EVS Combined PDF

CE101
Environmental Science
Lecture 1 - Introduction to Environmental Science &

Concept of Ecosystem
Environmental Science?
• What it is?
• How important it is for us?
• What is the need to understand this?
• What are the benefits of understanding this?
• Why should we be responsible and sensitive towards environment?
Some visuals to get started…
Course Objectives
This course enables the students:
Course Outcomes
After the completion of this course, students will be:
Reading Resources
Assessment & Mapping
Ecology and Environmental Science
• Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of interactions
between organisms and their environment
• Ecology deals with numerous and varied components of nature, which
can be categorized such as climate, soil, litter lying over soil, plants,
animals, production decomposition, diversity, dominance etc. and the
linkages existing between them (e.g., how diversity is related to
production or litter lying over soil to production)
• Environmental Science is an applied science with an emphasis on the
analysis of human impacts on the physical, chemical and biological
environment of earth
• Environmental Science is a multidisciplinary field that integrates
ecology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology, climatology,
environmental economics and political science
Ecosystems
• Ecology can be approached from the viewpoints of
1. the environment and the demands it places on the organisms in it or
2. organisms and how they adapt to their environmental conditions
• Ecosystem - Any unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area
interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads
to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles
within the system
• An ecosystem consists of an assembly of mutually interacting organisms
and their environment in which materials are interchanged in a largely
cyclical manner
Ecosystem
• An ecosystem has physical, chemical, and biological components along
with energy sources and pathways of energy and materials interchange
• The environment in which a particular organism lives is called its habitat
• The role of an organism in a habitat is called its niche
For the study of ecology it is often convenient to divide the
environment into four broad categories
• Terrestrial environment - The terrestrial environment is based on land
and consists of biomes, such as grasslands, one of several kinds of
forests, savannas, or deserts.
• Freshwater environment - The freshwater environment can be further
subdivided between standing-water habitats (lakes, reservoirs) and
running-water habitats (streams, rivers)
• Oceanic marine environment - The oceanic marine environment is
characterized by saltwater and may be divided broadly into the shallow
waters of the continental shelf composing the neritic zone
• Oceanic region - The deeper waters of the ocean that constitute the
oceanic region
Two major subdivisions of modern ecology are
• Ecosystem ecology - which views ecosystems as large units
• Population ecology - which attempts to explain ecosystem behavior from
the properties of individual units
• Descriptive ecology describes the types and nature of organisms and

their environment, emphasizing structures of ecosystems and
communities and dispersions and structures of populations
• Functional ecology explains how things work in an ecosystem, including
how populations respond to environmental alteration and how matter
and energy move through ecosystems
Ecosystems are broadly divided into natural and artificial
• Natural ecosystems are those that are existing in nature; they are further classified
into terrestrial and aquatic.
• Terrestrial includes hot desert, grass land, tropical and temperate rainforest
• Aquatic includes ponds, river, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans, mangroves, swamps and bays etc.
• These two ecosystems are self regulating, open system with a free exchange of inputs and outputs
with other systems
• Artificial ecosystems are simple, human-made, unstable and subjected to human
intervention and manipulation
• Usually, it is formed by clearing a part of the forest or grassland e.g. crop field, agricultural land
Structure and Function of an ecosystem
• An ecosystem has two components the biotic components consisting of

living things, and the abiotic portion, consisting of elements that are not
alive
• Non-living includes habitat, gases, solar radiation, temperature, moisture and
inorganic and organic nutrients
• Biotic includes living organisms may be sub divided into producers, consumers and
decomposers
• Abiotic components include basic inorganic and organic components of
the environment or habitat of the organism
• The inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, water nitrogen,
calcium phosphate all of which are involved in matter cycle (biogeochemical cycles)
• The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
amino acids, all of which are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an
ecosystem and are reached to ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains etc.
Components of an ecosystem
• Complete ecosystem consists of four basic components such as producers, consumers,
decomposers and abiotic components e.g. Pond. If anyone of these four components
are lacking, then it is grouped under incomplete ecosystem e.g. Ocean depth or a cave
• Productivity in the Environment: The productivity of an ecosystem is the rate at which
solar energy is fixed by the vegetation of the ecosystem; it is further classified into
primary productivity (g/m2/yr), secondary productivity and net productivity
• Interactions among living organisms are grouped into two major groups
1. Positive interactions
2. Negative interactions
• Positive interactions - Here the populations help one another, the interaction being
either one way or reciprocal
• These include (i) Commensalism, (ii) Proto co-operation and (iii) mutualism
• Commensalism - In this one species derives the benefits while the other is unaffected
• Cellulolytic fungi produce several organic acids from cellulose which serve as carbon sources for
non-cellulolytic bacteria and fungi
• Growth factors are synthesized by certain microorganisms and their excretion permits the
proliferation of nutritionally complex soil inhabitant
• Proto-cooperation - It is also called as non-obligatory mutualism. It is an association
of mutual benefit to the two species but without the co-operation being obligatory
for their existence or for their performance of reactions
• N2 can be fixed by Azotobacter with cellulose as energy source provided that a cellulose
decomposer is present to convert the cellulose to simple sugars or organic acids
• Mutualism - Here both the species derive benefit. In such association there occurs a
close and often permanent and obligatory contact more or less essential for survival
of each
• Pollination by animals. Bees, moths, butterflies etc. derive food from hectar, or other plant
product and in turn bring about pollination
• Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
Negative Interactions
• Member of one population may eat members of the other population,
compete for foods, excrete harmful wastes or otherwise interfere with
the other population
• It includes
1. Competition
2. Predation
3. Parasitism
4. Antibiosis
• Competition - It is a condition in which there is a suppression of one organism as the
two species struggle for limiting quantities of nutrients or other requirements
• Predation - A predator is free living which catches and kills another species for food.
Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivorous)
also, especially fungi, which feed upon other animals
• Grazing and browsing by animals on plants
• Carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes, Darligtoria, Drosera etc. consume insects and other small
animals for food
• Protozoans feeding on bacteria
• Parasitism - A parasite is the organism living on or in the body of another organisms
and deriving its food more or less permanently from its tissues. A typical parasite lives
in its host without killing it, whereas the predator kills its upon which it feeds
• Antibiosis - The phenomenon of the production of antibiotic is called as antibiosis.
Antibiotic is an organic substance produced by one organism which in low
concentration inhibits the growth of other organism
CE101
Lecture 2 & 3 – Ecosystem Structure, Function & Services

Structure and Function of an ecosystem
• An ecosystem has two components the biotic components consisting of

living things, and the abiotic portion, consisting of elements that are not
alive
• Non-living includes habitat, gases, solar radiation, temperature, moisture and
inorganic and organic nutrients
• Biotic includes living organisms may be sub divided into producers, consumers and
decomposers
• Abiotic components include basic inorganic and organic components of the
environment or habitat of the organism
• The inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, water nitrogen,
calcium phosphate all of which are involved in matter cycle (biogeochemical cycles)
• The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
amino acids, all of which are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an
ecosystem and are reached to ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains etc.
Components of an ecosystem
• Complete ecosystem consists of four basic components such as producers,
consumers, decomposers and abiotic components e.g. Pond. If anyone of these four
components are lacking, then it is grouped under incomplete ecosystem e.g. Ocean
depth or a cave
• Productivity in the Environment: The productivity of an ecosystem is the rate at
which solar energy is fixed by the vegetation of the ecosystem; it is further classified
into primary productivity (g/m2/yr), secondary productivity and net productivity
• Interactions among living organisms are grouped into two major groups
1. Positive interactions
2. Negative interactions
• Positive interactions - Here the populations help one another, the interaction being
either one way or reciprocal
• These include (i) Commensalism, (ii) Proto co-operation and (iii) mutualism
• Commensalism - In this one species derives the benefits while the other is unaffected
• Cellulolytic fungi produce several organic acids from cellulose which serve as carbon sources for
non-cellulolytic bacteria and fungi
• Growth factors are synthesized by certain microorganisms and their excretion permits the
proliferation of nutritionally complex soil inhabitant
• Proto-cooperation - It is also called as non-obligatory mutualism. It is an association
of mutual benefit to the two species but without the co-operation being obligatory
for their existence or for their performance of reactions
• N2 can be fixed by Azotobacter with cellulose as energy source provided that a cellulose
decomposer is present to convert the cellulose to simple sugars or organic acids
• Mutualism - Here both the species derive benefit. In such association there occurs a
close and often permanent and obligatory contact more or less essential for survival
of each
• Pollination by animals. Bees, moths, butterflies etc. derive food from hectar, or other plant
product and in turn bring about pollination
• Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
Negative Interactions
• Member of one population may eat members of the other population,
compete for foods, excrete harmful wastes or otherwise interfere with
the other population
• It includes
1. Competition
2. Predation
3. Parasitism
4. Antibiosis
• Competition - It is a condition in which there is a suppression of one organism as the
two species struggle for limiting quantities of nutrients or other requirements
• Predation - A predator is free living which catches and kills another species for food.
Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivorous)
also, especially fungi, which feed upon other animals
• Grazing and browsing by animals on plants
• Carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes, Darligtoria, Drosera etc. consume insects and other small
animals for food
• Protozoans feeding on bacteria
• Parasitism - A parasite is the organism living on or in the body of another organisms
and deriving its food more or less permanently from its tissues. A typical parasite lives
in its host without killing it, whereas the predator kills its upon which it feeds
• Antibiosis - The phenomenon of the production of antibiotic is called as antibiosis.
Antibiotic is an organic substance produced by one organism which in low
concentration inhibits the growth of other organism
Ecosystem Functions
1. Energy Flow
2. Biogeochemical cycles
Image Source: http://bcgrasslands.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/gcc_e-boo

k_grassland-ecosystems.pdf
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
• First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.
• Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred
more and more of it is wasted.
• Autotrophs (Producers)
• Heterotrophs (Consumers)
• Phagotrophs (Macroconsumers) Can you give examples?
• Saprotrophs (Microconsumers also known as decomposers) Can you give
examples?
• Aquatic ecosystem and forest ecosystem –
• Both systems need nutrients such as C, N, P, trace elements
• Can you name autotrophs, macroconsumers and microconsumers in these two?
Energy Flow
• Primary productivity (Photosynthesis)
• Heterotrophs depend upon energy produced by primary producers
• Herbivorous animals derive the energy by ingesting plants or parts of it
• Carnivorous animals derive the energy by ingesting herbivorous (first
order carnivores), carnivores serve as source of energy to other
carnivorous animals (second order carnivores)
• The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.
• Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.
• Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level
• Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.
• First trophic level, second trophic level and third trophic level, such linear
arrangement is called food chain
• Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is
the normal food chain that we
observe in which plants are the
producers and the energy flows
from the producers to the
herbivores (primary consumers),
then to carnivores(secondary
consumers) and so on.
• Saprophytic or Detritus food chain
(DFC) – In this type of food chain,
the dead organic matter occupies
the lowermost level of the food
chain, followed by the decomposers
and so on.
Image source: Cain et al. 2008
• Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this
type of food chain, large organisms
• At each trophic level some energy is lost as heat and respiration, so either producer or consumer is
available energy decreases as one moves away from first trophic exploited and therefore the food
level passes to the smaller organisms
• Detritus is non-living organic material particulate in nature
Ecosystem Services
• Ecosystem services is the capacity of natural processes and components to
provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, either directly or
indirectly
• Ecosystem services are subset of ecological processes and ecosystem
structures
• Each service is the result of the natural processes of the total ecological sub-
system of which it is a part
• Natural processes, in turn, are the result of complex interactions between
biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (chemical and physical) components of
ecosystems through the universal driving forces of matter and energy
• There are four primary groups of ecosystem services
1. Provisioning services
2. Regulatory services
3. Supporting services
4. Cultural services
1. Provisioning services (Food, water and other resources)
Food
• Ecosystems provide the conditions for growing food
• Food comes principally from managed agro-ecosystems but marine and freshwater systems or forests
also provide food for human consumption
• Wild foods from forests are often underestimated
Raw Materials
• Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials for construction and fuel including wood, biofuels and
plant oils that are directly derived from wild and cultivated plant species
Fresh water
• Ecosystems play a vital role in the global hydrological cycle, as they regulate the flow and purification of
water
• Vegetation and forests influence the quantity of water available locally
Medicinal resources
• Ecosystems and biodiversity provide many plants used as traditional medicines as well as providing the
raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry
• All ecosystems are a potential source of medicinal resources
2. Regulating services (regulating the quality of air and soil or by providing flood
and disease control)
•Air quality regulation: Ecosystems both contribute chemicals to and extract chemicals from
the atmosphere, influencing many aspects of air quality
•Climate regulation:
 Ecosystems influence climate both locally and globally
 For e.g., at a local scale, changes in land cover can affect both temperature and precipitation
 At the global scale, ecosystems play an important role in climate by either sequestering or emitting greenhouse gases
•Water regulation: Timing and magnitude of runoff, flooding, and aquifer recharge can be
strongly influenced by changes in land cover, including, in particular, alterations that change
the water storage potential of the system, such as the conversion of wetlands or the
replacement of forests with croplands or croplands with urban areas
•Erosion regulation: Vegetative cover plays an important role in soil retention and the
prevention of landslides
• Water purification and waste treatment: Ecosystems can be a source of impurities (e.g., in
fresh water) but also can help to filter out and decompose organic wastes introduced into
inland waters and coastal and marine ecosystems and assimilate and detoxify compounds
through soil and sub-soil processes
• Disease regulation: Changes in ecosystems can directly change the abundance of human
pathogens, such as cholera, and can alter the abundance of disease vectors, such as
mosquitoes
• Pest regulation: Ecosystem changes affect the prevalence of crop and livestock pests and
diseases
• Pollination: Ecosystem changes affect the distribution, abundance, and effectiveness of
pollinators
• Natural hazard regulation: The presence of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and
coral reefs can reduce the damage caused by hurricanes or large waves
3. Supporting services
•Supporting services are those that are necessary for the production of all
other ecosystem services
•They differ from provisioning, regulating, and cultural services in that their
impacts on people are often indirect or occur over a very long time, whereas
changes in the other categories have relatively direct and short-term impacts
on people
•Some services, like erosion regulation, can be categorized as both a
supporting and a regulating service, depending on the time scale and
immediacy of their impact on people
• Soil Formation: Many provisioning services depend on soil fertility, the rate of
soil formation influences human well-being in many ways
• Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis produces oxygen necessary for most living
organisms
• Primary Production: The assimilation or accumulation of energy and
nutrients by organisms
• Nutrient cycling: Approximately 20 nutrients essential for life, including
nitrogen and phosphorus, cycle through ecosystems and are maintained at
different concentrations in different parts of ecosystems
• Water cycling: Water cycles through ecosystems and is essential for living
organisms
4. Cultural Services
(These are the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic
experiences)
•Cultural diversity: The diversity of ecosystems is one factor influencing the diversity of
cultures
•Spiritual and religious values: Many religions attach spiritual and religious values to
ecosystems or their components
•Knowledge systems (traditional and formal): Ecosystems influence the types of knowledge
systems developed by different cultures
•Educational values: Ecosystems and their components and processes provide the basis for
both formal and informal education in many societies
•Inspiration: Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art, folklore, national
symbols, architecture, and advertising
4. Cultural Services
•Aesthetic values: Many people find beauty or aesthetic value in various aspects
of ecosystems, as reflected in the support for parks, scenic drives, and the
selection of housing locations
•Social relations: Ecosystems influence the types of social relations that are
established in particular cultures. Fishing societies, for e.g., differ in many
respects in their social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies
•Sense of place: Many people value the "sense of place" that is associated with
recognized features of their environment, including aspects of the ecosystem
•Cultural heritage values: Many societies place high value on the maintenance of
either historically important landscapes ("cultural landscapes") or culturally
significant species
•Recreation and ecotourism: People often choose where to spend their leisure
time based in part on the characteristics of the natural or cultivated landscapes
in a particular area
CE101
Lecture 4
Energy Flow
Energy flows
• Energy for most ecosystems on earth comes from the sun.
• Light energy is converted to chemical energy by producers to power
their own metabolism.
• Energy is lost from the earth as heat.
• 10% rule
Energy Loss
• At each step in a food chain or
food web, energy is lost as heat.
Each organism takes in energy
to meet its own needs, so most
of the energy taken in is
converted to motion and heat
• 10% or less of the energy
consumed will be available to
the next consumer.
Image Source: Biology: Life on Earth, 8/e. 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.
Energy Pyramid
• Because 90% or more of
consumed energy is used
by the organism, and only a
small amount can be
passed on, the entire
system is inefficient.
• The higher an organism is
on the food chain; the
greater amount of biomass
is required to support that
organism.
Net Productivity
• Net primary productivity is the energy that producers can make available
to a community at any one time.
• Net productivity determines how much life an ecosystem supports.
• Productivity can be measured in calories (units of energy) or biomass
(amount of organic material) g/m2
Food Webs
• A food web is a model of energy
flow in a community.
• Arrows indicate the direction in
which energy flows from one
organism to the next.
• A single organism will be
involved in many food chains,
and some will occupy several
trophic levels.
Image Source: Biology: Life on Earth, 8/e. 2008

Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.
“Death Eaters”
• Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi, which use external digestion to break
organic matter down into inorganic substances
• Detritivores: Animals that feed on dead plant material
• Scavengers: Animals that feed on dead animal flesh
Food Webs
• Food-chains that are interconnected through euryphagous organisms
and omnivores
• Analysis of food webs is important to understand ecosystem dynamics
– ecological interrelationships and dynamics of food webs
• Range of trophic structure in food webs with varying levels of
competition and interconnections (variety of arrangements of food
chains into a food web is possible)
Types and Patterns of Food Webs
• Connectedness webs: These are based on the concept of who eats
whom, emphasizing on feeding relationships (also known as topological
food webs)
• Energy flow food webs: in this type energy flow through a food web is
estimated. Connections between populations are quantified by the flux of
energy between resource and consumers
• Functional food webs: On the basis of the impact of species on the
structure of community. It shows the feeding relationships within the
topological food webs
Energy flow diagram in a Lake (Kcal/m2/yr)
Combining biophagic and sapgrophagic
pathways of energy flow
• First order biophages utilizes living
autotrophs
• First order saprophages utilizes non-living
organic matter from autotrophs as well as
organic material egested by the first order
biophages
• First order biophages can be utilized by
predators and parasites (2nd order biophages)
or the die off and form the energy source of
2nd order saprophages
• Biophages and saprophages of same order
constitute one trophic level, thus, each
trophic level comprises both biophages and
saprophages
Y-shaped energy flow diagram showing separation and linkages in grazing
and detritus food chain
• It relates to the basic stratified structure of ecosystem

• direct consumption of living plants and dead organic matter are usually separated in both time and space
• Macro consumers and micro consumers differ greatly in size-metabolism relations
Y-Shaped Energy Flow
• Confirms to the stratified structure of ecosystems
• Direct consumption of living plants and utilization of dead organic matter
are usually separated in both time and space
• Macroconsumers (phagotrophs) and microconsumers (saprotrophs) differ
greatly in size-metabolism relations
• Lake as an example – Green belt (top of water) and brown belt (sediment)
• Forests and marshes – operate as detritus systems
Y Shaped Energy Flow Model
• Grazing and detritus food chains are inter-connected
• Not all food eaten by grazers is actually assimilated, as some (feces containing
undigested material) is diverted to the detritus pathway
• Also, the amount of net production energy that flows down the two pathways varies in
different kinds of ecosystems and, often in the same ecosystem; it may vary seasonally
or annually
• Energy flow in case of shallow waters and heavily grazed pastures or
grassland shows larger energy flow via the grazing food chain than in the
detritus pathway. The reverse is true in case of the forest, marshes and
oceans
Ecological efficiencies
• Assimilation efficiency:
• for plants, energy fixed by (plants/light absorbed)*100
• For consumers, (food energy assimilated/food energy ingested)*100
• Consumption efficiency:
• (Ingestion at trophic level n/net production at trophic level n)*100
• Production efficiency:
• (Production at trophic level n/assimilation at trophic level n)*100
• Ecological growth efficiency:
• (Production at trophic level n/ingestion at trophic level n)*100
• Transfer efficiency:
• (Production at trophic level n/production at trophic level n-1)*100
Ecological Pyramids
1. Energy flow pyramid

