NAME: MEHAK WAHAB

PROFESSOR: SIR. IBRAR

PAPER: GENERAL GENETICS
CLASS: MICROBIOLOGY, 2nd
SEMESTER, MORNING
DATE: 18-07-2021

CENTRE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND

MICROBIOLOGY
QUESTION 1 (a):
REASONS OF SUCCESS OF MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS:
The main reasons for the success of Mendel are the following:
1. He made a statistical analysis of the offspring
2. He first took only one character at a time in his cross
3. He kept pedigree records
4. He selected pea plants as pea plant is bisexual, annual and its life cycle is short.
5. He only chose those characters that were contrasting.

QUESTION 1 (b):
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONOHYBRIB AND DIHYBRID CROSSES:
MONOHYBRID CROSS:
• Mono refers to single and hybrid means mixed breed.
• A monohybrid cross is defined as the cross happening in the F1 generation
offspring of parents differing in one trait only.
• It is used to study the inheritance of a single pair of alleles.
• Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
• Phenotypic ratio: 3:1

DIHYBRID CROSS:
• Di refers to two or double and hybrid means breed.
• A dihybrid cross is a cross happens in F1 generation offspring of parents
differing in two traits.
• It is used to study the inheritance of two different alleles.
• Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
• Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1
QUESTION 1 (c):
MENDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION:
Mendel’s Law of Segregation states that a diploid organism passes a randomly
selected allele for a trait to its offspring, such that the offspring receives one allele
from each parent.
• The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair
of alleles (copy) for a particular trait.
• Each parent passes an allele at random to their offspring resulting in a
diploid organism.
• The allele that contains the dominant trait determines the phenotype of
the offspring.
• In essence, the law states that copies of genes separate or segregate so
that each gamete receives only one allele.

MENDEL’S LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT:

• Mendel's law of independent assortment states that the alleles of two (or
more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one
another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not
influence the allele received for another gene.
• Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that genes do not influence
each other with regard to the sorting of alleles into gametes: every possible
combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur.
• The independent assortment of genes can be illustrated by the dihybrid
cross: a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different
traits for two characteristics.
• Consider the characteristics of seed color and seed texture for two pea
plants: one that has green, wrinkled seeds (yyrr) and another that has
yellow, round seeds (YYRR). Because each parent is homozygous, the law of
segregation indicates that the gametes for the green/wrinkled plant all are
yr, while the gametes for the yellow/round plant are all YR. Therefore, the
F1 generation of offspring all are YyRr.
For the F2 generation, the law of segregation requires that each gamete receive
either an R allele or an r allele along with either a Y allele or a y allele. The law of
independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele sorted would
be equally likely to contain either a Y allele or a y allele. Thus, there are four
equally likely gametes that can be formed when the YyRr heterozygote is self-
crossed as follows: YR, Yr, yR, and yr. Arranging these gametes along the top and
left of a 4 × 4 Punnett square gives us 16 equally likely genotypic combinations.
From these genotypes, we infer a phenotypic ratio of 9 round/yellow:3
round/green:3 wrinkled/yellow:1 wrinkled/green. These are the offspring ratios
we would expect, assuming we performed the crosses with a large enough
sample size.

Because of independent assortment and dominance, the 9:3:3:1 dihybrid

phenotypic ratio can be collapsed into two 3:1 ratios, characteristic of any
monohybrid cross that follows a dominant and recessive pattern. Ignoring seed
color and considering only seed texture in the above dihybrid cross, we would
expect that three-quarters of the F2 generation offspring would be round and
one-quarter would be wrinkled. Similarly, isolating only seed color, we would
assume that three-quarters of the F2offspring would be yellow and one-quarter
would be green. The sorting of alleles for texture and color are independent
events, so we can apply the product rule. Therefore, the proportion of round and
yellow F2 offspring is expected to be (3/4) × (3/4) = 9/16, and the proportion of
wrinkled and green offspring is expected to be (1/4) × (1/4) = 1/16. These
proportions are identical to those obtained using a Punnett square. Round/green
and wrinkled/yellow offspring can also be calculated using the product rule as
each of these genotypes includes one dominant and one recessive phenotype.
Therefore, the proportion of each is calculated as (3/4) × (1/4) = 3/16.
QUESTION 2 (a):
If we cross homozygous round yellow and homozygous wrinkled green, then in
the F1 generation all the offsprings are heterozygous plants with round, yellow
seeds and the genotype RrYy. Next we cross the two plants from F1 generation.
9 round, yellow: 3 round, green: 3 wrinkled, yellow: 1 wrinkled, green

QUESTION 2(b):
REASONS:
MENDEL hoped that the highly polymorphic genus Hieracium would be
particularly promising for verifying the laws of inheritance that he had discovered
while working on Pisum. But all his incredibly painstaking emasculation and
crossing experiments on Hieracium led to results that, to his consternation,
seemingly stood in direct contradiction to his laws:
• The F1 hybrids from crossings between, as he thought, “true breeding”
strains were not uniform, as in Pisum; rather they varied in every
conceivable way.
• The putative F2 generations, on the contrary, were uniform and did not
segregate for any characters, as he would have expected.
These puzzling results caused Mendel to consider how much Pisum and Hieracium
might represent divergent laws of inheritance.

QUESTION 3 (a):
FUNCTIONS OF M-CDK:
All eukaryotes have multiple cyclins, each of which acts during a specific stage of
the cell cycle. (In organisms with multiple CDKs, each CDK is paired with a specific
cyclin.) All cyclins are named according to the stage at which they assemble with
CDKs. Common classes of cyclins include G1-phase cyclins, G1/S-phase cyclins, S-
phase cyclins, and M-phase cyclins. M-phase cyclins form M-CDK complexes and
drive the cell's entry into mitosis; G1 cyclins form G1-CDK complexes and guide
the cell's progress through the G1 phase; and so on.
All CDKs exist in similar amounts throughout the entire cell cycle. In contrast,
cyclin manufacture and breakdown varies by stage — with cell cycle progression
dependent on the synthesis of new cyclin molecules. Accordingly, cells synthesize
G1- and G1/S-cyclins at different times during the G1 phase, and they produce M-
cyclin molecules during the G2 phase. Cyclin degradation is equally important for
progression through the cell cycle. Specific enzymes break down cyclins at defined
times in the cell cycle. When cyclin levels decrease, the corresponding CDKs
become inactive. Cell cycle arrest can occur if cyclins fail to degrade.
M-CDKs also influence the assembly of the mitotic spindle by phosphorylating
proteins that regulate microtubule behavior. The net effect of these coordinated
phosphorylation reactions is the accurate separation of chromosomes during
mitosis.

QUESTION 3 (c):