Forensic-1 - FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY-BY-CLBN

KING SOLOMON REVIEW CENTER
Saint Lorenz Building, Annunciation Street,

Catarman, Northern Samar
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW IN
FORENSIC SCIENCE
PROF. CHERVIN LOEWE B. NAVILLA, RCRIM

1ST PLACER, CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAM (OCT. 2015)
NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |1

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
CRIMINALISTICS - is the application of the principle of various sciences as it pertains in solving
problems in connection with the administration of justice.
- Also referred to as Police Science or Forensic Science

Dr. Hans Gross – He is known as the “Father of Modern Criminalistics.”
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Law of Multiplicity of Evidence – The greater the number of similarities and dissimilarities; the
greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct”
1. Comparison- with the used of standard specimen, evidence under question can be
compared in order to effect identification.
2. Exclusion – is two or more persons have to be identified and all but one is not yet identified,
then the one whose identity has not been established may be known by the process of
elimination.
Fingerprints offer a reliable means of personal identification. That is the essential explanation for
fingerprints having replaced other methods of establishing the identities of criminals reluctant to admit
previous arrests. That is why, it stand out among the different methods in identifying persons involved in
the commission of a crime.
FIRST KNOWN METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION
1. Tattoo Marks- method adopted by tribes during ancient times signifying their clan and family. It is
barely used as identification but purely utilized for the purpose of ornamentation. It is not a reliable
means of identification because it can be duplicated, changed or disfigured.
2. Scarification- a means of identification by cutting or wounding some parts of the body that forms
scars in time and forms pattern after healing which serves as an identification.
3. Alphonse Bertillion
a. Portrait Parle (Personal or Verbal Description)- it means “speaking likeness.” It is an

identification in which a person is being identified through memory and described the features and put
into sketch. It is an unreliable mean since certain cases of twins would likely to occur and subject to
wrong accusation.
b. Anthropometry- it is the measurement of several bone structures of the human body and
considered as a first method of identification. This method was abolished because of the West Case.
History of Fingerprint
BC 200’s – In China, the first details of using handprint identification was discovered during the Qin
Dynasty. The Chinese were well acquainted with the essential characteristics of fingerprints. The arches
and whorl were called as “LO” (snail) and loops are “KI” (winnowing basket). Though the Chinese were
well acquainted with the types of pattern, they did nothing in developing a system of classification.
Early Study in Fingerprint
1600’s
NEHEMIA GREW
- In a "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" paper in 1684, he describes the
RIDGES and PORES of the hand and feet.
- Dr. Nehemiah Grew was the first European to publish friction ridge skin observation Dutch
anatomist Govard Bidloo's 1685 book, "Anatomy of the Human Body" also described friction ridge
skin (papillary ridge) details.

MARCELO MALPIGHI
- In 1686, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and
loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which is approximately
1.8mm thick.
Fingerprints as a Method of Identification
1. SIR WILLIAM J. HERSCHEL – (1858) Bengal, India, printed the palm of natives as to avoid
impersonation and as a substitute to signature.
RAJADHAR KONAI- first person Herschel printed the palm.
2. HENRY FAULDS – (Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan) advocated the use of fingerprints in the
detection of crime.
3. SIR FRANCIS GALTON (1822-1911) –a cousin of Charles Darwin, is credited with being the
first scientist of friction skin identification as well as his role promoting its used.
4. SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY (1859-1931) – known as the “Father of Fingerprint” The
United Kingdom Home Secretary Office conducted an inquiry into "Identification of Criminals
by Measurement and Fingerprints." Mr. Edward Richard Henry (later Sir ER Henry) appeared
before the inquiry committee to explain the system published in his recent book "The
Classification and Use of Fingerprints." The committee recommended adoption of
fingerprinting as a replacement for the relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of anthropometric
measurement, which only partially relied on fingerprints for identification.
5. THOMAS BEWICK, an English naturalist, uses engravings of his own fingerprints to
identify books he published.
6. HAQUE AND BOSE – two Hindu police officers who help Henry in attaining his goal.
7. JUAN VUCETICH – developed his own system of system of classification and which was
officially adopted in Argentina and in used today in most-Spanish speaking country. Credited
to the case of “ROJAS HOMICIDE”
History of Fingerprint in US
1903 - The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints in the U.S. for
criminals.
1907- US Navy begins using fingerprint
1908- US Marine Corps started using fingerprint.
1924 – An act of Congress established the Identification Division of the NBI.
1946- the introduction of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) technology begans due to
the massive number of fingerprint cards manually processed by the FBI.
2015- largets AFIS repository in America is operated by the Homeland Security’s US Visit Program in
Clarksburg, West Virginia but the world’s largest fingerprint system is in India. The Unique Identification
Authority of India.
Related Studies in Fingerprints
A.Dactyloscopy- (Latin word= “Dactyl” means Finger; Latin word= “Skopien” means to examine)
- is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.
B. Dactylography- scientific study of fingerprint as a means of identification.
C. Dactylomancy- scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of identification.