2. Pyramid of number
3. Pyramid of productivity
CE101
Lecture 5
Biogeochemical Cycles
Essential Minerals (Nutrients)
Major Elements Trace Elements
Carbon (C) Nickel (Ni)

Hydrogen (H) Manganese (Mn)
Oxygen (O) Zinc (Zn)
Nitrogen (N) Molybdenum (Mo)
Phosphorus (P) Fluorine (F)
Calcium (Ca) Copper (Cu)
Potassium (K) Cobalt (Co)
Sulfur (S) Boron (B)
Iron (Fe) Iodine (I)
Sodium (Na)
Magnesium (Mg)
Biogeochemical cycling
• 30 to 40 elements are necessary for most forms of life
• Most important six are - C, H, O, N, S, P
• Recall food chain
• Ecosystem Metabolism
1. Gross primary production (GPP) : total photosynthetic fixation of carbon
2. Net primary production (NPP) : GPP - RA (RA is autotrophic respiration, GPP –
NPP)
3. Heterotrophic respiration (RH): Consumer + Decomposer Respiration
4. Ecosystem respiration (RE): RA + RH
5. Net Ecosystem production (NEP): GPP - RE
Biogeochemical cycles
• From the viewpoint of the earth, biogeochemical Cycles fall into two groups:
• Perfect (= gaseous) cycles

Cycles (nitrogen, carbon, oxygen) which have a large gaseous, rather easily
exchangeable, reservoir which makes them less likely to get out of balance
• Imperfect (= sedimentary) cycles

Cycles (calcium, phosphorus, iron) which involve the more earthbound elements
and large portions of the supply may become unavailable for long periods of time,
thus disturbing the cycle
Examples of biogeochemical cycles
• Generalized Cycle
• Sedimentary Cycles
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Sulfur
• Gaseous Cycles
• Nitrogen
• Carbon
Ecosystem Processes
1. Photosynthesis
2. Herbivory
3. Carnivory
4. Decomposition
Nutrients
• “Nutrient” in an ecological sense refers to the inorganic materials
taken in by producers and converted into organic molecules.
• Nutrients include carbon (as carbon dioxide), nitrogen, phosphorous,
oxygen, and other building blocks of biological molecules.
Nutrients Cycle
• Because nutrients ARE
materials, they cycle in the
earth’s ecosystems.
• Carbon from carbon dioxide may
become carbon in a sugar made
by a plant.
• Decomposers break down
organic molecules and release
inorganic nutrients to the
ecosystem.
Material Cycles
• Material cycling follows the law of conservation of matter.
• Elements used by living organisms are taken up and used by
producers, used passed down the food chain by consumers, and are
released back to the environment by decomposers.
Carbon Cycle
• Carbon forms the backbone of all organic molecules.
• Carbon from the atmosphere is “fixed” by producers, which
manufacture organic molecules using the sun’s energy.
• Breakdown of these molecules releases carbon dioxide back to
the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon is required for building organic compounds
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (oil, coal), organic
materials (for example: cellulose).
2. Assimilation – plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals
consume plants.
3. Release – plants and animals release CO2 through respiration
and decomposition; CO2 is released as wood and fossil
fuels are burned.
Global “Warming”
• “Global Warming” - has been strongly linked to levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
• While natural events add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, human
activities also contributes to carbon levels.
Fossil Fuels
• Fossil fuels are the remains of ancient swamps
• Plants fixed carbon as carbon-rich organic compounds. Carbon
compounds accumulated in swamps over hundreds of millions
of years.
• In less than 200 years, humans have burned nearly half of the
world’s fossil fuels.
Greenhouse Effect
Nitrogen Cycle
• The earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, but in this form, it

cannot be used by producers.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrogen
compounds that plants can absorb and use in making amino
acids to build proteins.
Nitrogen Cycle
(Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of amino acids and
nucleic acids)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as N2); soil (as NH4+ or ammonium, NH3
or ammonia, N02- or nitrite, N03- or nitrate
2. Assimilation – plants absorb nitrogen as either NH4+ or as N03-,
animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants and other animals. The
stages in the assimilation of nitrogen are as follows:
• Nitrogen Fixation: N2 to NH4+ by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes

in the soil and root nodules), N2 to N03- by lightning and UV radiation
• Nitrification: NH4+ to N02- and N02- to N03- by various nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrogen Cycle
3. Release – Denitrifying bacteria convert N03- back to N2
(denitrification); detrivorous bacteria convert organic
compounds back to NH4+ (ammonification); animals
excrete NH4+ (or NH3) urea, or uric acid.
Phosphorous Cycle
• Unlike other nutrients, phosphorous does not exist as an atmospheric

gas.
• Rock phosphates dissolve in rain as rock weathers, carrying phosphates
into streams and soil.
• Phosphates settle out on the bottoms of ponds, and may consolidate
back into phosphate-rich rock.
Phosphorous Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
(Phosphorus is required for the manufacture of ATP and all nucleic
acids)
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil;
sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean floors
return to the surface as a result of uplifting by geological
processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO43- (phosphate) from soils;
animals obtain organic phosphorus when they consume
plants and other animals
3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they
decompose; animals excrete phosphorus in their waste
products
Sulfur Cycling
Sº
Sulfur Cycle
(Sulfur is required for the synthesis of proteins)
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers sulfur to water and soil; sediments and
rocks that accumulate on ocean floors return to the
surface as a result of uplifting by geological processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb sulfate from soils and water; animals
obtain organic sulfur when they consume plants and other
animals
3. Release – plants and animals release sulfur when they decompose;
animals excrete sulfur in their waste products
Water Cycle
• Weather patterns form part of the water cycle.
• Water remains chemically unchanged during the water cycle. It is
evaporated as water vapor, condensed into rain clouds, and finally
falls as precipitation.
• Water may collect in rocks as groundwater.
Hydrological Cycle
Hydrological Cycle
1. Reservoir – oceans, air (as water vapor), groundwater, lakes
and glaciers; evaporation, wind and precipitation (rain) move
water from oceans to land.
2. Assimilation – plants absorb water from the ground, animals
drink water or eat other organisms which are composed
mostly of water.
3. Release – plants transpire, animals breathe and expel liquid
wastes.
CE101
Lecture 6 & 7
Environmental Pollution & Ecosystem Management
Environmental Pollutants
• State of pollutants
• Solid - sludge, solid waste (municipal solid waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste)
• Liquid – wastewater (municipal, industrial etc.)
• Gas – gaseous emissions, aerosols, particles
• Organic – pesticide, herbicide, petroleum compounds, food waste, agro waste
etc.
• Inorganic – metals, compounds
• Fate of organic pollutants – can be completely mineralized (basic elemental
forms
• Fate of inorganic pollutants – phase transformation, changes in oxidation state
(speciation)
Terminology
• Degradation and biodegradation
• Remediation and bioremediation
• Transformation (physical, chemical and biological)
• Rehabilitation
• Restoration
Abiotic Processes
• Oxidation (combustion) : methane -810 kJ, heat of combustion (+50.6 kJ/g)
• Phototransformation : E = hv
• Fragmentation
• Oxidation
• Polymerization
• Photoreactions can be divided into three stage:
1. Absorption
2. Primary photochemical process
3. Secondary photochemical process
• Absorption of solar radiation important for transformation (alcohol, ethers, amines
poor in light absorption)
• Hydrolysis: R–X + H2O R-OH + H-X
Biotransformation and biodegradation (biotic processes)
• Microbial transformation – bacteria, fungi, algae

• Autotrophic bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria
• Bacterial metabolism – aerobic, anoxic, anaerobic
• E.g., oxidation of organic matter in aquatic systems
Breakdown of Pollutants
• The biological breakdown of chemicals is called
metabolism; this ability varies among individual species
• Some chemicals are highly fat-soluble but are easily
metabolized; these chemicals do not accumulate in
organisms
• Thus, biological breakdown is one of the factors leading
to one of the two specific consequences of chemical
bioaccumulation: bioconcentration or biomagnification
BAF, BCF, BMF
• Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF) is the ratio of a test
chemical’s concentration in a test organism’s tissues
to that in the surrounding medium, when all
potential uptake mechanisms are included
• Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) is a specific case of
BAF, when the uptake is only from the surrounding
medium
• Biomagnification Factor (BMF) is the ratio of a test
chemical’s concentration in the tissues of an
organism, to that in the organism’s prey.
• Biomagnification is the process by which toxic chemicals
build up within predators
• This typically occurs across an entire food chain and affects
all of the organisms but animals higher up in the chain are
more affected
• When predatory animals consume their prey they also
consume all of the toxic chemicals present within the prey
• When these toxic chemicals are not metabolized and easily
excreted they build up in the system by bioaccumulation
• Hence, when the food chain goes up across levels,
concentrations increases or magnify manifold
• Biomagnification occurs due to bioaccumulation
Image Source: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Biomagnification

• Bioamplification (or biomagnificati
on, as the picture shows) refers to
an increase in the concentration of
a substance as you move up the
food chain. This often occurs
because the pollutant is persistent,
meaning that it cannot be, or
is very slowly, broken down by
natural processes. These persistent
pollutants are transferred up the
food chain faster than they are
broken down or excreted
Image Source:
https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/img/original/bioaccumulation_graphic.jpg
Ecosystem Management
1. International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI)
2. Hiware Village Maharashtra
3. Mangroves for the future (MFF) initiatives
IPSI (Initiated in 2010)
• The International Partnership for Satoyama Initiative (IPSI) is a global effort to
realise societies that are in harmony with nature, through promoting the
maintenance and rebuilding of socio-ecological production landscapes and
seascapes (SEPLS) for biodiversity and human well-being. Satoyama are areas
where people and the land have a symbiotic relationship, each depending on
the other to thrive
• A partnership made up of 258 member organizations dedicated to working
together to realize societies in harmony with nature
• It is important to explore ways and means for using and managing natural
resources sustainably that benefit current and future generations
• It is important to explore ways and means for using and managing natural
resources sustainably that benefit current and future generations
• Ecosystem Approach, core vision is to realize societies in harmony with nature,
that is, built on positive human-nature relationships
Hiware Bazar
• Hiware Bazar, a village in Maharashtra's drought-prone Ahmednagar
district, was sliding into an abyss after degrading its environment
• In less than a decade it turned itself around into one of the most
prosperous villages of the country
• It used funds from government schemes, to regenerate its natural
resources-forests, watershed and soil- led by a strong village body
• It had a role model in the district- Ralegan Siddhi, the village Anna Hazare
turned around
• Now Hiware Bazar is in turn an exemplar for the whole of Ahmednagar
district, where others have used the same scheme to conserve and
prosper
Mangrove Forest
• Mangrove trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters
allow fine sediments to accumulate
• Mangrove forests only grow at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the
equator because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures.
• Many mangrove forests can be recognized by their dense tangle of prop roots
that make the trees appear to be standing on stilts above the water
• This tangle of roots allows the trees to handle the daily rise and fall of tides,
which means that most mangroves get flooded at least twice per day
• The roots also slow the movement of tidal waters, causing sediments to settle
out of the water and build up the muddy bottom
• Mangrove forests stabilize the coastline, reducing erosion from storm surges,
currents, waves, and tides
• The intricate root system of mangroves also makes these forests attractive to
fish and other organisms seeking food and shelter from predators
Climate Change Reports
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ipcc-report-climate-change-bleak-future-oceans-
cryosphere-solutions
• Earth’s oceans and frozen regions are changing alarmingly quickly, scientists warn in
the first comprehensive look at how greenhouse gas emissions are altering the
planet’s seas and cryosphere
• Since 1993, the rate of warming in the oceans has more than doubled, scientists
report in a new study by the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or
IPCC. Melting of the two great ice sheets blanketing Greenland and West Antarctica is
speeding up as well, accelerating sea level rise. And West Antarctica’s glaciers may
already be so unstable that they are past the point of no return
• Rising seas are already threatening low-lying coastal areas that today are home to 680
million people, about 10 percent of the world’s population
• Already, warming ocean waters are yielding fewer fish and are fueling more intense,
rainier tropical storms
• Ocean heat waves are increasing, threatening corals and other sea life
• Greenland and the West Antarctic ice sheet are rapidly shedding ice, accelerating sea
level rise to a rate of 3.5 millimeters per year
• Arctic sea ice continues to dwindle; minimum sea-ice extent in 2019 tied with 2007 and
2016, according to data released by the National Snow and Ice Data Center on
September 23. That’s the second-lowest extent on satellite record, after 2012
• The new report emphasizes the need to “slash emissions, and do it quickly, or these
impacts highlighted in the report will quickly become irreversible
• Since the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report came out in 2013, scientists have learned a
great deal about the impacts of absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide on the oceans
• Hoegh-Guldberg and colleagues (University of Queensland in Australia), reported
that ocean isn’t just part of the problem - it should be a key part of the solution.
“What’s surprising is how quickly we can limit the damage
• These scientists assessed recently assessed ways to harness ocean resources to
reduce or mitigate global greenhouse gas emissions
• The study, commissioned by a group of 15 world leaders called the High Level Panel
for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, was released September 23 by the World
Resources Institute. In it, the researchers highlight five ocean-related activities that
they say can help slow warming:
• Build offshore wind farms and other ocean-based renewable energy to shift away from
dependence on fossil fuels;
• Eliminate carbon emissions from the shipping industry;
• Restore coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and salt marshes, which not only store carbon but
also provide myriad benefits, including serving as buffers against tropical storms, filtering
pollutants and providing habitat for fish and other wildlife;
• Harvest more ocean-based protein sources, which have a much lower carbon footprint than any
land-based animal protein;
• Store carbon in the seafloor, which theoretically has high potential for mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions, but also a lot of uncertainty in terms of its environmental impact
• Those five activities have the potential to account for as much as 21 percent of the
emissions reductions needed by 2050 to limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above
preindustrial times by the end of the century
• Human activity has already increased global temperatures by 1.1 degrees C, and
studies suggest that global emissions are now on track to blow past midcentury targets
needed to achieve 1.5 degrees
Understanding Global Warming of 1.5°C
• Human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming
above pre-industrial levels, with a likely range of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Global warming is
likely to reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current
rate
• Warming from anthropogenic emissions from the pre-industrial period to the present
will persist for centuries to millennia and will continue to cause further long-term
changes in the climate system, such as sea level rise, with associated impacts (high
confidence), but these emissions alone are unlikely to cause global warming of 1.5°C
(medium confidence)
• Climate-related risks for natural and human systems are higher for global warming of
1.5°C than at present, but lower than at 2°C (high confidence). These risks depend on
the magnitude and rate of warming, geographic location, levels of development and
vulnerability, and on the choices and implementation of adaptation and mitigation
options (high confidence)
Projected Climate Change, Potential Impacts and Associated Risks
• Climate models project robust differences in regional climate characteristics between
present-day and global warming of 1.5°C, and between 1.5°C and 2°C.
• These differences include increases in: mean temperature in most land and ocean
regions (high confidence), hot extremes in most inhabited regions (high confidence),
heavy precipitation in several regions (medium confidence), and the probability of
drought and precipitation deficits in some regions (medium confidence
• By 2100, global mean sea level rise is projected to be around 0.1 metre lower with
global warming of 1.5°C compared to 2°C (medium confidence). Sea level will
continue to rise well beyond 2100 (high confidence), and the magnitude and rate of
this rise depend on future emission pathways. A slower rate of sea level rise enables
greater opportunities for adaptation in the human and ecological systems of small
islands, low-lying coastal areas and deltas
• Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, including species loss and extinction, are
projected to be lower at 1.5°C of global warming compared to 2°C. Limiting global
warming to 1.5°C compared to 2°C is projected to lower the impacts on terrestrial,
freshwater and coastal ecosystems and to retain more of their services to humans
• Climate-related risks to health, livelihoods, food security, water supply, human
security, and economic growth are projected to increase with global warming of 1.5°C
and increase further with 2°C
• Most adaptation needs will be lower for global warming of 1.5°C compared to 2°C,
there are a wide range of adaptation options that can reduce the risks of climate
change
CE101
Module 2 - Atmospheric Science

Evolution of Atmosphere
• Methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen
• Bombardment of intense energy, lightning, radiations from radionuclides
led to chemical reactions
• Amino acids, sugars formed
• Life molecules evolved from the chemical mixtures in sea
• Photosynthesis, blue green algae
• Atmospheric oxygen came to existence
• Oxygen accumulated and led to formation of ozone
Role of Atmosphere
• Protective blanket of gases surrounding the earth
• Absorbs IR radiations emitted from sun and re-emited from sun, thus
maintains temperature
• It allows transmission of radiations only in the range of 300–2500 nm (near
UV, visible and IR range) and 0.01 to 40 meters (radio waves)
• Filters harmful UV radiations (UV-A, UV-B, UV-C)
• Biogeochemical cycles
• Nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, carbon etc.
• Transport of water from ocean to land
Atmospheric Composition
Atmospheric Properties
• Density
• Density also decreases with altitude
• Temperature
• Decreases with height in troposphere
• Inversion, increases with height
• Oxidising Capacity
• Ability of atmosphere to clean itself of pollutants is called oxidising capacity or
power
• Direct relationship between tropospheric ozone levels and oxidising capacity
Atmospheric Properties
• Due to abundance of O2, earth’s atmosphere is oxidizing (e.g., SO2 --> SO42-; CH4 --> CO;
CO --> CO2; NO2 --> HNO3)
• After O2, O3 is most abundant oxidant
• Direct oxidation of non-radical species by reaction with O2 and O3 is too slow to be of
consequence
• The OH radical is the most important oxidant in the troposphere
• Other atmospheric oxidants include NO3, halogen radicals, and H2O2 (in the aqueous-
phase)
Variations of pressure and temperature with altitude
Image Source: NPTEL

Structure of Atmosphere
According to the chemical composition of gases:
• Homosphere - lower region of earth to 80 to 100 km, chemical composition of
gas is uniform
• Heterosphere - from the upper region of homosphere to 60,000 km, gas
concentration decreases with height
According to the temperature characteristics:
1. Exosphere (up to 10,000 km)
2. Thermosphere (up to 600 km)
3. Mesosphere (up to 85 km)
4. Stratosphere (up to 50 km)
5. Troposphere (up to 16 km)
Image Source: NPTEL
Troposphere
• 70% of atmosphere is present in this layer
• Temperature decreases with height
• Rate of decrease of temperature with height is called lapse
rate, average lapse rate in troposphere is -6.5 Degree C/km
• Troposphere ends at tropopause, here temperature stops
decreasing with height
Tropospheric Chemistry
Climate Change Stratosphere Ozone
Control of radiatively Oxidation of
active species including HCFCs, methyl
aersols, ozone, methane, halides, and methane
and HCFCs
TROPOSPHERIC
CHEMISTRY
Regional Air Pollution Ecosystems

