.0406i 0 + 0.0596i 0 + 0.0403i
Column 4
0 - 0.0550i
0 + 0.0584i
0 + 0.0363i
0 + 0.0788i
V=
-0.1874 + 0.0354i
0.1765 - 0.1226i
0.0880 - 0.0332i
0.0569 - 0.0429i

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