D. Dermatoglyphics- deals with the study of skin patterns.
E. Chiroscopy – (Greek word “Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” – to examine) it studies the prints of the palm
of the hand. William Herschel is considered as “Father of Chiroscopy”
F. Podoscopy – (Greek word “Podo” – sole of the foot and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with the study
of the footprints.
G. Poroscopy – (Greek word “Poros” – pore and “Skopien” – to examine) deals with the study of the
arrangement of the sweat pores. Edmond Locard is considered the “Father of Poroscopy”
Basic Principles of Fingerprint
 Individuality – (Francis Galton) no two persons have the same fingerprint.

 Constancy or Permanency – that the friction ridge once fully developed, its arrangement will
remains the same throughout the man’s life. Ridges appears from 3rd to 4th mos. Of fetus life and
completes at 5th to 6th mos. Before birth. It is also known as the “From Womb to Tomb” principle.
 Infallibility – that fingerprint cannot be easily forged.
 FINGERPRINT- is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth surface
through the medium of ink, sweat, or any substance capable of producing visibility.
Finger Composition and Structure
A. PHALANGE- is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three bones.
 Basal or Proximal- it is located at the base of the finger nearest the palm.
 Middle Phalange- the next and above the basal bone.
 Terminal Phalange- the particular bone covered with friction skin and located at the tip of
the finger.
B. FRICTION SKIN- is an epidermal hairless skin found on the lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with ridges and furrows. Also known as “Papillary Skin.” Biologists use the term “Volar
Skin”
B.1. Composition of Friction Skin

 Ridge Surface
o Ridge- the elevated or hill like structure/the black lines with tiny white dots. It
appears as black lines in the fingerprint impression.
o Furrow- the depressed canal like structure/the white space between ridges. It
appears as white lines in a fingerprint impression
 Fundamental Layers
o Epidermis- the outermost layer.
o Dermis- the innermost layer.
B.2. Ridge Destruction- damage in the friction skin can be temporary or permanent. Such
permanency in the damage may cause scar or termed as “Sicatriz.”
Epidermis- temporary
Dermis- permanent
Cut with a depth of more than 1 mm.- permanent; With less than 1mm.-
temporary
THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
A. THE THREE GENERAL/FAMILY OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS.

1. The Arch (5%)
2. The Whorl (35%)
3. The Loop (60%)
B. THE EIGHT STANDARD FINGERPRINT PATTERN

-Presently, there are eight standard patterns which are widely used in the field of
fingerprint. Before, on the Galton and Henry System, they used the Nine standard
fingerprint pattern. Only that after the Galton-Henry System with FBI Modification and
Extension, we have our eight standard fingerprint pattern.
Galton and Henry System Galton-Henry System with FBI Modification

and Extension
Groups/Families = 3 Groups/Families = 3
1. Arch (3) – Plain, Tented, and 1. Arch (2) – Plain and Tented
Exceptional Arch. 2. Loop (2) – Radial and Ulnar Loop
2. Loop (4) – Plain, Lateral, Twin, and 3. Whorl (4) – Plain, Central Pocket
Central Pocket Loop Loop, Double Loop, and Accidental
3. Whorl (2) – Plain Whorl and Accidental Whorl
Whorl
B.1. Arch (5%)
1. Plain Arch (A)- a type of fingerprint pattern in which ridges flow form one side to
the other with a slight raise in the center.
2. Tented Arch (T)- is a type of pattern having an angle of 90 degrees or less, an