Surface ozone, visibility, Nutrient transport
air toxics, and acid rain and deposition
(nitrogen,
trace metals)
Stratosphere
• It extends up to 50 km from earth’s surface
• Water vapour is absent and hence prevents cloud
formation
• Ozonosphere, where ozone is found, filters harmful UV
from reaching earth
• Ozone occurs as layers at about ~30 km, peaks at
concentration of 10 ppm
Stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height as ozone absorbs UV rays,
opposite to troposphere
• The residence time of pollutants in SS is very long due to slow mixing
• If pollutants reach SS they pose long-term global hazard when compared to
pollutants in TS
• Stratopause, temperature neither increases or decreases with height
and this is a small layer
Ozone Formation
(Chapman Mechanism)
Photo-dissociation or photolysis
O2 + hV O+O
Atomic oxygen is very reactive, it immediately combines with something else
O + O2 + M O3 + M
• Energy of incoming photons h is Planck’s constant V is their frequency and M
any third body, which carries excess energy
• Ozone is continuously formed this way in stratosphere
Ozone Loss
O3 + UV O2 + O
O + O3 2O2
• First reaction serves to regenerate atomic oxygen for the second
reaction which converts the ozone back to molecular oxygen
• Second reaction is very slow and can be enormously accelerated by
catalytic reactions (CFC)
• In the absence of such catalytic reactions, ozone can survive for 1-10
years in the stratosphere
Tropospheric Ozone
• Ozone levels near the Earth’s surface have doubled over the last 100
years
• TS ozone is a GHG, toxic, corrosive, harmful to plants and materials
• Increases in tropospheric ozone is cause of concern as opposed to
stratospheric ozone which is essential for life
Tropospheric Ozone Formation
Ozone precursors:
C source (CO, CH4, VOC), N source (NO, NO2)
Series of reactions:
CO + OH CO2 + H
H + O2 HO2
HO2 + NO OH + NO2
NO2 + hv NO + O
O + O2 O3
Net reaction
CO + 2O2 CO2 + O3
Mesosphere
• Extends up to 85 km
• Temperature decreases with height as in troposphere, mainly due to
absence of radiation absorbing species e.g., ozone
• Major chemical species are O2+ , NO+
• Plays no role for existence of life, but is important for radio
communication
• Mesopause, lies above mesosphere temperature here neither
decreases or increases with height
Thermosphere
• Above 85 km from earth and extends up to 60,000 km
• Temperature increases with height and reaches up to
1,200 oC
• Short wavelength (<200 nm) is absorbed by oxygen,
nitric oxide
• The heat does not gets passed on to lower layers, as
air is very thin and this temperature is only found on
individual molecules
Thermosphere
• Ionization occurs here and produces ionised belts E and F layers, plays
role in radio communication
• Upper thermosphere, concentrated ions form that make Van Allen
radiation, magnetosphere i.e., earths magnetic field
• Magnetosphere influences movement of particles
• Thermosphere has no ending boundary and mixes with space
Fate of Compounds in Atmosphere
• Chemical compounds emitted natural or anthropogenic in origin at the
Earth’s surface & can remain in the atmosphere for long periods
• provided they are not reactive (chemically or photolytically)
• water soluble
• sticky (prone to dry deposition)
• Most greenhouse gases are long-lived, which means that they react
slowly (e.g., CH4) or only partially water soluble (e.g., CO2), or are only
vulnerable to breakup by solar radiation in the stratosphere (e.g., N2O
and CFCs)
Fate of Chemicals in Atmosphere
• A gas must be a powerful absorber of infrared radiation to be a
greenhouse gas
• N2 is long-lived, it is not a greenhouse gas as it is not an efficient absorber
• Many gases emitted from the Earth’s surface are short-lived in the
atmosphere as they are highly reactive, highly water-soluble, or very sticky
• Numerous compounds are quickly oxidized by reaction with OH or other oxidants or
are readily broken up by sunlight (i.e., photodissociated) (e.g., NO2)
• Many other species that are very water-soluble (such as acidic compounds like
nitric and sulphuric acid)
• Very sticky and are removed from the atmosphere by contact with surfaces or
vegetation (such as OH and nitric acid)
Gases - Units of Expression
Classification of air pollution sources
• Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which substances are
present at concentrations high enough above their normal ambient levels to produce a
measurable effect on man, animals, vegetation, or materials
• Substances mean any natural or anthropogenic (man-made) chemical compounds
capable of being airborne. They may exist in the atmosphere as gases, liquid drops, or
solid particles
• Measurable effects on humans and environment due to
• Indoor air pollutants
• Air toxics, radioactivity
• Photochemical smog
• Acid rain
• Visibility reduction
• Green house gas effect – climate change
• Ozone depletion
Classification of air pollution sources
• Air pollutants arise from both man made and natural processes
• Pollutants are also defined as primary pollutants resulting from
combustion of fuels and industrial operations and secondary pollutants,
those which are produced due to reaction of primary pollutants in the
atmosphere
• Ambient air quality may be defined by the concentration of a set of
pollutants which may be present in the ambient air we breath in
• Emission standards express the allowable concentrations of a contaminant
at the point of discharge before any mixing with the surrounding air
Air pollution classification
1. Based on chemical 3. Based on how they are produced
composition • Primary pollutants
• Sulfur-containing compounds • Secondary pollutants
• Nitrogen-containing compounds 4. Based on the space scales of effects
• Carbon-containing compounds • Local (indoor)
• Halogen-containing compounds • Regional
• Toxic substances (any of about) • Global
• Radiative compounds
2. Based on physical state
• Gas
• Liquid (aqueous)
• Solid
Criteria pollutants
As per USEPA
1. Ozone, O3
2. Carbon monoxide, CO
3. Sulfur dioxide, SO2
4. Nitrogen oxides, NOx
5. Lead, Pb
6. Particulates, PM10
Sources of air pollutants
• Combustion sources
• Primarily fossil fuels are burnt to obtain energy (coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel,
furnace oil), e.g., power plants, industrial boilers, domestic heating and
automobiles
• Thermal power plants are major sources of SPM, SO2 and NOx
• Automobiles are major sources of particulates, NOx, hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide and lead
• Industrial sources
• Cement industries - particulates, NOx, SO2 , hydrocarbons, CO
• Sulphuric acid manufacturing industries – SO2
Sources Categories
• Stationary: Fixed location, includes fugitive, point and area sources
• Point: emits from a discrete (controllable) site
• Fugitive: open areas that generate particulates
• Area: emit from distributed or multiple sources within a well-defined area
• Mobile: moving source, e.g. vehicles
Major Pollutants
• Sulfur dioxide
• Colorless and odorless, associated with gray smog
• Primarily from coal-red power plants
• Major component of acid rain
• Major impact is corrosion of paint and metals, crop damage, and plant damage
• Nitrogen Oxides
• Almost all NOx is anthropogenic, mostly automobiles and power plants
• Many forms, most prominently NO2, light brown gas, causes the reddish-brown
haze in city air
• Toxic and quite corrosive
• Its major impact is in the formation of photochemical smog, secondary
contribution is as acid rain and ground level ozone
• Nitrogen oxides are the precursors of nitrate particulates (nitrates) which affect
the radiation balance of the atmosphere and can contribute to global cooling
• CO, carbon monoxide
• Main impact is to interrupt blood oxygen uptake, causing asphyxia
• Sometimes so high in Los Angeles outdoor air that household detectors sound alter
• Mostly natural sources, but in city it is concentrated automobile emissions
• Ozone
• At ground level, ozone is a hazard (‘bad’ ozone) - it is a major constituent of
photochemical smog
• Main impact is plant and lung tissue damage, breakdown of rubber, paint, etc.
• Main source is automobiles (which release the precursors of ozone)
• VOC's, volatile organic compounds
• An important constituent in forming photochemical smog
• Globally only 5% of emissions are anthropogenic, but half the emissions in the U.S. are
anthropogenic, primarily automobiles
• Other large sources are 2-stroke engines, charcoal lighter fluid, etc.
• PM-10: particulate matter
• Main sources are industrial processes, power plants and disturbed ground (dust)
• Acts as a lung irritant, and causes significant lung damage
• Important particulates are sulfates and nitrates, which are secondary pollutants
• Globally most particulates are natural, but in cities anthropogenic particulates
may dominate
Air Quality Index
CE101
Effects of Air Pollution;

Air Pollution Monitoring and Control Methods
Effects of Air Pollution
• The effects of air pollution can be grouped under the following head
• Effects on human health
• Effects on animals and plants
• Effects on atmosphere
Effects of Air Pollution: on Human Health, Animals and
Atmosphere
• At local and regional levels its effects are in the form of alterations in
• visibility,
• intensity of sunshine,
• precipitation amount
• acid rain
• Global effects are
• Change in natural climate by rise of temperature, melting of snow
• increase in carbon dioxide
• increase in particulates
• hole in ozone layer
Effects on Human Health
• Bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and lung cancer are some of the chronic
diseases caused due to exposure to polluted air
• Lung cancer is caused mainly due to polluted air because of carcinogens
present in air
• Sulfur dioxide is the most serious and widespread air pollutant. Its lower
concentration causes spasms in the smooth muscle of bronchioles and
higher concentration causes increased mucus production
• Sulfur dioxide also causes cough, shortness of breath, spasm of the larynx
and acute irritation to the membranes of the eyes. It also acts as an
allergenic agent. When it reacts, sulfuric acid is formed which may damage
lungs
• Carbon monoxide affects the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
• Nitric oxide is pulmonary irritant and high concentration can cause
pulmonary haemorrhage
• Lead emitted from automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison and is
dangerous particularly to children and may cause brain damage
• particulate pollutants such as asbestos, silica, carbon, beryllium, lead, etc.,
are capable of exerting a noxious (fibrotic) local action in the interstitial
areas of the lungs
• Radioactive elements are also harmful to man and other living organisms
Effects on Animals and Plants
• Chronic poisoning results from the ingestion of forage contaminated with

atmospheric pollutants. Among the metallic contaminants, arsenic, lead
and molybdenum are important
• absorption of sulfur dioxide exceeds a particular level, the cells become
inactive and are killed, resulting in tissue collapse and drying of leaves.
Cotton, wheat, barley and apple are more sensitive to this pollutant
• Smog also causes injury to plants. Similar impact of ozone can be seen in
the lesions to plants. Chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, etc., are also
harmful to vegetation
Effects on Atmosphere
• Ozone depletion
• Acid rain
• Greenhouse gas effect
Ozone Depletion
• Dobson units (DU) - 300 DU is a typical ozone value. If
we assume that all the ozone molecules in the
atmosphere were concentrated in a small layer at the
ground, then thickness of this layer would be about 3
mm. Since 1 DU is equivalent to a layer of pure ozone
molecules 0.01 mm thick, a 3 mm layer of ozone is
equivalent to a value of 300 DU
• Because of peculiar meteorological conditions (polar
vortex), ozone destruction by CFCs and others is
particularly severe over Antarctica, giving rise to an
“Ozone Hole ”
Image Source: https://paos.colorado.edu/~fasullo/1060/resources/ozone.obs.html

Source: Environmental Chemistry: A global
perspective. Vanloon and Duffy
Acid Rain
• Acid rain is when the rain has a pH of 5.6 or lower due to the presence of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form dissolved
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• When CO2 reacts with water, carbonic acid is formed.
CO2 (g)+H2O(l)-→H2CO3(aq)
• When SO2 reacts with water, sulfurous acid is formed
2SO2 + O2 → SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
• When NO2 reacts with water, nitric acid is formed.
2NO2(g)+H2O(l)-→HNO2(aq)+HNO3(aq)
Photochemical Smog Composition
• Nitrogen oxides
• Ozone
• Aldehydes
• Unreacted carbon
• Particular matter
• Peroxyaceyl nitrate (PAN)
Temperature Inversion

Air Quality Monitoring
• Sampling and measurement of air pollutants generally known, as air
quality monitoring.
• Why is monitoring air quality important?
1) Air quality can be evaluated
2) Information is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing
pollutant concentration to acceptable levels
3) Assessing the effect of air pollution control strategies
Choosing appropriate monitoring equipment
• Purpose of monitoring: screening, compliance monitoring or research. Different
sensitivities may apply to different types of monitors. For example, compliance
monitoring may require a higher level of sensitivity and resolution than a monitor used
for screening purposes.
• Duration of deployment: if the instrument is to be used for short-term screening
surveys then portability, size, weight and robustness may be factors to consider.
• Detection limit, precision and measurement range: will the instrument be able to
measure within the required range, based on the monitoring objective?
• Consumables: how frequently do parts need to be changed or replaced?
• Ability to conform to relevant monitoring standards: does the instrument conform to
monitoring standards for air quality?
• Frequency of calibration: the time taken to complete automatic zero and span checks,
and operational and multipoint calibrations. Instruments that spend significant time on
an automatic zero and span checks will reduce your percentage data recovery. An
instrument that requires frequent calibration in order to comply with a particular
standard will impose costs on an organisation (time and resources).
• Ease of use: some instruments can be extremely difficult to operate, which imposes
costs in terms of training and person-hours spent resolving problems.
• Communication: ideally instruments should have ethernet/IP ports, analogue and
RS232 connectivity to allow connection to dataloggers and telemetry.
• Ability to interface remotely: most modern instruments will allow an operator to
remotely operate an instrument.
• Environmental requirements: does the instrument require air conditioning,
temperature or humidity control?
• Cost: consider both the cost of the instrument and the cost of consumables.
• Reliability: find out who else has operated similar instruments and discuss the pros and
cons with other organizations before committing to a purchase.
• Memory or on-board storage capacity: determine if memory capacity is sufficient for
your current and future needs (eg, memory expansion features).
• Instrument parameters that may be recorded in addition to output
concentration: can the instrument record any other parameters (eg, temperature)?
Methodology types
1. Continuous monitoring methods
These are high-resolution methods that provide continuous records of contaminant
levels. They can operate over extended periods (weeks or months) with minimal
operator intervention. Remote communication is possible by telemetry. These are the
most expensive monitoring methods. A high standard of maintenance, calibration, and
operational and quality control procedures are required for good data quality.
2. Gravimetric particulate methods
Monitoring starts when a known volume of air is pumped through a pre-weighed filter
for a known length of time (typically 24 hours). The filter is reweighed after exposure
and a concentration determined. Most systems used require manual changes of the
sampling filters between each sample, although a number of semi-automated systems
are also available. This can be done on consecutive days.
3. Passive monitoring methods (diffusion tubes and badges)
Diffusion tubes work when a contaminant is diffused into a tube containing either an
adsorbent or reactive material. Analysis of the tubes following a known exposure time
(typically two to four weeks) will provide a time-averaged contaminant concentration.
Badges work in a similar way, the difference being the sampler configuration
Sampling Methods
• Sampling impurities of different nature (from particulate matter to gases)
• Sampling under various environmental conditions (samples taken from
chimneys to samples taken in ambient air)
• Sampling methods vary according to the time factor (from intermittent to
continuous sampling)
Air quality monitoring is to cover:
• Ambient air quality measurement - Where the pollutant levels in the
ambient atmosphere are measured
• Stack monitoring - pollutants emitted from a source is stack sampling
Gaseous Pollutants Monitoring (Sampling and Analysis)
• Absorption: The penetration of airborne chemicals into a collection medium,
such as impinger fluid, where the chemicals will dissolve and chemically react
• Absorbent are used to remove sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, shulphur trioxide,
fluoride and NOx
• Equipments based on absorption (1) Packed tower (2) Plate tower (3) bubble cap plate
tower (4) Spray tower (5) Liquid jet scrubber absorber
• Adsorption: The collection of gases and vapors onto the surface of a collection
medium such as the solid adsorbent material in adsorbent tubes
• Adsorption is brought about by aspiring the air or gas to be sampled through adsorption
column containing silica gel, activated charcoal or another suitable agents
• Ozone and hydrocarbons
• Condensers
• The gas stream sampled is cooled in suitable containers, thus bringing about the
condensation of the Volatile substances
• Used for the sampling of odoriferous substances
• Collector under reduced pressure
• The absorbent solution is first introduced into the bottle and the pressure is
reduced, the sample is admitted until the internal and external pressures are equal
and the container is shaken continuously to ensure maximum absorption.
• Use for sampling the Nox
• Special polyethylene bags/plastics are used for collecting and
transporting large volume of air
• Used for grab sampling and sample storage before analysis
Absorption of gases in liquid
• Fritted glass absorber
• The gas stream is broken up into extremely small bubbles, thus promoting an
intimate contact between the gas and the liquid. Coarse frits (50 micron pore size)
are used for air sampling
• Impingers – Wet impingers and Dry impingers
• Wet Impingers - Collect a particle by causing them to impinge a surface
submerged in a liquid
• Dry Impingers - Referred as impactors to collect particles by impaction on a dry
surface
• Freeze out Sampling
• In freeze out sampling a series of cold traps, which are maintained at progressively
lower temperature, are used to draw the air sample, whereby the pollutants are
condensed
• The traps are brought to the laboratory, the samples are removed and analyses by
means of gas chromatographic, infrared or ultraviolet, spectrophotometer, and
mass spectrometry or by wet chemical methods
Particulate Matter Sampling
Impaction
• In the mechanism called impaction, large particles moving toward the target
have mass, and therefore momentum, which causes each particle to travel in a
straight line toward the target.
• The particle leaves the streamline as the streamline bends to move around the
target. The greater the mass of the particle, the more likely that it will travel in a
straight line.
• Also, as the velocity difference between the particle and the target increases,
the particle will have increased momentum and will be more likely to be carried
into the target.
• The radius of curvature of the bend in the streamline has a very important effect
on the probability that a particle will be carried into the target.
• The smaller the radius of curvature, the less likely that a particle will follow the
streamline.
• Therefore, small targets are more likely to be impacted than large targets.
Interception
• Interception is the mechanism by which particles of roughly 0.1 to 1-micron
diameter are carried by the gas streamline sufficiently close to the surface of the
target that the particle touches the target.
• These particles have insufficient inertia to leave the gas streamline and are carried
with the streamline.
• Some gas will flow very close to the particle. Interception is a relatively weak
mechanism for particle collection compared to impaction
• It is coincidental that the path of the streamline and the particle happens to be
close to the target.
• It is for this reason that particles in this size range are difficult to collect compared
to larger and smaller particles.
• For the same reason, particles in this size range are not collected by natural
cleaning mechanisms in nasal and tracheobronchial passages and enter the lungs
where they can lodge in the alveoli.
Diffusion
• Diffusion of extremely small, submicron particles is a result of Brownian
motion.
• These particles are so small that the mass of the particles is very small and
the number of collisions with air molecules is low.
• Therefore, random collisions with air molecules cause the particle to
bounce around.
• They are moved from one gas streamline to the next by random motion.
• If sufficient time is allowed, and if the distance to the target is small, then
diffusion can be an effective collection mechanism.
• This is why fabric filter baghouses can be effective for collecting submicron
particles, and why it is difficult for wet venturi scrubbers to collect these
particles.
Particulate emission control
• Particulate control systems
➢Gravitational Settling Chamber

➢Cyclone Separator
➢Electrostatic Precipitator
➢Scrubber
Gravitational settling chamber
• Used to remove particles with size greater than 50 μm
• Velocity of flue gas reduced in large chamber
• Particles settle under gravitational force
Gravitational settling chamber
• Industrial application is limited
• Used widely for removal of large solid particulates from draft
furnace, kilns.
• Sometimes used in process industry, food and metallurgical industry.
• Used as pre-cleaners for high efficiency collectors.
Cyclone separator
• Centrifugal force is utilized to separate the particulate matter.
• It can remove 10 to 50 μm particle size.
• Used mostly in industries
Image source: NPTEL

Cyclone separator
• Design factor having greatest effect on collection efficiency is cyclone
diameter.
• For smaller diameter, higher is efficiency, because centrifugal action
increase with decreasing radius of rotation.
OPERATING PROBLEMS:
Erosion
Corrosion
Material build up
Electrostatic precipitators
• An ESP is a particle
control device that
uses electrical forces to
move the particles out
of the flowing gas
stream and onto
collector plates.
• The ESP places
electrical charges on
the particles, causing
them to be attracted to
oppositely charged
metal plates located in
the precipitator Image Soruce: NPTEL
Scrubbers or wet collectors
• Particulate matters are incorporated into liquid droplets and removed
from the gas stream.
• Flue gas made to push up against a down falling water current.
• Particulate matter mix up with water thus falls down and gets
removed.
Types Of Scrubber
• Spray towers
• Venturi scrubbers
• Cyclone scrubbers
• Packed scrubbers
• Mechanical scrubbers
Venturi Scrubbers
• Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to
remove solid particles.
• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with

particulate matter passes through a short
tube with flared ends and a constricted
middle.
• This constriction causes the gas stream to

speed up when the pressure is increased.
Image source: https://www.slyinc.com/products/wet-scrubbers/venturi-wet-scrubber/

• The difference in velocity and pressure resulting from the constriction
causes the particles and water to mix and combine.
• The reduced velocity at the expanded section of the throat allows the
droplets of water containing the particles to drop out of the gas stream.
• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small particles, with removal

efficiencies of up to 99 percent.
• One drawback of this device, however, is the production of wastewater.

Fabric Filters
• Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a gas stream by passing the
stream through a porous fabric. The fabric filter is efficient at removing fine
particles and can exceed efficiencies of 99 percent in most applications
Image Source: Environmental Enginering, Weiner, R.F. and Matthews R.A.

• The selection of the fiber material and fabric construction is
important to baghouse performance.
• The fiber material from which the fabric is made must have adequate
strength characteristics at the maximum gas temperature expected
and adequate chemical compatibility with both the gas and the
collected dust.
• One disadvantage of the fabric filter is that high-temperature gases

often have to be cooled before contacting the filter medium.
Control of gaseous pollutants from stationary sources
• The most common method for controlling gaseous pollutants is the

addition of add-on control devices to recover or destroy a pollutant.
• There are four commonly used control technologies for gaseous
pollutants:
• Absorption,
• Adsorption,
• Condensation, and
• Incineration (combustion)
Absorption
 The removal of one or more selected

components from a gas mixture by
absorption is probably the most important
operation in the control of gaseous
pollutant emissions.
 Absorption is a process in which a
gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid.
 Water is the most commonly used
absorbent liquid.
 As the gas stream passes through the
liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas
Typical Packed Column Diagram

• Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types
of absorption equipment.
• The principal types of gas absorption equipment include spray towers,

packed columns, spray chambers, and venturi scrubbers.
• In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies greater than 95%.

Adsorption
 When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part of it is taken up
by the solid.
 The molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of the solid
or remain on the outside attached to the surface.
 The former phenomenon is termed absorption (or dissolution) and the latter
adsorption.
 The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and
alumina, because they have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
 Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of
trace organic contaminants from liquid and vapor streams.
 Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative.
▪ Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed
actively removes pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future use.
▪ Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated carbon. In a non-
regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes saturated
with the pollutant.
Regenerative Carbon
Adsorption System
Non-Regenerative Carbon
Adsorption System
Condensation
• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid.

Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its temperature
and/or increasing its pressure.
• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be

used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the
total gas volume to be treated by more expensive control equipment.
Condensers used for pollution control are contact condensers and
surface condensers.
 In a contact condenser, the gas
comes into contact with cold liquid.
 In a surface condenser, the gas
contacts a cooled surface in which
cooled liquid or gas is circulated,
such as the outside of the tube.
 Removal efficiencies of condensers
typically range from 50 percent to
Contact condenser
more than 95 percent, depending on
design and applications.
Surface condenser
Incineration
• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the

emissions of organic compounds from process industries.
• This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance through
the combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of
heat.
• When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to
carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be divided in
three categories:
• Direct combustion or flaring,
• Thermal incineration and
• Catalytic incineration.
Direct combustor
• Direct combustor is a device in which air and all the combustible

waste gases react at the burner. Complete combustion must occur
instantaneously since there is no residence chamber.
• A flare can be used to control almost any emission stream containing
volatile organic compounds. Studies conducted by EPA have shown
that the destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
• In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over or
around a burner flame into a residence chamber where oxidation of the
waste gases is completed
Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of

greater than 99 percent when operated correctly.
Thermal incinerator general case

Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators. The main difference is
that after passing through the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed.
A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.

Destruction efficiencies greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic
incinerator.
Catalytic incinerator
CE101
Vehicular Emissions Control, Indoor Air Pollution &

Air Pollution Episodes
Vehicular emission control system
• In automobiles, means employed to limit the discharge of noxious gases from
the internal-combustion engine and other components. There are three main
sources of these gases:
• Engine exhaust
• Crankcase
• Fuel tank and carburettor
• The exhaust pipe discharges burned and unburned hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, and traces of various acids, alcohols,
and phenols
• The crankcase is a secondary source of unburned hydrocarbons and, to a lesser
extent, carbon monoxide
• In the fuel tank and (in older automobiles) the carburetor, hydrocarbons that are
continually evaporating from gasoline constitute a minor but not insignificant
contributing factor in pollution
A variety of systems for controlling emissions from all these sources have
been developed
• In the crankcase - the portion of the engine block below the cylinders
where the crankshaft is located - leaked combustion gases are combined
with ventilating air and returned to the intake manifold for reburning in
the combustion chamber
• The device that performs this function is known as the positive
crankcase ventilation valve, or PCV valve
• To control exhaust emissions, which are responsible for two-thirds of the
total engine pollutants, two types of systems are used: the air-injection
system and the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system
• In EGR a certain portion of exhaust gases are directed back to the cylinder head,
where they are combined with the fuel-air mixture and enter the combustion
chamber
• The recirculated exhaust gases serve to lower the temperature of combustion, a
condition that favours lower production of nitrogen oxides as combustion
products (though at some loss of engine efficiency)
• In a typical air-injection system, an engine-driven pump injects air into the exhaust
manifold, where the air combines with unburned hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide at a high temperature and, in effect, continues the combustion process
• In this way a large percentage of the pollutants that were formerly discharged
through the exhaust system are burned (though with no additional generation of
power)
• Another area for additional combustion is the catalytic converter, consisting
of an insulated chamber containing ceramic pellets or a ceramic honeycomb
structure coated with a thin layer of metals such as platinum and palladium.
• As the exhaust gases are passed through the packed beads or the
honeycomb, the metals act as catalysts to induce the hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust to convert to water
vapour, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
• These systems are not completely effective: during warm-up the
temperatures are so low that emissions cannot be catalysed
• Preheating the catalytic converter is a possible solution to this problem; the
high-voltage batteries in hybrid cars, for example, can provide enough
power to heat up the converter very quickly
• In the past, gasoline fumes evaporating from the fuel tank and carburetor
were vented directly into the atmosphere
• Today those emissions are greatly reduced by sealed fuel-tank caps and the
so-called evaporative control system, the heart of which is a canister of
activated charcoal capable of holding up to 35 percent of its own weight in
fuel vapour
• In operation, fuel-tank vapours flow from the sealed fuel tank to a vapour
separator, which returns raw fuel to the tank and channels fuel vapour
through a purge valve to the canister
• The canister acts as a storehouse; when the engine is running, the vapours
are drawn by the resultant vacuum from the canister, through a filter, and
into the combustion chamber, where they are burned
• Improvements in combustion efficiency are effected by computerized
control over the whole process of combustion
• This control ensures the most efficient operation of the systems
• In addition, computer-controlled fuel-injection systems ensure more precise
air-fuel mixtures, creating greater efficiency in combustion and lower
generation of pollutants
Indoor Air Pollution
• Health risks related to indoor air pollution have become an issue of
concern because people generally spend most of their time indoors at
home and at work
• The problem has been aggravated by well-meaning efforts to lower air-
exchange rates in buildings in order to conserve energy; these efforts
unfortunately allow contaminants to accumulate indoors
• Indoor air pollutants include various combustion products from
stoves, kerosene space heaters, and fireplaces, as well as volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) from household products (e.g., paints, cleaning
agents, and pesticides)
• Formaldehyde off-gassing from building products (especially particleboard
and plywood) and from dry-cleaned textiles can accumulate in indoor air
• Bacteria, viruses, molds, animal dander, dust mites, and pollen are
biological contaminants that can cause disease and other health
problems, especially if they build up in and are spread by central heating
or cooling systems
• Environmental tobacco smoke, also called secondhand smoke, is an
indoor air pollutant in many homes, despite widespread knowledge
about the harmful effects of smoking
• Secondhand smoke contains many carcinogenic compounds as well as
strong irritants. In some geographic regions, naturally occurring radon, a
radioactive gas, can seep from the ground into buildings and accumulate
to harmful levels
• Exposure to all indoor air pollutants can be reduced by
appropriate building construction and maintenance methods, limitations
on pollutant sources, and provision of adequate ventilation
Symptoms and illnesses related to the quality of indoor air
Jawed@bitmesra.ac.in
Sick Building Syndrome
• Almost everyone occasionally feels unwell because they are suffering from one or
more common symptoms of discomfort such as headaches, dry throat or sore eyes.
But there are occasions when, for no obvious reasons, people working in particular
buildings experience these sorts of symptoms more often than is usual. The symptoms
tend to increase in severity with time spent in the building and improve over time or
disappear away from the building. This is often described as Sick Building Syndrome
• The main symptoms associated with Sick Building Syndrome are:
• dry or itchy skin or skin rash
• dry or itchy eyes, nose or throat
• headaches, lethargy, irritability, or poor concentration
• stuffy or runny nose
What causes Sick Building Syndrome?
• Physical or environmental factors - covering physical conditions, eg ventilation,
cleaning and maintenance, and workstation layout
• Job factors - such as the variety and interest of particular jobs and people’s
ability to control certain aspects of their work and working environment
• Building and office design
• Deep plan or open plan offices of more than about ten workstations
• Large areas of soft furnishing, open shelving and filing
• New furniture, carpets and painted surfaces
• Building services and maintenance
• Air conditioning
• Lighting (particularly the type and positioning which cause high glare and flicker)
• Low level of user control over ventilation, heating and lighting
• Poor design and maintenance of building services
• Poor standards of general repair
• Insufficient or badly organised office cleaning services
History of Air Pollution Episodes
• Meuse Valley, Belgium Meuse Valley, Belgium – 1930
• Donora, Pennsylvania Donora, Pennsylvania – 1948
• London, England London, England – 1952
• These episodes provided the impetus for regulations to reduce emissions,
and regulations to reduce emissions, and associated air quality
improvements
• In each of these cases:
• persistent (3 to 6 days) thermal inversion combined with significant
industrial emissions and in the case of London, domestic pollutant
emissions
• resulted in high ground-level concentrations that caused acute illness
and, in some cases, death
Meuse Valley, Belgium, December 1-5, 1930
• Narrow river valley
• Temperature inversion to 90 m
• Elderly and those with heart and lung diseases were most affected
• 63 deaths on Dec. 4-5
• Specific pollutants were not identified
Donora, Pennsylvania, October 25-31, 1948
• Temperature inversion
• Narrow river valley
• 20 human deaths on Oct. 30 & 800 animals' death
• Many steel and coal projects in the region, major industrial hub
• Sulfur dioxide, fluorine gas, temperature inversion, poor ventilation
aggravated by meteorological factors
The Great London Smog, 1952
• Lasted for 5 days
• Period of cold weather, anticyclonic conditions, pollutants from low grade
coal usage with high sulfur content, temperature Inversion to 90 m
• Approximately 4,000 deaths
• Pollutants measured at 12 locations
• Ambient particulates measured to be 5 times higher than normal
Los Angeles Smog - 1973
• Vehicular emissions
• Visibility reduction and respiratory illnesses
Bhopal Gas Tragedy - 1984
• December 2-3, 1984, pesticide plant in Bhopal, Union Carbide India Ltd.
• Methyl isocyanate, clear, colourless, B.P. 39 0C
• Exothermic reaction, causing gas leakage, wind dispersed the gas to
adjoining areas
• 170,000 treated in medical centres, 2000 animals were buried, fish,
vegetation also got impacted, ~4000 reported to have died actual number
may be higher
CE101
Module 3 - Water Pollution

Where Does Potable (fit for consumption) Drinking Water Come From? Less than one
third of salt-free
Sources water is liquid
Surface water sources: lakes, rivers, reservoirs (< 0.01 % of total)

Ground water: pumped from wells drilled into underground aquifers (0.3%)
Criteria vs. Standards
• These two terms are sometime used interchangeably. However, each one
of them has a specific meaning
• Criteria are requirements that a water source must satisfy in order to be
used for a particular purpose. In other terms, criteria are specifications
indicating the minimum quality level that the water must have to support
a predefined use
• Criteria are important in defining the characteristics of inlet water streams
• Standards are the characteristics that the wastewater must satisfy to be
lawfully discharged to a receiving body of water or to a POTW
• In other terms standards refer to the quality of the outlet water, after its
intended use
Criteria vs. Standards
Water Quality
Water Quality & Pollution
Water Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Water Pollutants
Spores
How do we express concentration?
Quantity Concentration =
– Mass or weight Quantity of a subs tan ce
– Volume Quantity of a particular phase
– Moles
Concentration
– moles/L (liquid)
– g/m3 (gas)
– mg/g (solid)
– % (by weight or by volume)
Water Sources
The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:
1. Surface sources
• Ponds and lakes
• Streams and rivers
• Storage reservoirs
• Oceans??
2. Sub-surface sources
• Springs
• Infiltration wells
• Wells and tube wells
CE101
Water Pollution
Types of Water Pollution
• Sediment
• logging, road building, erosion
• Oxygen-demanding wastes
• human waste, storm sewers, runoff from agriculture, grazing and logging,
many others
• Nutrient enrichment (Eutrophication)
• N, P from fertilizers, detergents
• leads to increased growth in aquatic systems, ultimately more non-living
organic matter
Types of Water Pollution
• Disease-causing organisms
• from untreated sewage, runoff from feed lots
• Toxic chemicals
• pesticides, fertilizers, industrial chemicals, heavy metals and metalloids (lead,
mercury, cadmium, nickel, zinc, arsenic)
• Acids – increases acidity
• Elevated temperature = Thermal Pollution
• water is used for cooling purposes, then heated water is returned to its original
source
• any increase in temperature, even a few degrees, may significantly alter some
aquatic ecosystems
Heavy Metals
The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a
relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations.
• are natural components of the Earth's crust
• they cannot be degraded or destroyed
• to a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air
• as trace elements, some heavy metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are
essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body however, at
higher concentrations they can lead to poisoning
• heavy metal poisoning could result, from drinking-water contamination
(e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources,
or intake via the food chain
Environmental effects of mercury
• Acidic surface waters can contain significant amounts of mercury
• When the pH values are between five and seven, the mercury concentrations in
the water will increase due to mobilisation of mercury in the ground
• Once mercury has reached surface waters or soils microorganisms can convert it
to methyl mercury, a substance that can be absorbed quickly by most organisms
and is known to cause nerve damage
• Fish are organisms that absorb great amounts of methyl mercury from surface
waters every day (mercury can accumulate in fish and in the food chains)
• The effects that mercury has on animals are: kidneys damage, stomach
disruption, damage to intestines, reproductive failure and DNA alteration
Cadmium (Cd) – Health Effects
• Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly through food
• Foodstuffs that are rich in cadmium can greatly increase the cadmium
concentration in human bodies (liver, mushrooms, shellfish, mussels, cocoa
powder and dried seaweed)
• Diarrhoea, stomach pains and severe vomiting
• Bone fracture
• Reproductive failure and possibly even infertility
• Damage to the central nervous system
• Damage to the immune system
• Psychological disorders
• Possibly DNA damage or cancer development
Chromium (Cr) – Health Effects
• Commonly found in leather products, it can cause allergic reactions,
such as skin rash
• After breathing it in, chromium(VI) can cause nose irritations and
nosebleeds
• Upset stomachs and ulcers
• Respiratory problems
• Weakened immune system
• Kidney and liver damage
• Alteration of genetic material
• Lung cancer
• Death
Lead (Pb) – Health Effects
• Disruption of the biosynthesis of haemoglobin and anemia
• A rise in blood pressure
• Kidney damage
• Miscarriages
• Disruption of nervous systems
• Brain damage
• Declined fertility of men through sperm damage
• Diminished learning abilities of children
• Behavioural disruptions of children, such as aggression, impulsive
behaviour and hyperactivity
Pesticides
Bioconcentration
Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
Major Water Pollutants and Their Sources
Why monitor water quality?
• Ensure safe drinking water
• Identify problems
• Adopt precautionary measures
• Raise awareness
• Determine the effectiveness of water and wastewater
treatment technologies
• Select an appropriate water source
• Influence policies to supply safe water
Monitoring
• Monitoring – Defined as the programmed process of sampling, measurement
and subsequent recording or signaling, or both, of various water
characteristics, often with the aim of assessing conformity to specified
objectives
• This general definition can be differentiated into three types of monitoring
activities that distinguish between long-term, short-term and continuous
monitoring programmes as follows:
1. Monitoring is the long-term, standardized measurement and observation of
the aquatic environment in order to define status and trends
2. Surveys are finite duration, intensive programmes to measure and observe
the quality of the aquatic environment for a specific purpose
3. Surveillance is continuous, specific measurement and observation for the
purpose of water quality management and operational activities
Water Quality
1. Physical Characteristics
• Turbidity
• Color
• Taste and odor
• Temperature
2. Chemical Characteristics
• pH
• Acidity
• Alkalinity
• Hardness
• Anions (Chloride, Fluoride)
• Metals (Iron, Arsenic, etc.)
• Nutrients (N, P)
• What else??
3. Biological Characteristics
• Standard plate count
• Coliforms
• Faecal Coliforms
• Protozoa
Water Sampling
-Microbiological parameters sampling
-Indicator organisms for pathogen presence
Physical parameters sampling

-Temperature, turbidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids etc
Chemical parameters sampling