up thrust, and approaching the loop type (there is no ridge count).
B.2. Loop (35%)
a. There must be a delta
b. A sufficient re-curving ridge passing or touching an imaginary line drawn

between the core and delta.
c. There must be ridge count of at least one.
1. Ulnar Loop ( ) – downward slant are from the thumb towards the little finger or
ulnar bone.
2. Radial Loop (/) – downward slant are from the little finger toward the thumb or
radius bone.
B.3. Whorl (60%)
a. Plain Whorl (W) – at least one circuiting ridge is touched or cross by an

imaginary line from delta to delta.
b. Central Pocket Loop (C) – no circuiting ridge is touched by the imaginary

line from delta to delta.
c. Double Loop Whorl (D)
 2 separate loop formation

 2 separate and distinct shoulder
 2 deltas
d. Accidental Whorl

 2 or 3 deltas
 2 diff. types of patterns except PLAIN ARCH.
THE RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS (GALTON DETAILS)
In a single fingerprint impression, there are a hundred of ridge characteristics present.

Fingerprint pattern is not enough to provide proof of identification to make an accusation prosper. It is
indeed the importance of identifying every details of ridge characteristics to provide number of points in
order to support once conviction. The identification of ridges characteristics serves as the basic ground to
specifically determine the owner of those prints. Investigators rely heavily on the amount of similarities of
the ridges in the finger when compared with the specimen and standard print.
(Basic Types of Ridges: Island (Dot), Ending, & Bifurcation)
1. Ridge Dot (Island Ridge)- ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.

2. Bifurcation- a ridge formation wherein a single ridge divides or forks into two. It forks.
3. Converging Ridge- two ridges that meet at a certain point.
4. Diverging Ridge- two ridges that spread apart.
5. Enclosure/Lake Ridge/Eyelet- a single ridge that divides into two and meets at a certain point
to form another single ridge.
6. Ending Ridge- it refers to an abrupt end.
7. Type Lines- is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern.
8. Pattern Area- it is surrounded by the type lines and where the delta, core, ridges and patterns
are located.
9. Re-curving ridge- a single ridge that curves back from where it started.
10. Bridges- a connection ridge between parallel running ridges usually in right angles.
11. Sufficient Recurve- recurving ridge which is free from any appendage.
12. Rod or Bar- short or long ridge inside the recurve and directed towards the core.
The two fingerprint terminus (Focal points)

The Delta (outer terminus)- found at the center or near the center of the diverging type
lines.
 The Core (inner terminus or the heart) - found at the center or innermost recurve of the
typelines.
RIDGE COUNTING AND RIDGE TRACING
1. Ridge Counting- process of counting the ridges that touches the imaginary line from delta to
core in a loop type and delta to delta with the exception in the final division wherein it requires
a delta to delta ridge count. Never include delta and core in the ridge count.
2. Ridge Tracing- number of intervening ridges between the tracing ridge at the right delta.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE
Important Terms to Remember in Fingerprint Classification
BLOCKING- is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of the
fingerprint pattern.
CLASSIFICATION- is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it may
be located in the filing cabinet.
CLASSIFICATION FORMULA- is a numerical description of a set of fingerprints which is

composed of figures and letters written above the horizontal line.
FILING- process of locating the proper place in a fingerprint file.
FILLING OUT- entering on a fingerprint record card of all known essential data about a subject.