- pH, dissolved oxygen, phosphates, chemical oxygen demand, biochemical
oxygen demand, mineral impurities (iron, manganese, chloride, lead, sodium
etc)
Types of Testing
• Observation
• Advantages:
• Quick and easy
• Inexpensive
• Limitations:
• Qualitative – low precision and accuracy
• Field testing
• Advantages:
• Easy to use and portable
• Rapid results
• Less expensive
• Limitations:
• Less precision and accuracy
• Less quality assurance
Types of Testing
• Mobile laboratories
• Advantages:
• Controlled environment,
• High level of precision and accuracy
• Limitations:
• Relatively expensive
• Requires skilled laboratory technicians
• Laboratory testing
• Advantages:
• Controlled environment,
• High level of precision and accuracy
• Limitations:
• Expensive
• Lack of flexibility to conduct own testing
Selecting Test Methods
Depends on:
• Objectives
• Range of concentration
• Required accuracy and precision
• Time period between sampling and analysis
• Technical skills and equipment required
• Familiarity with the method
• Availability of resources
Where Do We Sample?
• Source water
• Transport container (before treatment)
• Treated water
• Stored water (after treatment)
• Point of use
Monitoring Options
• From fixed sites (long term data)
– Fixed interval
– Varied interval (flow or time dependent)
• From random sites
• From specific sites after an event (i.e. chemical spill, or implementation of
regulation)
Water quality data (Concentrations)
• Traditionally, measurement of concentrations involves taking water
samples
• Sampling:
– Composite
– Grab
• Fixed interval (time, volume)
• In situ measurements and ex situ measurements
Hardness
• Soft: 0 to75 mg/L as CaCO3
• Moderate: 75 to 150 mg/L as CaCO3
• Hard: 150 to 300 mg/L as CaCO3
• Very Hard: Above 300 mg/L as CaCO3
• Water should have a total hardness of less than 75 to 85 mg/l as CaCO3 and
magnesium hardness of less than 40 mg/l as CaCO3 to minimize scaling at
elevated temperatures
Alkalinity
• Measure of water’s capacity to neutralize acids
• Acid neutralizing capacity, without ANC, any acid added to an aquatic system
would cause an immediate change in the pH
• Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3- ] + 2[CO 32-] + [OH- ] – [H+ ]
• Alkalinity in natural water is due to: Carbonate, bicarbonate, borate, silicate,
phosphate
• Types of alkalinity: Hydroxide, carbonate, bicarbonate
• Reported in terms of mg/L CaCO3 terms; specifies that the sample has an
alkalinity equal to that of a solution with a certain amount of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) dissolved in water
If sample pH >8.3, two step
titration
1. Titration until pH = 8.3
(Phenolphtalein end point,
pink to colorless)
2. Titration until pH = 4.2
(Methyl orange end point)
Acidity
• Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to a
designated pH (base neutralising capacity - BNC)
• The measured value may vary significantly with the end point pH used in the
determination
• Mineral acidity: It is measured by titration to a pH of about 3.7, the methyl
orange end point (also known as methyl orange acidity)
• Total acidity: Titration of a sample to the phenolphthalein end point of pH 8.3
measures mineral acidity plus acidity due to weak acids, thus this is called as
total acidity (or phenolphthalein acidity)
Salinity
• Salinity (total dissolved solids)
• Sea water 35.2 g/L (ppt), 35200 mg/L (ppm)
• Freshwater wetlands very variable (avg. 177 mg/L)
• Fresh = 0 - 500 mg/L
• Mildly saline = 500 - 1000 mg/L
• Brackish = 1000 - 3000 mg/L
• Saline = > 3000 mg/L
• These are compounds that release ions other than H+ or OH- when they
dissolve e.g., NaCl
Water Quality Index
• Weighted score of each variable to propose a water quality index (WQI)
• The main idea in developing a WQI consists in encompassing a wide
range of variables into a single numeric value
• The objective of the WQI is to classify the waters relative to biological,
chemical and physical characteristics defining their possible uses and
managing their allocations
• WQIs can be considered as models of water quality, i.e., a simplified
representation of a complex reality, where variables are selected and
methods for weighing and aggregating the variables are defined
Water Quality Index Concept
In all approaches of WQI calculation, four common steps are used:
(i) selection of variables
(ii) transformation, following a common scale, of these variables that have
initially different dimensions
(iii) creation of subindices by assignment of a weighing factor to each
transformed variable
(iv) computation of a final index score using the aggregation of subindices
Horton Index
National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI)
Dinius Water Quality Index (DWQI)

CE101
Water Treatment
Water Treatment Plant - Basics
• Water Treatment is the
process of making water
suitable for desired end use
(such as drinking)
• Water Treatment occurs as a
Systematic Process through a
Water Treatment Plant
Surface Water Treatment Plant
Surface Water Treatment for Turbidity and Color Removal
Intake and
Pump Station Rapid Slow
Bacteria, Color, Mix Mix
Turbidity flocculation sedimentation
basin basin
add Cl2 or alum or

Stream O3 for taste iron salts for coagulation
and odor
to distri-
Clear- bution
Filtration
well
add Cl2
and F-
lime for pH
Groundwater Treatment Plant
Treatment of Groundwater for Hardness Removal
Rapid Slow
Aeration Mix Mix Recarbonation
HardWater
Ca+2 + Mg+2 add
add D. O. CO2
to decrease pH
to remove CO2
and H 2S add lime (for CH)
Bore Hole and soda ash (for NCH)
Well raise pH to 10 - 11.5
to distri-
Clear- bution
Filtration
well
add Cl2
and F-
Methods of Water Purification
• Screening
• Plain sedimentation
• Sedimentation aided with coagulation
• Filtration
• Disinfection
• Aeration
• Softening
• Miscellaneous treatments (fluoridation, recarbonation liming,
desalination etc.)
Initial Stages
1. Screening - removal of any coarse floating

objects, weeds, etc.
2. Aeration - dissolving oxygen into the water
• removes smell and taste
• promotes helpful bacteria growth
• precipitates nuisance metals like iron and
manganese.
3. pH correction - preparing for coagulation and
to help precipitate metals. (remember how
acid rain leaches metals out of soil?- make
water acidic to leach out metals)
4. Coagulation and flocculation –
- add coagulating agent (aluminum
sulfate or iron sulfate)
- causes agglomeration (clumping)
and sedimentation of solid particles
- these solid particles are called floc
or sludge
• Floc: The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation process is water in which the majority of the
turbidity has been collected into floc
• Clumps of bacteria and particulate impurities that have come together and formed a cluster
• The floc will then settle out in the sedimentation basin, with remaining floc being removed in the filter
5. Sedimentation
• Floc settles out and is scraped and vacuumed
off the bottom of large sedimentation tanks.
• Clarified water drains out of the top of these
tanks in a giant decanting process.
6. Filtration (depends on size of plant/volume of

water considerations)
• Rapid-sand filters force water through a
0.45–1 m layer of sand and work faster,
needing a smaller area. But they need
frequent back-washing
• Slow-sand filters require a much larger area
but reduce bacteriological and viral levels to
better due to the biofilm layer. The top 1 inch
of biofilm must be periodically scraped off
and the filter occasionally back-washed
Final Steps
7. Disinfection - water completely free of suspended
sediment is treated with a powerful oxidizing agent
usually one of three types:
• Chlorine
• Chlorine can form harmful byproducts and has
suspected links to stomach cancer and
miscarriages.
• Chloramine (chlorine then ammonia)
• Many agencies now residually disinfect with
Chloramine - does not dissipate from water before
reaching consumers like chlorine does
• Ozone- more expensive
• UV-light
8. pH adjustment - so that treated water leaves the plant
in the desired range of 6.5 to 8.5 pH units
Screening
• Coarse screen (generally trash racks)
• Fine screen
• Movable bar type screens or travelling bar screens
Coagulation & Flocculation
• Electrical charges on colloidal particle
• Zeta potential
• Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the
water which causes the particles to clump together
• Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to
the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling
processes
Coagulation & Flocculation
Coagulation will be affected by changes in the
• Water's pH
• Alkalinity
• Temperature
• Time
• Velocity
• Zeta potential
Plain Sedimentation
• Basin in which flow of water is retarded is called the settling
tank/sedimentation tank/sedimentation basin/clarifier
• Factors affecting sedimentation
1. Velocity of flow
2. Viscosity of water
3. Size, shape and specific gravity of particles
Stoke’s Law
𝑔 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 𝑑𝑝2
𝑣𝑠 =
18µ
Sedimentation Tanks
• Plain sedimentation - up to 70% suspended impurities removal
• Can be continuous or intermittent process
• Rectangular or circular tanks
• Rectangular (horizontal flow)
• Circular (horizontal radial or spiral flow)
Types of Sedimentation Tanks
1. Horizontal flow tanks
• Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow
• Circular tanks with radial flow, with central feed
2. Vertical or up flow tanks
Sedimentation
Rectangular basin
Double-decked basin
Square/Circular basin
Different Zones - Inlet, Settling, Sludge, outlet

Filtration
• Separate non-settleable solids from water
• Combined with coagulation/clarification, filtration can remove
• Turbidity 84%–96%
• Coliform bacteria 97–99.95% and Giardia >99%
• Mechanism
• Straining
• Adsorption
• Absorption
• Biological breakdown
Type of Filtration
• Slow filtration - uses gravity (slower flow)

• Rapid filtration - uses gravity (faster flow)
• Pressure sand filters - use water pressure
• Filter media should be:
• coarse enough to retain large quantities of floc
• sufficiently fine to prevent passage of suspended solids
• deep enough to allow relative long filter runs
• Granular-medium filters (Rapid Sand Filters)
• Sometimes anthracite is also used on the very top (least dense)
• Fine sand on top of supporting coarse sand (less dense), which lays on top of gravel layer (highest
density)
Cleaning (backwashing) filters
• Determination of how often to back-wash can be made based on:
• Head loss (pressure loss),
• Loss of water quality (e.g., increased turbidity), or
• Time since last backwash
• Water flow is reversed through the filter bed
• The rate of backwash is designed to partially expand (fluidize) the filter bed
• Suspended matter is removed by shear forces as the water moves through the
fluidized bed
• Additional cleaning occurs when particles of the bed abrade against each other
Rapid Sand Filter Operation
Sometimes multiple
layers of different media
Disinfection
• Any process to destroy or prevent the growth of microbes
• Intended to inactivate (destroy the infectivity of) the microbes by physical, chemical or
biological processes
• Inactivation is achieved by altering or destroying essential structures or functions
within the microbe
• Inactivation processes include denaturation of:
• proteins (structural proteins, enzymes, transport proteins)
• nucleic acids (genomic DNA or RNA, mRNA, tRNA, etc)
• lipids (lipid bilayer membranes, other lipids)
Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant
• Broad spectrum: active against all microbes

• Fast acting: produces rapid inactivation
• Effective in the presence of organic matter, suspended solids and other
matrix or sample constituents
• Nontoxic; soluble; non-flammable; non-explosive
• Compatible with various materials/surfaces
• Stable or persistent for the intended exposure period
• Provides a residual
• Easy to generate and apply
• Economical
Disinfectants in Water Treatment
• Free Chlorine
• Monochloramine
• Ozone
• Chlorine Dioxide
• UV Light
o Low pressure mercury lamp (monochromatic)
o Medium pressure mercury lamp (polychromatic)
o Pulsed broadband radiation
• Boiling
• Iodine
o Short-term use; long-term use a health concern
Properties of Water Disinfectants
• Free chlorine: HOCl (hypochlorous) acid and OCl- (hypochlorite ion)
• HOCl at low and pH OCl- at high pH; HOCl more potent germicide than OCl-
• strong oxidant; relatively stable in water (provides a disinfectant residual)
• Chloramines: mostly NH2Cl: weak oxidant; provides a stable residual
• Ozone, O3: strong oxidant; provides no residual (too volatile, reactive)
• Chlorine dioxide, ClO2,: strong oxidant; unstable (dissolved gas)
• Concerns due to health risks of chemical disinfectants and their by-products (DBPs), especially free chlorine and its DBPs
• UV radiation
• low pressure mercury lamp: low intensity; monochromatic at 254 nm
• medium pressure mercury lamp: higher intensity; polychromatic 220-280 nm
• reacts primarily with nucleic acids: pyrimidine dimers and other alterations
• Boiling: efficient kill; no residual protection; fuel/environmental costs

Chlorine
Breakpoint Chlorination
Summary – Water Treatment
A Treatment Plant
1. Intake: Water is taken from the source. Logs, fish and plants are screened out at the
intake and then the water is drawn into the treatment plant. If the source is groundwater,
the "screening" is done by the soil as the water travels under the earth's surface.
Sometimes very little treatment is required for groundwater.
2. Chemical Addition: Aluminum sulfate (alum) polymers and/or chlorine are added to
the water. These kill germs, improve taste and odor, and they help settle solids still in the
water. The water and these chemicals are then mixed together.
3. Coagulation and Flocculation: Here, the alum and other chemicals from the chemical
addition step cling to particles in the water. This is called coagulation. It causes the
particles to stick together and form larger particles called floc
4. Sedimentation: The water and the floc particles flow into a sedimentation basin. Here
the floc settles to the bottom and is removed from the water.
Summary – Water Treatment
5. Filtration: From the sedimentation basin, the water flows through filters. Filters are
made of layers of sand and gravel. The filters are used to remove any remaining particles
left in the water
6. Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine, or other disinfecting chemicals, is added. This
is used to kill any remaining germs and to keep the water safe as it travels to the public. In
some water systems, especially those with groundwater sources, this is the only treatment
provided
7. Storage: The water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir called a clear well. This allows
time for the chlorine to mix throughout the water in order for disinfection to take place.
The water then flows into the distribution system.
The water is sampled and tested throughout the treatment plant. Sampling is performed to
make sure the processes are working and that the water is safe before it leaves the plant
CE101
Wastewater Treatment – Primary, Secondary & Advanced Processes

Sludge Treatment & Disposal
Wastewater
• Wastewater treatment systems take human and industrial liquid wastes
and make them safe enough (from the public health perspective) to return
to the aquatic or terrestrial environment
• Wastewater can have
• Domestic used water and toilet wastes
• Rainwater
• Industrial effluent (Toxic industrial water is pretreated)
• Livestock wastes
• Wastewater treatment systems use the same processes of purification
that would occur in a natural aquatic system only they do it faster and in
a controlled situation
Wastewater types from houses
• Grey water: Washing water from the kitchen, bathroom, laundry
(without feces and urine)
• Black water: Water from flush toilet (feces and urine with flush water)
• Yellow water: Urine separated from toilets and urinals
• Brown water: Black water without urine or yellow water
The nature and composition of wastewater
Why do we need to treat wastewater?
• To prevent groundwater pollution
• To prevent seashore pollution
• To prevent soil pollution
• To prevent marine life from deterioration
• Protection of public health
• To reuse the treated effluent (agriculture, groundwater recharge, industrial recycle)
• Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of wastewater
Options for reuse of treated wastewater
Wastewater Treatment
• Types of treatment systems include: Septic Tanks or Wastewater
Treatment Plants (WWTPs)
•Septic Tanks typically treat small volumes of waste (e.g., from
a single household, small commercial/industrial)
•WWTPs typically treat larger volumes of municipal or
industrial waste
Classification of Treatment Methods
• Physical Unit Operations: Treatment methods in which the application of
physical forces predominates are known as physical unit operations. Most
of these methods are based on physical forces, e.g. screening, mixing,
flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration
• Chemical Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which removal or

conversion of contaminant is brought by addition of chemicals or by other
chemical reaction are known as chemical unit processes, for example,
precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and disinfection
• Biological Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which the removal of

contaminants is brought about by biological activity are known as
biological unit processes
Different treatment methods used in wastewater treatment plant
• Primary Treatment: Physical unit operations

• Secondary Treatment: Chemical and biological unit processes
• Tertiary Treatment: Any one or combination of two or all three i.e.,
physical unit operations and chemical or biological unit processes, used
after secondary treatment
Factors affecting the selection of treatment processes
• The potential use of the treated effluent
• The nature of the wastewater
• The compatibility of the various operations and processes
• The available means to dispose of the ultimate contaminants
• The environmental and economic feasibility of the various systems
Overview of plant components
Raw Wastewater Influent
PRELIMINARY
Preliminary Residuals PRIMARY

A (i.e., grit, rags, etc.)
Clarifier
SECONDARY
Biological (e.g., attached-grwoth
B Primary Sludge Treatment
Usually to Landfill Suspended-Growth,
System Constructed Wetland, etc.)
Wastewater
Clarifier
Clarifier
Treatment
Residuals
DISINFECTION
C Secondary Sludge
Biosolids
Processing
and Disposal Clean Wastewater Effluent
Discharge to Receiving Waters
Wastewater Treatment Processes
Preliminary Primary Secondary
Treatment Treatment Treatment
 Screening  Sedimentation and Flotation  Biological Treatment
 Grit removal  Sedimentation
 Pre-Aeration
 Flow Metering and Sampling
Tertiary (Advanced) Solids

Disinfection
Treatment Treatment
 Chemical Phosphorous Removal  Digestion
 Biological Nutrient Removal (N & P)  Disposal
 Multimedia Filtration
Preliminary and Primary Treatment
Primary Clarifier
Primary Clarifier
 Biological Treatment
 Sedimentation

Disinfection
Treatment Treatment
Major processes in bacterium
Endogenous respiration
Fixed Film Biological Treatment Process
Suspended Growth Process Schematic

Disinfection
Treatment Treatment
 Chemical Phosphorous
Removal
 Biological Nutrient Removal
 Multimedia Filtration
EBPR - Enhanced Biological Phosphate Removal
• Biological phosphorus removal from wastewater is based on the enrichment
of activated sludge with phosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs)
• Under anaerobic conditions, P removing bacteria convert volatile fatty acids
(VFAs) synthesised in the zone by fermenters to polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
which is stored intracellularly
• Under aerobic conditions, stored PHB is used to generate cell growth, poly-P
synthesis and glycogen formation and maintenance, resulting in the uptake
of phosphate
RAS
Aerobic
Anaerobic Clarifier
Soluble
BOD
Ortho-P
Time
Biological Phosphorus Removal Schematic
Chemical Precipitation Schematic
28
N Removal
Ammonification
Nitrification of Ammonia
• Autotrophic nitrifiers are aerobic microorganisms oxidizing ammonia via nitrite
to nitrate
• Organisms catalyzing nitrification (Eq. 18) belong to the genera Nitrosomonas,
Nitrosococcus, Nitrosolobus, Nitrosospira, and Nitrosovibrio
• Organisms catalyzing nitration (Eq. 19) include, e.g., members of the genera Nitrobacter,
Nitrococcus, and Nitrospira
N Removal
Heterotrophic Nitrification
Some bacteria of the genera Arthrobacter, Flavobacterium, and Thiosphaera are able to catalyze heterotrophic
nitrification of nitrogen-containing organic substances
R–NH2 → R–NHOH → R–NO → NO3 (1)
Denitrification: Nitrate Removal from Wastewater

Denitrification Process Schematic
31

Disinfection
Treatment Treatment
Disinfection
• Necessary to reduce disease causing pathogens
• Majority of plants use some form of chlorination
• Ultra-violet light disinfection becoming more popular due to security
and safety issues with chlorine
Solids Treatment
Primary Secondary
Treatment Treatment
Solids
Treatment
 Digestion
 Disposal
Solids Management - Stabilization
• Digestion
• Aerobic and anaerobic treatment
• Incineration
• Wet Oxidation
• Lime Stabilization
• Post Lime Stabilization
• Dewatering
CE101
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
• The lithosphere (litho:rock; sphere:layer) is the strong, upper 100 km of the Earth.
The lithosphere is the tectonic plate we talk about in plate tectonics.
• The asthenosphere (a:without; stheno:strength) is the weak and easily deformed
layer of the Earth that acts as a “lubricant” for the tectonic plates to slide over.
• The asthenosphere extends from 100 km depth to 660 km beneath the Earth's
surface. Beneath the asthenosphere is the mesosphere, another strong layer
• The crust is a chemically distinct layer at the surface of the Earth. Crustal material
contains lighter elements like Si, O, Al, Ca, K, Na, etc... Feldspars (Anorthite,
Albite, Orthoclase) are common minerals in the crust (CaAlSi2O8, NaALSi3O8 ,
KALSi3O8).
•.
• The crust may be divided into 2 types: oceanic and continental.
Oceanic crust is usually 5-10 km thick and continental crust is 33 km
thick on average. Beneath the crust is the mantle
• The mantle is made up of Si and O, like the crust, but it contains more
Fe and Mg.
• The mantle extends to the core-mantle interface at approximately 2900
km depth.
• The mantle contains the lower portion of the lithosphere, the
asthenosphere, and the mesosphere.
• The crust is made of the upper portion of the lithosphere
Lithosphere
• Composition of the Lithosphere - the lithosphere is made up of soil, sand,
mud and rock, which are all composed of minerals
• Minerals - a mineral is a naturally occurring, crystalline, inorganic substance with
specific physical and chemical properties
• Most minerals are composed of two or more elements. Oxygen is the most
abundant element in the earth’s crust by both weight and volume. Silicon is the
second most abundant element by weight
• Mineral Structure - different minerals can possess different structures. Silicate
containing minerals (Silicon and Oxygen) have a structure based on the silicon-
oxygen tetrahedron
• Mineral Properties - all minerals have their own unique physical and chemical
properties that can be used to identify them (e.g., color, luster streak, hardness, sp.
Gravity, chemical tests)
• All rocks are composed of minerals
Lithosphere - Layers
SIAL - SIAL located just below the outer sedimentary
cover. It is composed of granites. Silica and aluminium
(SI+AL=SIAL) dominates this layer
SIMA is just located below the sial layer. SIMA is

composed of basalt and is the source of magma and lava
during volcanic eruptions. (SI+MA=SIMA) Silica and
magnesium are the dominant constituents.
NIFE is located below the ‘sima’ layer. (NI+FE = NIFE) is the

composition of this layer. Ni= nickel Fe=ferrium
Image Source: https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm

What is soil?
By volume:
• 45% mineral
• 5% organic material
• 50% space (air/water)
By mass?
• 0% air
• 18% water
• 80% mineral
• 2% organic material
Physical Properties of Soil
Soil solid phase is characterized by
• Soil texture - size distribution of soil particles
• Chemical and mineralogical properties
• Shape and surface area of soil particles
• Soil structure - arrangement of individual soil particles
Soil Texture
Soil Texture
Soil’s specific surface area (s, 2
m /g)
Surface area (a) = 4p r2
Mass (m) = rV = r[4pr3/3]

Thus, specific surface area (s=a/m): s = 3/rr (inversely proportional to radius)
Soil Structure
• The arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil, and the
tendency of individual soil particles to bind together in aggregates
• Aggregation creates intra-aggregrate and inter-aggregate pore space,
thereby changing flow paths for water, gases, solutes and pollutants
• Effects on plant growth operates through:
• Aeration
• Soil compaction
• Water relations
• Soil temperature
Soil Structure
• There are eight structural types

commonly recognized in soil profiles:
Granular, single grain, blocky,
prismatic, columnar, platy, wedge,
and massive.
0 - Structureless: no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural lines
of weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if non-coherent.
1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterised by poorly formed indistinct
aggregates that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil material
that has this grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few entire aggregates
many broken aggregates and much unaggregated material.
2 - Moderate: Well formed distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident but
not distinct in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they break down into a
mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some broken aggregates and
little unaggregated material.
3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that are quite evident in undisturbed soil that adhere
weakly to one another. When removed from the profile the soil material
consists very largely of entire aggregates and includes few broken ones and
little or no non-aggregated material.
Density
• Particle Density - of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil
solid phase) - expressed in g/c.c. Most soils have particle density of about
2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the density and iron
compounds increase the density
• Bulk density - of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume
includes both soil and pores) - expressed in g/c.c.
• Pore Space
Soil colour
• Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil
as well as the type of minerals in the soil
• Red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron oxide under oxidised
conditions (well-drainage) in the soil
• Dark colour is generally due to the accumulation of highly decayed organic matter
• Yellow colour is due to hydrated iron oxides and hydroxide
• Black nodules are due to manganese oxides
• Mottling and greying are associated with poor drainage and/or high water table
• Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled with very low pH are indicative of possible
acid sulphate soils
Soil Color
• Munsell Color Chart

• Used to identify the soil color. This chart
allows soil scientists to uniformly
describe soil color. In the field, soil
scientists compare the colors found in
the soil with the color chips found on
the chart.
Soil permeability
• Pore size, texture, structure and the presence of impervious layers such
as clay pan determines the permeability of a soil
• Clayey soils with platy structures have very low permeability
• Permeability is measured in terms of permeability rate or coefficient of
permeability (cm per hour, cm per day, cm per sec.)
Basic Soil Chemical Properties
• Total C: organic matter + carbonates (normally in units of %, mg g-1, or g kg-1)
• Total N: mostly organic (normally in units of %, mg g-1, or g kg-1)
• C:N Ratio: major factor affecting N availability (no units)
• Cation exchange capacity (CEC): permanent charge (clays) and pH-dependent

(organic matter) (normally in units of cmolc kg-1, or, in older papers, meq 100 g-1)
• Exchangeable cations: Ca2+ , Mg2+ , K+ , Na+ Al3+, (normally in units cmolc kg-1, or, in
older papers, meq 100 g-1; may also be in units of mg kg-1, or ppm in older papers)
• Base saturation: [(Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + Na+)/CEC] x 100 (units of %)
• Adsorbed ortho-P and SO42-: related to sesquioxide concentrations and organic

coatings (normally in units mg kg-1, or ppm in older papers)
Saline Soils
• Saline soils contain excessive concentrations of soluble carbonate,
chloride and sulfate salts that cause EC levels to exceed 4 mmhos/cm
• relatively insoluble salts such as Ca and Mg carbonates do not cause
high EC levels, they are often present in saline soils and may result in
the formation of a white crust on the soil surface
• primary challenge of saline soils on agricultural land is their effect on
plant/water relations
Sodic Soils
• Sodic soils have a relatively low EC, but a high amount of Na+ occupying exchange sites, often resulting in the
soil having a pH at or above 8.5
• Instead of flocculating, Na+ causes soil colloids to disperse, or spread out, if sufficient amounts of flocculating
cations (i.e., Ca2+ and Mg2+) are not present to counteract the Na+
• Dispersed colloids clog soil pores, effectively reducing soil’s ability to transport water and air
• Result is soil with low water permeability and slow infiltration that causes ponding and then crusting when dry
• Sodic soils are also prone to extreme swelling and shrinking during periods of drying and wetting, further
breaking down soil structure
• subsoil of a sodic soil is usually very compact, moist and sticky, and may be composed of soil columns with
rounded caps
Saline-Sodic Soils
• Saline-sodic soils are soils that have chemical characteristics of both saline soils (EC greater
than 4 mmhos/cm and pH less than 8.5) and sodic soils (ESP greater than 15)
• Plant growth in saline-sodic soils is affected by both excess salts and excess Na
• Physical characteristics of saline-sodic soils are intermediate between saline and
sodic soils, flocculating salts help moderate the dispersing action of Na+ and
structure is not as poor as in sodic soils
• The pH of saline-sodic soils is generally less than 8.5; however, this can increase
with the leaching of soluble salts unless concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ are high
in the soil or irrigation water
Soil Type EC (dS/m) ESP (%) SAR pH
Typical Agricultural Soil <4 <15 <13 <8.0
Saline Soil >4 <15 <13 <8.5
Sodic Soil <4 >15 >13 >8.5
Saline Sodic Soil >4 >15 >13 <8.5
Exchange Capacity
• Cation Exchange Capacity - Cations are positively charged ions such as calcium,
magnesium, and potassium, sodium, hydrogen, aluminum, iron, manganese, zinc and
copper
• Capacity of the soil to hold on to these cations called the cation exchange capacity (CEC)
• Cations are held by the negatively charged clay and organic matter particles in the soil
through electrostatic forces (negative soil particles attract the positive cations)
• Cations on the CEC of the soil particles are easily exchangeable with other cations and as a
result, they are plant available, CEC of soil represents the total amount of exchangeable
cations that the soil can adsorb
• CEC will change with soil pH (i.e. is pH dependent)
• Soil pH changes can be caused by natural processes, decomposition of organic matter
and leaching of cations, but also by human actions such as application of acidifying
nitrogen fertilizers and/or liming materials
• Higher the CEC the more clay or organic matter present in the soil. This usually means
that high CEC (clay) soils have a greater water holding capacity than low CEC (sandy)
soils
• Low CEC soils are more likely to develop potassium and magnesium (and other cation)
deficiencies, while high CEC soils are less susceptible to leaching losses of these
cations
Soil pH
CE101
Soil Pollution and its effects

Soil Pollution – Common Terms
• Leaching: the dissolution and movement of dissolved substances by water
• Parent material: The original material (mineral and/or organic) from which soil developed
by pedogenic processes
• Persistent organic pollutant (POP): Synthesized carbon-based compounds from
agrochemicals and industrial products that generally biodegrade very poorly and most of
which will bioaccumulate in tissues of organisms. Some pesticides are POPs, as are
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs),
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Soil health: the continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living system, within
ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality
of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health
• Food security: it is defined as the availability, access, utilization and stability of food supply
Soil Degradation
These are the processes that –
• Reduce soil fertility or
• result to complete destruction of soil
• Salinization
• Soil acidification
• deterioration of soil structure
• Erosion
• Pollution (quantity and quality problems)
Soil Pollution
• Soil pollution: refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of
place and/or present at higher than normal concentration that has
adverse effects on any non-targeted organism
• If substances (contaminants) reduces productive capacity get into the
soil either directly or mediating by air and water, furthermore their
quantity and secondary materials derived from them exceed soil’s
decomposing ability
• The impact of these chemicals on the crops will depend on the following
factors:
• the quality of the pollutants in the soil
• the amount of pollutants accessible to the root the amount of pollutants
accessible to the root
Sources of soil pollution
• Natural
1. Volcanoes
2. Rocks and minerals
• Anthropogenic
1. Industrial wastes
2. Urban wastes
3. Agricultural practices
4. Radioactive pollutants
5. Biological agents
Common Soil Pollutants
• Inorganic pollutants
• Toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Hg, Cr, Cu etc.)
• Nitrogenous fertilizers
• Organic pollutants
• Pesticides
• Other organic pollutants such as chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons, mono-aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and other derivatives
Systematic categorization of the main pollutants in
soils
Contaminant uptake by plants
Effect on soil organisms
• Metabolic cost
• Survival
• Population structure
• Community / ecosystem
Exposure pathways
Oral Exposure
Pathways
Soil Pollution Negative Impacts
1. Environment
• Water pollution
• Air pollution
• Impacts to flora and fauna (earthworms)
• Soil microbial diversity
• Reduced crops productivity
2. Human beings
• Short term effects – headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, allergies, skin diseases
• Long term effects – lead poisoning, damage to CNS, damage to vital organs – liver,
kidney etc., cancer
3. Plants and animals
• Impaired growth of plants
• Salinity impacts plant growth
• Acidity impacts plant growth
• Risk of bioaccumulation and entry of pollutants to food chain
Control measures of soil pollution
• Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices

• Proper dumping of unwanted materials
• Production of natural fertilizers
• Proper hygienic and sanitary condition
• Recycling and Reuse of wastes
• Ban on Toxic chemicals
• Public awareness
CE101
Soil Pollution and its effects

Soil Pollution – Common Terms
• Leaching: the dissolution and movement of dissolved substances by water
• Parent material: The original material (mineral and/or organic) from which soil developed
by pedogenic processes
• Persistent organic pollutant (POP): Synthesized carbon-based compounds from
agrochemicals and industrial products that generally biodegrade very poorly and most of
which will bioaccumulate in tissues of organisms. Some pesticides are POPs, as are
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs),
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Soil health: the continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living system, within
ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality
of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health
• Food security: it is defined as the availability, access, utilization and stability of food supply
Soil Degradation
These are the processes that –
• Reduce soil fertility or
• result to complete destruction of soil
• Salinization
• Soil acidification
• deterioration of soil structure
• Erosion
• Pollution (quantity and quality problems)
Soil Pollution
• Soil pollution: refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of
place and/or present at higher than normal concentration that has
adverse effects on any non-targeted organism
• If substances (contaminants) reduces productive capacity get into the
soil either directly or mediating by air and water, furthermore their
quantity and secondary materials derived from them exceed soil’s
decomposing ability
• The impact of these chemicals on the crops will depend on the following
factors:
• the quality of the pollutants in the soil
• the amount of pollutants accessible to the root the amount of pollutants
accessible to the root
Sources of soil pollution
• Natural
1. Volcanoes
2. Rocks and minerals
• Anthropogenic
1. Industrial wastes
2. Urban wastes
3. Agricultural practices
4. Radioactive pollutants
5. Biological agents
Common Soil Pollutants
• Inorganic pollutants
• Toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Hg, Cr, Cu etc.)
• Nitrogenous fertilizers
• Organic pollutants
• Pesticides
• Other organic pollutants such as chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons, mono-aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and other derivatives
Systematic categorization of the main pollutants in
soils
Contaminant uptake by plants
Effect on soil organisms
• Metabolic cost
• Survival
• Population structure
• Community / ecosystem
Exposure pathways
Oral Exposure
Pathways
Soil Pollution Negative Impacts
1. Environment
• Water pollution
• Air pollution
• Impacts to flora and fauna (earthworms)
• Soil microbial diversity
• Reduced crops productivity
2. Human beings
• Short term effects – headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, allergies, skin diseases
• Long term effects – lead poisoning, damage to CNS, damage to vital organs – liver,
kidney etc., cancer
3. Plants and animals
• Impaired growth of plants
• Salinity impacts plant growth
• Acidity impacts plant growth
• Risk of bioaccumulation and entry of pollutants to food chain
Control measures of soil pollution
• Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices

• Proper dumping of unwanted materials
• Production of natural fertilizers
• Proper hygienic and sanitary condition
• Recycling and Reuse of wastes
• Ban on Toxic chemicals
• Public awareness
CE101
Municipal Solid Waste Management

Storage
• Storage at source
• Community level storage
• Commercial establishments
• Industries (office and kitchen waste)
• Transfer station storage
Collection Operations
• Primary collection - Primary collection of waste is the second essential step of
Solid Waste Management activity
• Primary collection system is necessary to ensure that waste stored at source is
collected regularly and it is not disposed of on the streets, drains, water bodies,
etc
• Hand carts, tricycles, community bin carrier, containerized vehicles
Most important factors:

• Costs
• Proper number and size of trucks
• Collection routes and schedules
• Administering the whole system
• Changes & challenges – composting and recycling
• Drop off Centres
Collection
• Conventional – size, loading method, how much compaction?
• Rear loader - More efficient in collecting large and bulky wastes
• Side loader – Costs less, effective for densely populated areas
Reduce, Reuse and Recycling
• Resource recovery – Purchased by an end user
• Example – composting at home (recovered or recycle?)
• Recycling – Materials used as raw materials for new products
• Recycling process – Collecting recyclables, sorting by type, processing them into new
forms that are sold to manufacturers, purchasing and using goods made with
reprocessed materials
• Pre-consumer recycling & Post-consumer recycling (newspapers, plastics bottles etc.

General Recycling Process
• Collection and Processing
• Curbside, drop-off centers, buy-back centres, deposit/refund programs
• Materials are then sorted and sold to manufacturing vendors
• Manufacturing
• Materials are incorporated into new products, either reformed into
their original use or used in new ways
• Purchasing recycled products
• Businesses and consumers buy products made from recycled materials
• “Closing the loop”
Recycling Advantages
• Prevents the emission of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants,
• Saves energy,
• Supplies valuable raw materials to industry,
• Creates jobs,
• Stimulates the development of greener technologies,
• Conserves resources for our children’s future, and
• Reduces the need for new landfills and combustors.
Waste hierarchy
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Technological Options
• Thermo-chemical
• Bio-chemical conversion 2 Conversion
1
• Pyrolysis
• Composting
• Gasification
• Bio-methanation
• Incineration (RDF)
Why composting?
• About 70% of municipal waste is normally organic
• Organic waste can cause problems of smell, leachate, gas, and stray animals in landfills
• Recycling at source is most economic and environment friendly method of waste
management
• Simple methods available
• Compost is valuable resource for farmers
• Composting at source keeps inorganic waste clean and makes it easier for recycling
Concept
• Process of decomposition of organic waste by micro-organism
• Natural process (be made faster and more effective by mixing various types of waste and
adjusting moisture, temperature and aeration)
• Contains NPK and other plant nutrients including micro-organisms
Steps of composting:
• Preparation (converting waste into raw materials)
• Production of compost
• Marketing
Preparation
• Waste collection
• Sorting into organic and inorganic
• Reduce size if necessary
• Adjust moisture content
• Starters/additives
• Adjust C:N ratio
The Composting Process
• Biological decomposition in aerobic environment
• Decomposition & mineralization by microbes
• Bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoans, nematodes
• Food source – Nitrogen (biodegradable organic matter)
• Energy source – Carbon (bulking agent)
• Outputs
• Heat
• Water Vapor
• Carbon Dioxide
• Nutrients and minerals (compost)
• Process occurs naturally, but can be accelerated by controlling
essential elements
Composting Essential Elements
• Nutrients
• Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) – 20:1 to 35:1
• Carbon/Phosphorus (C/P) – 100:1 to 150:1
• Moisture Content – 50% to 60% (wet basis)
• Particle Size – 25 to 75 mm optimum
• Porosity and air requirement – 35% to 50%
• pH – 6.5 to 8.0
• Oxygen concentration - >5%
• Temperature – Initially 50 to 55 oC
• Blending and seeding
• Mixing and turning
• Pathogens control
• Odor control
• Time – one to four months
Moisture Content
• Source of nutrients for microbial protein synthesis and
growth
• Optimum water content – 50% to 60% (wet weight basis)
• < 50% - composting slows due to microbial desiccation
• >60% - compaction, development of anaerobic conditions,
putrefaction/fermentation (odors)
• Water may be needed during mixing, composting
• Yard wastes – 40 to 60 gallons per cubic yard
• Typical moisture contents
• Food wastes 70%
• Manures and sludges 72% - 84%
• Sawdust 19% - 65%
• Corrugated cardboard 8%
• Newsprint 3% - 8%
Particle Size & Distribution
• Critical for balancing:
• Surface area for growth of microbes (biofilm)
• Adequate porosity for aeration (35% - 50%)
• Larger particles (> 1”)
• Lower surface area to mass ratio
• Particle interior doesn’t compost – lack of oxygen
• Smaller particles (< 1/8”)
• Tend to pack and compact
• Inhibit air flow through pile
• Optimum size very material specific
pH
• Optimum range 6.5 – 8.0
• Bacterial activity dominates
• Below pH = 6.5
• Fungi dominate over bacteria
• Composting can be inhibited
• Avoid by keeping O2 > 5%
• Above pH – 8.0
• Ammonia gas can be generated
• Microbial populations decline
Porosity and Aeration
• Optimum porosity 35% - 50%
• > 50% - energy lost is greater than heat produced lower temperatures in
compost pile
• < 35% - anaerobic conditions (odors)
• Aeration – controls temperatures, removes moisture and CO2 and
provides oxygen
• Airflow needs directly proportional to biological activity
• O2 concentration < 5% - anaerobic conditions
Time and Temperature
• Temperature is key process control factor – monitor closely
• Optimum temperatures: 130o F. – 150o F.
• Temperatures above 131o F. (55o C.) will kill pathogens, fecal coliform &
parasites
• Temperatures > 131o F. for 15 days in windrows
• Temperatures > 131o F. for 3 days in ASP or in-vessel
• Optimum temps achieved by regulating airflow (turning) and/or pile size
Temperature during composting process
Windrow Composting
• Materials mixed and formed into windrows
• Windrows 7’ –8’ wide, 5’ – 6’ tall, varying lengths
• Compost turned and mixed periodically
• Aeration by natural/passive air movement
• Composting time : 3 – 6 months
Aerated Static Pile Composting
 Mixed materials built on bed with aeration pipes embedded

 Aeration by mechanical blowers
 Composting for 21 days, followed by curing for 30 days
 Often used in biosolids (sludge) composting
Aerated Static Pile
 Better suited to larger volumes (landscape

debris, sludges)
 Shorter processing time than with windrows
 May not be suited to wastes that need mixing
during composting, like food wastes
 Difficult to adjust moisture content during
composting if needed
 Odor control difficult with positive aeration
 Less land area than windrows, still labor
intensive
In-Vessel Composting
• More mechanically complex

• More expensive
• Smaller footprint (area)
• Relatively high operations & maintenance costs
In-Vessel Composting
CE101
Municipal Solid Waste Management

Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition in the absence of oxygen or low oxygen
• Process requires an external heat source to maintain the pyrolysis process.
Typically, temperatures of between 3000C to 8500C are used during pyrolysis
of MSW
• Alternate to incineration for volume reduction and partial disposal of solid
wastes
• Less regressive than incineration, recovers much of chemical energy
• Long chain organic materials disintegrates
• Polymeric material + Heat flux aA (Gas) + bB (Liquid)+ cC (Solid)
• Solid - Char
• Liquid - Tar
• Gas - CO2, CO, CH4, H2, C2 and C3 saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Pyrolysis
Relative yield is dependant on
1. Chemical structure of material
2. Temperature of pyrolysis
3. Heating rate
4. Size and shape of the material
Reaction of pyrolysis product with oxygen:

A (Gas) + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat
B (Liquid) + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat
C (Solid) + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat
Pyrolysis of Biomass/Organic Wastes
HEAT
Vapour
Condensation
Biomass
Main Advantages of Pyrolysis
• Carbon neutrality
• Utilizes otherwise waste biomass
• Potential to be self-sustaining energy-wise
• Increases bulk and energy density of biomass
• Source of valuable chemicals
• Biomass source can be decoupled from the energy utilization
Pyrolysis Yields
Mode Conditions Liquid Char Gas
Moderate temperature, short residence

Fast pyrolysis 75% 12% 13%
time
Slow Pyrolysis Low temperature, very long residence time 30% 35% 35%
Gasification High temperature, long residence time 5% 10% 85%

Incineration
• Processes that combust waste and recover energy are known as incineration
• Incineration (energy recovery through complete oxidation)
1. Mass Burn
2. Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
• In mass burning systems, the refuse is burned in an "as received" condition
• Incineration involves the combustion of typically unprepared (raw or residual)
MSW
• To allow the combustion to take place a sufficient quantity of oxygen is required
to fully oxidise the fuel
• Incineration plant combustion temperatures are in excess of 850oC and waste is
mostly converted into CO2 and H2O and any non-combustible materials (e.g.
metals, glass, stones) remain as a solid, known as Incinerator Bottom Ash (IBA)
that always contains small amounts of residual carbon
• The direct combustion of a waste usually releases more of the available energy
compared to pyrolysis and gasification
• Municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration plants tend to be among the most
expensive solid waste management options, and they require highly skilled
personnel and careful maintenance
• For these reasons, incineration tends to be a good choice only when other,
simpler, and less expensive choices are not available
• MSW plants are capital-intensive and require high maintenance costs and
comparatively higher technically trained operators, they are commonly
adopted by developed countries
Uses of energy generated from MSW
1. Generation of Power (electricity)
• The energy generation option selected for an incineration facility will depend on the potential for
end users to utilize the heat and/or power available
• In most instances power can be easily distributed and sold via the national grid and this is by far
the most common form of energy recovery.
2. Generation of Heat
• For heat, the consumer needs to be local to the facility producing the heat and a dedicated
distribution system (network) is required
• Unless all of the available heat can be used the generating facility will not always be operating at
its optimum efficiency
3. Generation of Heat and Power
• Use of combined heat and power (CHP) combines the generation of heat and power (electricity)
• This helps to increase the overall energy efficiency for a facility compared to generating power
only
• Power and heat demand varies a CHP plant can be designed to meet this variation and hence
maintain optimum levels of efficiency
Incineration - Key Points
• Minimum combustion temperature and residence time of the resulting
combustion products
• Specific emission limits for the release to atmosphere of the following:
• Sulphur Dioxide
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
• Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Particulate (fly ash)
• Heavy Metals
• Dioxins
• a requirement that the resulting bottom ash that is produced has a total organic carbon
content of less than 3%
Typical Process Flow Diagram
Waste
Storage
Pre-processing/blending
Pollution
Incineration Flue Gas
Control
Ash Stabilization Effluent
Landfill POTW
Incineration System Components
1. Refuse receipt/storage
2. Refuse feeding
3. Grate system
4. Air supply
5. Furnace
6. Boiler
7. APC (air pollution control)
Incineration - Advantages
• Volume and weight reduced (approx. 90% vol. and 75% wt reduction)
• Waste reduction is immediate, no long term residency required
• Destruction in seconds where landfill requires 100s of years
• Incineration can be done at generation site
• Air discharges can be controlled
• Ash residue is usually non-putrescible, sterile, inert
• Small disposal area required
• Cost can be offset by heat recovery/ sale of energy
Incineration - Disadvantages
• High capital cost
• Skilled operators are required (particularly for boiler operations)
• Some materials are non-combustible
• Some material require supplemental fuel
• Public disapproval
• Risk imposed rather than voluntary
• Incineration will decrease property value (perceived not necessarily true)
• Distrust of government/industry ability to regulate
Sanitary
Landfill
Impact of Landfill
There are four critical elements in a landfill:
• a bottom liner
• a leachate collection system
• a gas recovery system and a cover
• the natural hydrogeologic setting
1. The natural setting can be selected to minimize the possibility

of wastes escaping to groundwater beneath a landfill
2. The three other elements must be engineered
3. Each of these elements is critical to success
Cross-Section of a Landfill
The Capping of a FULL Landfill
Degradable particulate organic material
(Proteins Carbohydrates and Lipids)
Hydrolysis
Inert Soluble
Amino Acids & Sugars Long chain fatty

acids
Fermentation of
Valerate, Butyrate,
Anaerobic
Amino acids & & Propionate Oxidation of
Sugars LCFA
Anaerobic
Oxidation of
Anaerobic Pathway Acids
Acetate Hydrogen
Acetotrophic Hydrogenotrophic
methanogenesis methanogenesis
Methane
Landfill design
Landfill design
CE101
Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution
• Noise pollution is an invisible danger. It cannot be seen, but it is present nonetheless, both on land and under
the sea. Noise pollution is considered to be any unwanted or disturbing sound that affects the health and
well-being of humans and other organisms
• Most common health problem it causes is Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
• Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances, and stress
• These health problems can affect all age groups, especially children. Many children who live near noisy
airports or streets have been found to suffer from stress and other problems, such as impairments in
memory, attention level, and reading skill
Sound
• Sound may be defined as any pressure variation that the human ear can
detect
• Just like dominoes, a wave motion is set off when an element sets the
nearest particle of air into motion, this motion gradually spreads to
adjacent air particles further away from the source
• Depending on the medium, sound propagates at different speeds. In air,
sound propagates at a speed of approximately 340 m/s. In liquids and
solids, the propagation velocity is greater − 1500 m/s in water and 5000
m/s in steel
Sound Perception
• Sound is any pressure variation that can be detected by the human ear
• The number of pressure variations per second is called the frequency of sound and is
measured in hertz (Hz). The normal hearing for a healthy young person ranges from
approximately 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (20 kHz)
• In terms of sound pressure levels, audible sound ranges from the threshold of hearing
at 0 dB to the threshold of pain at 130 dB and over
• An increase of 6 dB represents a doubling of the sound pressure, an increase of about
8 − 10 dB is required before the sound subjectively appears to be significantly louder.
Similarly, the smallest perceptible change is about 1 dB
Noise
• Noise is defined as unwanted sound, which produces undesirable
physiological and psychological effects in an individual, by interfering with
one’s social activities like work, rest, recreation, sleep etc.
• Sound which pleases the listeners is music and that which causes pain and
annoyance is noise. At times, what is music for some can be noise for
others
• Noise, as an air pollutant, in fact, differs from other pollutants in the sense
that it is transient in nature and is not continuing or persisting
phenomenon
Typical Noise Levels
• Compared to the static air pressure (105 Pa), the audible sound pressure
variations are very small ranging from about 20 μPa (20 × 10−6 Pa) to 100 Pa
• 20 μPa corresponds to the average person’s threshold of hearing. It is
therefore called the threshold of hearing
• A sound pressure of approximately 100 Pa is so loud that it causes pain and is
therefore called the threshold of pain. The ratio between these two extremes
is more than a million to one
• A direct application of linear scales (in Pa) to the measurement of sound
pressure leads to large and unwieldy numbers
• Ear responds logarithmically rather than linearly to stimuli, it is more practical
to express acoustic parameters as a logarithmic ratio of the measured value to
a reference value, this logarithmic ratio is called decibel (dB)
Types of Noise
• Continuous Noise - Continuous noise is produced by machinery that operates without
interruption in the same mode, for example, blowers, pumps and processing
equipment. Measuring for just a few minutes with hand-held equipment is sufficient
to determine the noise level
• Intermittent Noise - When machinery operates in cycles, or when single
vehicles or aeroplanes pass by, the noise level increases and decreases
rapidly. For each cycle of a machinery noise source, the noise level can be
measured just as for continuous noise. However, the cycle duration must be
noted. A single passing vehicle or aircraft is called an event. To measure the
noise of an event, the Sound Exposure Level is measured, combining level
and duration into a single descriptor. The maximum sound pressure level may
also be used. Several similar events can be measured to establish a reliable
average
• Impulsive Noise - The noise from impacts or explosions, e.g., from a pile driver, punch
press or gunshot, is called impulsive noise. It is brief and abrupt, and its startling effect
causes greater annoyance than would be expected from a simple measurement of
sound pressure level
Noise Propagation
• How loud is a truck? That depends very much on how far away you are, and whether
you are in front of a barrier or behind it. Many other factors affect the noise level, and
measurement results can vary by tens of decibels for the very same noise source. To
explain how this variation comes about, we need to consider how the noise is emitted
from the source, how it travels through the air, and how it arrives at the receiver
The most important factors affecting noise propagation are:
• Type of source (point or line)

• Distance from source
• Atmospheric absorption
• Wind
• Temperature and temperature gradient
• Obstacles such as barriers and buildings
• Ground absorption
• Reflections
• Humidity
• Precipitation
Noise Pollution Sources
• Point source - If the dimensions of a noise source are small compared with the distance
to the listener, it is called a point source, for example, fans and chimney stacks. The
sound energy spreads out spherically, so that the sound pressure level is the same for
all points at the same distance from the source, and decreases by 6 dB per doubling of
distance. This holds true until ground and air attenuation noticeably affect the level
• Line source - If a noise source is narrow in one direction and long in the other
compared to the distance to the listener, it is called a line source. It can be a single
source such as a long pipe carrying a turbulent fluid, or it can be composed of many
point sources operating simultaneously, such as a stream of vehicles on a busy road
• The sound level spreads out cylindrically, so the sound pressure level is the same at all
points at the same distance from the line, and decreases by 3 dB per doubling of
distance. This holds true until ground and air attenuation noticeably affect the level
• Area sources tend to have large dimensions overall compared to the propagation
distance; the roof or facade of a factory is a good example in this regard
Noise Pollution Sources
• Outdoor sources - Industries, road, rail and air traffic, construction and
public works,
• Indoor sources - air conditioners, air coolers, fans, radio, TV and other
home and office appliances
• Firecrackers, loudspeakers etc.
Effects of Noise
• Noise induced annoyance
• Noise induced diseases – anxiety, tenseness, nervousness, headache,
fatigue, nausea, insomnia, hypertension, high pulse rate, greater
perspiration, gastric secretions etc.
• Sleeplessness
• Communication interferences
• Noise induced hearing loss – Boilermaker’s deafness
• Effect of noise on wild life
Noise Pollution Impacts
• Urban as well as in rural areas
• Accept noise – for advancement, modern life, or devise and
implement noise controlling technologies to reduce adverse impacts
of noise
• Noise not a fatal pollutant so far as it is so far within limits, except in
big cities and industries
• Noise – slowly being recognized as a pollutant
• Effects of noise – noise level, exposure time, health conditions
• Adverse physiological effects – hypertension, annoyance, disturbance
in sleep, deafness
Effects of Noise
• Psychological and physiological effects in humans
• Sound is also acceptance mentally, state of mind, expectation of listener
(rail 70 dB, bedroom 20 dB)
• 65 dB – annoyance, psychological effects, above this mental and physical
fatigue
• 90 dB – Several years exposure, permanent hearing loss
• 100 dB – short duration exposure, temporary impairment to aural
activity, prolonged exposure – irreparable damage to auditory organ
• 120 dB – short duration causes pain
• 150 dB – Instantaneous loss of hearing
Effects of Noise
• Effects on human body function – nervous system, blood circulation,
effects on brain and other organs – increased secretion of insulin in
pancreas, liver functions, long time exposure – ulcer, allergies, deafness
etc.
• Sleep interference – major issue
• Effect on working efficiency – affects communication
• Negative impacts on wildlife – dull, inactive, lesser reproductive
• Non-living things – cracks in buildings, plaster loosening, cracks in walls,
crockery, shattering of foundations
CE101
Noise Pollution
Sound Characteristics and its Measurement
• Sound is produced in the environment by alternating pressure changes in the air,
caused by vibrations of solid objects or separation of fluids, as they pass over, around
or holes in solid objects
• Such vibrations cause the surrounding air to undergo compression, then rarefaction,
again compression, then rarefaction and so on
• Such phenomenon produces sound waves which propagate in the form of sinusoidal
path. The sine wave or sinusoid or sinusoidal signal is the most used graphic
representation of sound waves
Sine Waves
• Frequency, amplitude, wavelength
• Frequency - refers to the number of cycles of a wave per second. This is
measured in Hertz
• So if a sinusoid has a frequency of 100 hz then one period of that wave
repeats itself every 1/100th of a second. Humans can hear frequencies
between 20hz and 20,000 hz (20 Khz)
Amplitude
• Amplitude - variations in air pressure (measured in decibels)
• Amplitude is usually measured in decibels (abbreviated dB). People will hear amplitude
as loudness
• Frequency and amplitude are independent of each other. Two sine waves may have the
same frequency and different amplitudes, and vice versa
Wavelength & Period
• The wavelength of a wave is the physical distance between two
comparable points in neighboring cycles (e.g., the distance between to
pressure peaks or between two pressure troughs). For phoneticians, this
is the least interesting property
• Time between the successive peaks or troughs of oscillation is called the
period and its inverse represents the number of times a peak arrives in
one second is called frequency
Power of Sound
• Defined as rate of doing work by a travelling sound wave in the direction of
the propagation of the wave
• The energy transmitted by a sound wave in the direction of its propagation
is defined as its power, Watts (SI Unit)
• Sound intensity (I) – it is used to measure sound. Defined as the sound
power averaged over the time, per unit area normal to the direction of
propagation of the sound wave, intensity and power of sound wave are
related by the equation
• I = W/a
• I = Intensity of sound wave (W/m2)
• W = Power of sound wave in W
• a = a unit area
Levels of noise
• Sound heard by a normal healthy individual – 20 micro Pa
• Sound produced by a Saturn rocket at lift off stage 200 Pa
• This variation in sound pressure can be avoided by expressing sound pressure on a
scale based on log of the ratio of measure sound pressure and a reference standard
pressure, such measurement on this scale are referred as levels
• Sound level, L = Log10 (Q/Qo)
Where, Q = measured quantity of sound pressure or sound intensity
Qo = Reference standard quantity of sound pressure or sound intensity
L = sound level in Bels
• Unit of sound level is bels (B), since it is a large unit a smaller unit decibels (dB) is
generally used
• The decibel is defined as one tenth of a bel where one bel represents a
difference in level between two intensities I1, I0 where one is ten times
greater than the other
Levels of Noise
• For instance, the difference between intensities of 10-8 watts/m2 and 10-
4 watts/m2, an actual difference of 10,000 units, can be expressed as a
difference of 4 bels or 40 decibels
• Because of the very large range of sound intensity which the ear can
accommodate, from the loudest (1 watt/m2) to the quietest (10-
12 watts/m2), it is convenient to express these values as a function of
powers of 10. This entire range of intensities can be expressed on a scale
of 120 dB
• dB(A) - This is a measure of the overall noise level of sound across the
audible spectrum with a frequency weighting (i.e. `A' weighting) to
compensate for the varying sensitivity of the human ear to sound at
different frequencies
Levels of noise
• L (dB) = 10 * Log10 (Q/Qo)
• Reference standard in above equation is taken to be equal to 20 micro Pa
• Sound pressure level (Lp) in dB
• Lp = 10 * Log10 (Prms/20 µPa)2
• Since sound measuring instruments measure the rms pressure, the sound
pressure is computed by squaring their rms
• Similarly, the reference standard Qo is taken to be equal to 10-12 W/m2, when
sound intensity level is measured
• Sound intensity level (Li) in dB
• Li (dB) = 10*Log10 (I/ 10-12)
Noise Measurement
• Noise measuring instruments most widely used in the practice of occupational hygiene
• Many types of measuring systems can be used for the measurement of sound
depending on the purpose of the study, the characteristics of sound and the extent of
information that is desired about the sound
• The various elements in a measuring system are:
• the transducer; that is, the microphone
• the electronic amplifier and calibrated attenuator for gain control
• the frequency weighting or analyzing possibilities
• the data storage facilities
• the display
• Not all elements are used in every measuring system. The microphone can, for
instance, be connected to a sound level meter or directly to a magnetic tape recorder
for data storage and future measurement or reference
The two main characteristics are:
1. The frequency response: that is, the deviation between the measured value and
the true value as a function of the frequency. As the ear is capable of hearing
sounds between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the frequency response of the sound level
meter should be good, with variations smaller than 1 dB, over that range
2. The dynamic range: that is, the range in dB over which the measured value is
proportional to the true value, at a given frequency (usually 1000 Hz). This range
is limited at low levels by the electrical background noise of the instrument and
at high levels by the signal distortion caused by overloading the microphone or
amplifiers
Microphone
• The microphone is the interface between the acoustic field and the measuring system.
It responds to sound pressure and transforms it into an electric signal which can be
interpreted by the measuring instrument (e.g. the sound level meter)
• Microphone characteristics - frequency response, dynamic range, directivity, stability
• The microphone can be of the following types: piezoelectric, condenser, electret or
dynamic
• In a piezoelectric microphone, the membrane is attached to a piezoelectric crystal which generates
an electric current when submitted to mechanical tension
• In a condenser microphone, the microphone membrane is built parallel to a fixed plate and forms
with it a condenser. A potential difference is applied between the two plates using a DC voltage
supply (the polarization voltage). The movements, which the sound waves provoke in the
membrane, give origin to variations in the electrical capacitance and results small electric current
• A variation on the condenser microphone which is currently very popular is the electret. In this case
the potential difference is provided by a permanent electrostatic charge on the condenser plates
and no external polarizing voltage
Sound Level Meters
• Sound Level Meters - Sound level meters provide instantaneous noise
measurements for screening purposes
• The specifications of sound level meters are given in IEC 60651 for four
types 0, 1, 2, 3 differing by the measurement precision
• The measurement precision is reduced as the type number increases,
affecting manufacturing costs significantly
• The IEC 60651 standard specifies the following characteristics:
• directional characteristics
• frequency weighting characteristics
• time weighting, detector and indicator characteristics
• sensitivity to various environments
• The type 0 sound level meter is intended as a laboratory reference
standard
• Type 1 is intended especially for laboratory use, and for field use where
the acoustical environment has to be closely specified and controlled
• The type 2 sound level meter is suitable for general field applications
• Type 3 is intended primarily for field noise survey applications
• The frequency response for all types is defined from 10 Hz to 20000 Hz
with a higher accuracy at frequencies from 100 Hz to 8000 Hz
Noise Control
• In general, noise control techniques may be classified in three categories
1. Noise reduction at the source
2. Noise control of the transmission path
3. The use of noise protective measures at the receiver
• Which method or which combination of methods, is employed depends
on the amount of noise reduction that is required and on economic and
operational considerations
Noise Reduction at the Source
• The reduction of exciting forces e.g., reduction of impacts or impulsive
forces, balancing of moving masses, reduction of frictional forces by
proper alignment and lubrication etc.
• The reduction of the response of various components of the system to
these exciting forces, e.g., by application of vibration-damping materials
to the radiating forces
• Changes in operating procedures e.g., a factory, adjacent to the
residential areas, suspend or reduce noise generating operations at night
Noise Control of the Transmission Path
• Siting, e.g., by increasing distance between the source and the receiver
• Path deflection e.g., use of barrier
• Properly designed enclosures
• Absorption e.g., by providing sound absorbing material in a room where
both the source and the receiver are present, most of the reflected sound
can be avoided
Protective measures at the receiver
• Use of personal protective equipment e.g., earplugs, earmuffs, noise
helmets etc.
• Education and public relations
• Exposure control e.g., rotation of personnel so that work assignments in
the intense noise area are for a limited period of time only
CE101
Lecture
Radioactive Pollution
Radiation
• Radiation is energy in the form of

waves or moving subatomic
particles
• Electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
- Energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves or
photons
• Particle radiation - Energy in the
form of moving subatomic
particles (Ionizing)
Radioactivity
• The spontaneous emission of particles and rays by an unstable nucleus is
called radioactivity and such substances are called radioactive Substances
e.g., Radium, Uranium, Thorium
• Since even a small amount of radiation exposure can have serious (and
cumulative) biological consequences, and since many radioactive wastes
remain toxic for centuries, radioactive pollution in a serious environmental
concern even though natural sources of radioactivity far exceed artificial
ones are present
• The faster a radioisotope is decaying, the more radioactive it will be
• Another factor in deciding how dangerous a pure radioactive substance
will be is the energy of the radiation
Radioactive Pollution
• Radioactive waste is the term used to describe radioactive substances for
which no further use is planned or considered
• A radioactive substance is one that contains naturally occurring or man-
made radionuclides, the radioactive level or concentration of which calls
for radiation protection control
• The radionuclides contained in radioactive waste may be man-made,
such as Caesium-137, or found in nature, such as Radium-226
• Radioactive pollution can be defined as the release of radioactive
substances or high-energy particles into the air water, or earth as a result
of human activity, either by accident or by design
• Sometimes natural sources of radioactivity, such as radon gas emitted
from beneath the ground, are considered pollutants when they become a
threat to human health
The radioactive properties of such wastes are:
• The type of radionuclides contained and the radiation emitted (alpha,
beta, gamma), the activity (number of atomic nuclei which spontaneously
disintegrate per unit time - expressed in Becquerels)
• The radioactive half-life (the time it takes for a radioactive sample to loose
half of its activity)
• Most radioactive waste comes from the nuclear industry
• The remainder comes from the use of radioactive elements in hospitals,
universities, and some non-nuclear industries and defence-related
activities
Sources of Radioactive Wastes
• Radioactivity has been present in natural materials on the earth since its
formation (for example in Potassium-40 which forms part of all our bodies)
• Such radiations cannot be detected by any of the body’s, phenomenon was
only discovered 100 years ago when radiation detectors were developed
1. Natural sources
• Solar radiation
• Cosmic Radiation
• Radionuclides in the earth Crust
• Environmental Radiations (Radon)
2. Anthropogenic Sources
• Nuclear weapon testing or detonation
• Nuclear fuel cycle, including the mining, separation, and production of nuclear materials
for use in nuclear power plants or nuclear bombs
• Accidental release of radioactive material from nuclear power plants
Effects of Radioactive Wastes
The effect of radioactive pollution depends upon
• Half-life
• Energy releasing capacity
• Rate of diffusion
• Rate of deposition of the contaminant
• Various atmospheric and climatic conditions such as wind, temperature,
rainfall also determine their effects
Radioactivity
Radioactive rays were observed to be of three types:
1. Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
2. Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminum
3. Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimeters of lead
We now know that alpha rays are helium nuclei, beta rays are
electrons, and gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation
Alpha Particles
• Emitted by many high atomic number radioactive elements such as Th, U,
Pl
• Alpha decay does not produce stable nuclei, produces intermediate
isotopes which undergo further decay
• Velocity of rays are low due to relatively high mass
• Heavy, slow moving, highly charged particles are completely absorbed by
few centimeters of air, after absorption they are released to the
atmosphere as He gas which harmless
Beta Particles
• Emitted by both heavy and low weight radioactive elements, beta
particle is an electron
• Possesses high kinetic energy due to the speed with which it is emitted
from the nuclei
• Beta decay most common mode of radioactive decay
• It can penetrate several meters of Al
Beta Decay
• Beta decay occurs when a nucleus emits an electron
• An example is the decay of Carbon14
• The final nucleus still has 14 nucleons, but it has one more proton and one
fewer neutron
• The electron in beta decay is not an atomic orbital electron; it is created in
the decay
• The fundamental process is a neutron decaying to a proton, electron, and
neutrino
Gamma Rays
• Emission consists not of particles but quanta of energy, similar to radio
waves but contains much higher energy
• This emission is secondary process followed by alpha and beta decay
• Both, leaves the nucleus unstable, excess energy is released as gamma rays
• Gamma rays are highly penetrating, absorbing materials cannot stop them
completely, only reduce their intensity
Half Life and Rate of Decay
• Nuclear decay is a random process; decay of any nucleus is not
influenced by the decay of any other
• Therefore, the number of decays in a short time interval is proportional
to the number of nuclei present and to the time interval
• Here, λ is a constant characteristic of that particular nuclide, called the

decay constant
• The half life of a particular nuclide is the time it takes for half the nuclei
in a given sample to decay. This is related to the decay constant by
The number of decays per unit time is proportional to the number of
nuclei present
Radioactive Waste Classification (IAEA)
1. Exempt waste (EW):
• Waste that meets the criteria for clearance, exemption or exclusion from
regulatory control for radiation protection purposes
1. Very short lived waste (VSLW):

• Waste that can be stored for decay over a limited period of up to a few years
• Subsequently cleared from regulatory control according to arrangements
approved by the regulatory body, for uncontrolled disposal, use or discharge
• This class includes waste containing primarily radionuclides with very short half-
lives often used for research and medical purposes
3. Very low level waste (VLLW):
• Waste that does not necessarily meet the criteria of EW, but that
does not need a high level of containment and isolation and,
therefore, is suitable for disposal in near surface landfill type facilities
with limited regulatory control
• Such landfill type facilities may also contain other hazardous waste
• Typical waste in this class includes soil and rubble with low levels of
activity concentration
• Concentrations of longer lived radionuclides in VLLW are generally
very limited
4. Low level waste (LLW):
• Waste that is above clearance levels, but with limited amounts of long lived
radionuclides
• Such waste requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few
hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near surface facilities
• This class covers a very broad range of waste
• LLW may include short lived radionuclides at higher levels of activity
concentration, and also long lived radionuclides, but only at relatively low levels of
activity concentration
5. Intermediate level waste (ILW):
• Waste that, because of its content, particularly of long lived radionuclides, requires
a greater degree of containment and isolation than that provided by near surface
disposal
• However, ILW needs no provision, or only limited provision, for heat dissipation
during its storage and disposal
• ILW may contain long lived radionuclides, in particular, alpha emitting radionuclides
that will not decay to a level of activity concentration acceptable for near surface
disposal during the time for which institutional controls can be relied upon
• Therefore, waste in this class requires disposal at greater depths, of the order of
tens of metres to a few hundred metres
6. High level waste (HLW):
• Waste with levels of activity concentration high enough to generate significant
quantities of heat by the radioactive decay process or waste with large amounts
of long lived radionuclides that need to be considered in the design of a disposal
facility for such waste
• Disposal in deep, stable geological formations usually several hundred metres or
more below the surface is the generally recognized option for disposal of HLW
Measuring Radiation
• There are four different but interrelated units for measuring
radioactivity, exposure, absorbed dose, and dose equivalent
(These can be remembered by the mnemonic R-E-A-D)
• Radioactivity refers to the amount of ionizing radiation released by a
material
• Whether, it emits alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, or
neutrons, a quantity of radioactive material is expressed in terms of
its radioactivity (or simply its activity), which represents how many
atoms in the material decay in a given time period
• The units of measure for radioactivity are curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq)
• Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air. Many
radiation monitors measure exposure. The units for exposure are the
roentgen (R) and coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)
• Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an object or
person (that is, the amount of energy that radioactive sources deposit in
materials through which they pass)
• The units for absorbed dose are the radiation absorbed dose (rad) and gray (Gy)
• Dose equivalent (or effective dose) combines the amount of radiation
absorbed and the medical effects of that type of radiation
• For beta and gamma radiation, the dose equivalent is the same as the absorbed dose
• By contrast, the dose equivalent is larger than the absorbed dose for alpha and
neutron radiation, because these types of radiation are more damaging to the human
body
• Units for dose equivalent are the roentgen equivalent man (rem) and sievert (Sv), and
biological dose equivalents are commonly measured in 1/1000th of a rem (known as
a millirem or mrem)
Units of Measurement
Roentgen (R):
• Is the measurement of energy produced by Gamma or X-Ray radiation in
a cubic centimeter of air
RAD: Radiation Absorbed Dose
• Original measuring unit for expressing the absorption of all types of
ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons, etc) into any medium
• One rad is equivalent to the absorption of 100 ergs of energy per gram of
absorbing tissue
REM:
• Roentgen Equivalent Man is a measurement that correlates the dose of
any radiation to the biological effect of that radiation
• Since not all radiation has the same biological effect, the dosage is
multiplied by a "quality factor" (Q)
Units
• The System International (S.I. unit) units for radiation measurements are “gray” (Gy)
and “sivert” (Sv) for absorbed dose and equivalent dose, respectively
CE101
Lecture
Radioactive Waste Management
How does radiation cause health effects?
Health Risks
Stochastic Health Effects
• Stochastic effects are associated with long-term, low-level (chronic)
exposure to radiation
• Increased levels of exposure make these health effects more likely to
occur, but do not influence the type or severity of the effect
Non-Stochastic Health Effects
• Non-stochastic effects appear in cases of exposure to high levels of
radiation, and become more severe as the exposure increases
• Short term, high-level exposure is referred to as 'acute' exposure
The possible general effects of radioactive wastes are categorised into
1) Somatic Effect
2) Genetic Effect
Somatic effect: Affects somatic cells. It appears within individual and

disappears with the death of the individual
• Immediate effects : Anaemia, Reduced immune response, Haemorrhage,
skin burn, mouth ulcers, CNS Damage
• Delayed effects : Eye cataract, Leukaemia, Cardiovascular disease,
Premature ageing, Reduced life span, reduction of fertility
Genetic Effects:
• The radiation affects the genes of the gamete cells
• The changes are not apparent in the individual
• The effects are exhibited by offspring and in the subsequent generations
• They affect the DNA, RNA replication and chromosome. It causes
• Mutation
• Chromosomal aberration
• Chromosomal fragmentation
• Inhibition of RNA,DNA synthesis
Exposure Pathways
Understanding the type of radiation received, the way a person is exposed
(external vs. internal), and for how long a person is exposed are all
important in estimating health effects
• The risk from exposure to a particular radioactive element depends on:
• The energy of the radiation it emits
• Its activity (how often it emits radiation)
• The rate at which the body metabolizes and eliminates the radionuclide
following ingestion or inhalation
• Where the radionuclide concentrates in the body and how long it stays
there
The risk that exposure to a radioactive element will cause a particular
health effect also depends on whether exposure is internal or external
• Internal exposure is when radioactive material gets inside the body by
eating, drinking, breathing or injection (from certain medical procedures)
• Alpha and beta particles pose a serious health threat if significant quantities are
inhaled or ingested
• Outside the body, alpha particles are too large to pass through the skin or a thin
layer of clothes.
• External exposure (also known as direct exposure) is when the radioactive
source is outside of your body
• X-rays and gamma rays can pass through your body, depositing energy as they go
Nuclear Waste…Problems?
• Recently nuclear power has entered many discussions as world energy
needs rise and oil reserves diminish
• Most opponents of nuclear power point to two main arguments:
meltdowns and nuclear waste
• Nuclear waste is any form of byproduct or end product that releases
radioactivity
• How to safely dispose of nuclear waste is pivotal for the continued
operation of nuclear power plants, safety of people living around dump
sites, and prevention of proliferation of nuclear materials to non-nuclear
states
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Most nuclear waste comes from the byproducts of the nuclear fuel cycle. The cycle
typically is split into three sections: front end, service period, and back end. There can
be intermediate stages that include the reprocessing of nuclear waste elements.
Creation of Nuclear Waste
• Nuclear waste is generated at all points of the fuel cycle
• Front end waste consists primarily of low level alpha emission
waste
• Service period waste typically includes LLW and ILW such as
contaminated reactor housings and waste from daily operation
• Back end waste normally is the most radioactive and includes
spent fuel rods and reactor cores
Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Cont.)
Front End Waste
• Front end waste consists mostly of LLW and ILW
• The primary front end waste is depleted uranium and radium
• –DU has several uses due to its high density (19,050 kg/m3).
• –Mix with uranium to form reactor fuel
Service Period Waste
• Consists of mostly ILW
• Mostly waste produced at the plant during normal operation
• Spent fuel rods are the most dangerous waste produced during the
service period
Back End Waste
• Nuclear waste developed during the back end of the fuel cycle is the
most dangerous and includes most of the HLW produced
• Most back end waste emits both gamma and beta particles
• Also uranium-234, neptunium-237, plutonium-238 and americium-
241 are found in back end waste
Safe Disposal
Basic requirement for geological formation to be suitable for the location
of radioactive waste disposal facility is remoteness from environment,
absence of ground water movement, and ability to contain radionuclides
for geologically long periods of time
RWM - Options
Each one of the options demands serious studies and technical

assessments
1. Deep geological repositories
2. Ocean dumping
3. Seabed burial
4. Subductive waste disposal method
5. Space disposal
RWM - India
• Protecting human health, environment and future generations, the

overall philosophy for safe management of radioactive wastes in
India, is based on the concept of
1. Delay and Delay
2. Dilute and Disperse
3. Concentrate and Contain
Effective management involves
1. Wastes segregation
2. Wastes characterization
3. Handling
4. Treatment
5. Conditioning
6. Monitoring prior final disposal
Low and intermediate level waste
1. Liquid
• Low and intermediate level (LIL) liquid wastes are generated in relatively
large volumes with low levels of radio-activity (few microcurie/l to
millicurie/l)
• ‘Delay and decay’ principle
• ‘Dilute and discharge’ principles
• For the treatment of LIL waste, several processes such as chemical
precipitation, ion exchange, evaporation, reverse osmosis are employed
either singly or in combination for the treatment of such wastes
• Depending on the nature of the waste, radionuclides present and level of
contamination, the treatment scheme is chosen to concentrate bulk of
the activity in a small volume and discharge the supernatant to large
water bodies after further polishing and monitoring as per national and
international standards
• The discharges are only a small fraction of the allowed limits
• The radioactive concentrate is conditioned and immobilized in highly
durable matrices like cement, polymer, etc. fulfilling the objectives of
‘concentrate and contain
LIL - Solid Wastes
• Low active combustible wastes are incinerated and compactable wastes

are reduced in volume by mechanical compaction
• The final packaged conditioned waste is then disposed off in near surface
disposal facilities (NSDF), a few meters below the earth’s surface
• While wastes which give out very low doses are disposed off in stone
lined or brick-walled trenches, wastes having higher activity are disposed
off in reinforced concrete trenches and tile holes
LIL - Gaseous Waste
• Radioactive gases and particulates carrying adsorbed radionuclides are
the two pollutants in the gaseous waste
• Various designs of scrubbers are deployed wherein off-gases are
intimately contacted with suitable liquid media so as to retain the activity
in the liquid phase
• Specific adsorbers are also used to remove volatile radionuclides like
iodine, ruthenium, etc.
• The off-gases are finally routed through high efficiency particulate air
filters (HEPA) which are designed for an efficiency of >99.9% for sub
micron size particles
HLW
• High level radioactive liquid waste (HLW) containing most (∼99%) of the
radioactivity in the entire fuel cycle is produced during reprocessing of
spent fuel
• Hull waste i.e., the hollow clad tubes, is generated as solid HLW after the
spent fuel is dissolved for the purpose of reprocessing
1. Immobilization of high level liquid waste into vitrified borosilicate glass
2. Engineered interim storage of the vitrified waste for passive cooling and
surveillance over a period of time, qualifying it for ultimate disposal
3. Ultimate storage/disposal of vitrified wastes in a deep geological repository

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CE101

Lecture 1 - Introduction to Environmental Science &

• Descriptive ecology describes the types and nature of organisms and

• An ecosystem has two components the biotic components consisting of

Lecture 2 & 3 – Ecosystem Structure, Function & Services

• An ecosystem has two components the biotic components consisting of

Image Source: http://bcgrasslands.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/gcc_e-boo

Image Source: Biology: Life on Earth, 8/e. 2008

• It relates to the basic stratified structure of ecosystem

1. Energy flow pyramid

Carbon (C) Nickel (Ni)

• Perfect (= gaseous) cycles

• Imperfect (= sedimentary) cycles

• The earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, but in this form, it

• Nitrogen Fixation: N2 to NH4+ by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes

• Unlike other nutrients, phosphorous does not exist as an atmospheric

• Microbial transformation – bacteria, fungi, algae

Image Source: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Biomagnification

Module 2 - Atmospheric Science

Image Source: NPTEL

Regional Air Pollution Ecosystems

Effects of Air Pollution;

• Chronic poisoning results from the ingestion of forage contaminated with

Image Source: https://paos.colorado.edu/~fasullo/1060/resources/ozone.obs.html

Source: Environmental Chemistry: A global

➢Gravitational Settling Chamber

Image source: NPTEL

• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with

• This constriction causes the gas stream to

Image source: https://www.slyinc.com/products/wet-scrubbers/venturi-wet-scrubber/

• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small particles, with removal

• One drawback of this device, however, is the production of wastewater.

Image Source: Environmental Enginering, Weiner, R.F. and Matthews R.A.

• One disadvantage of the fabric filter is that high-temperature gases

• The most common method for controlling gaseous pollutants is the

 The removal of one or more selected

Typical Packed Column Diagram

• The principal types of gas absorption equipment include spray towers,

• In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies greater than 95%.

• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid.

• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be

• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the

• Direct combustor is a device in which air and all the combustible

Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of

Thermal incinerator general case

A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.

Vehicular Emissions Control, Indoor Air Pollution &

Module 3 - Water Pollution

Surface water sources: lakes, rivers, reservoirs (< 0.01 % of total)

Physical parameters sampling

Chemical parameters sampling

Dinius Water Quality Index (DWQI)

add Cl2 or alum or

1. Screening - removal of any coarse floating

6. Filtration (depends on size of plant/volume of

Different Zones - Inlet, Settling, Sludge, outlet

• Slow filtration - uses gravity (slower flow)

• Broad spectrum: active against all microbes

• Boiling: efficient kill; no residual protection; fuel/environmental costs

Wastewater Treatment – Primary, Secondary & Advanced Processes

• Chemical Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which removal or

• Biological Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which the removal of