SEQUENCING- means the placing of a group of classified sets into their correct filing order.
FORMATION IN THE CLASSIFICATION LINE
KEY MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL
________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL
DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
1. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION- summation of all numerical value designated only to Whorl

Patterns appearing in a fingerprint chart. Expressed in as numerators and denominators with
a pre-established fraction of 1/1 to complete the Primary Division.
ALL WHORLS APPEARING IN THE FOLLOWING FINGERS WILL HAVE ITS
CORRESPONDING NUMERICAL VALUES, TO WIT:
 (1ST PAIR) 1st and 2nd Finger (Right Thumb and Right Index)= numerical value of 16
 (2ND PAIR) 3rd and 4th Finger(Right Middle and Right Ring)= numerical value of 8
 (3RD PAIR) 5th and 6th finger (Right Little and Left Thumb)= numerical value of 4
 (4TH PAIR) 7th and 8th finger (Left Index and Left Middle)= numerical value of 2
 (5TH PAIR) 9th and 10th finger (Left Ring and Left Little) = numerical value of 1
- All values appearing on the EVEN numbers will be the NUMERATOR while those in
the ODD number will be the DENOMINATOR.
- Patterns without numerical value are the arches and loops.
Note: Fingers nos. 1-5 are from Right Hand while fingers No. 6-10 are from Left
Hand.
PAIR OF FINGERS IN A CLASSIFICATION CARD
FIRST PAIR FIRST PAIR SECOND PAIR SECOND THIRD PAIR

PAIR
THIRD PAIR FOURTH PAIR FOURTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR FIFTH PAIR
0 16 0 0 4
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central
Pocket Loop
T D A / w
4 2 2 0 1
Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w

All numerators (Even Numbers): 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 23
All denominators (Odd Numbers): 0+0+4+2+0= 6
23/6 + 1/1 (Pre-established Fraction) = 24/7
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION = 24
________
7
2. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (BY CAPITAL LETTERED GROUP)- this is done by putting

all the CAPITAL LETTER symbol of the standard fingerprint pattern from two INDEX
FINGERS. The pattern in the Right hand will be the Numerator and Left Hand the
Denominator.
Tented Arch Double Loop Plain Arch Ulnar Loop Central Pocket
Loop
T D a / w
Accidental Whorl Central Poclet Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C w a w
____24 _D___
7 C
3. SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (BY SMALL LETTERED GROUP)- this involves only the
three fingerprint pattern namely, RADIAL LOOP, PLAIN ARCH, AND TENTED ARCH (RAT).
Whenever these patterns appear in the finger, the symbol must be r for Radial Loop, a for
Plain Arch, t for Tented Arch. The Index Finger is excluded in this classification. All this three
patterns once appear on the fingerprint card, must be exhibited before (Right and Left Thumb)
or after the Primary or Secondary Classification.
Loop
T D A / w
Accidental Whorl Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch Plain Whorl
Loop
W C W a w
24 tDa
7 Ca
4. SUB-SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION-derived from the index, middle, or little finger.

- it is derived by ridge counting the loop and Ridge tracing the Whorl.
a. Ridge Counting of Loop
Index = 1-9 Ridge Counts (INNER) 10 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)
Middle = 1-10 Ridge Counts (INNER) 11 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)
Ring = 1-13 Ridge Counts (INNER) 14 or more Ridge Counts (OUTER)
b. RIDGE TRACING OF WHORL
Rules on Ridge Tracing of Whorl
 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes INSIDE or ABOVE the right delta and there 3 or
more intervening ridges, the tracing is INNER (I).
 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes OUTSIDE or BELOW the right delta and there
are 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is OUTER (O).
 If the tracing ridge from the left delta goes either ABOVE or BELOW the right delta and
there are 2 or less intervening ridges, the tracing is MEETING (M).
 If the tracing ridge from the left delta meets squarely with the right delta, the tracing is
MEETING (M).
m - o
Loop
T D A / w
m m -
Loop
W C W a w
24 tDa M-O___________________
7 Ca MM-
5. MAJOR DIVISION- derived from the thumb finger only.
- If whorl patterns appear, ridge trace.
- Ridge Count if the patterns appears on the thumb are loops and identify whether
it is Small, Medium, or Large depending on the number of ridge counts appearing therein.
Refer to Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
Ridge Counts Symbols Ridge Counts Symbols
1-11 Small (S) 1-17 Small (S)
12-16 Medium (M) 18-22 Medium (M)
17 or more Large (L) 23 or more Large (L)

Note: Table 2 shall only be applied to the right thumb when the ridge count from the left thum
reached 17 or more (LARGE). This is known as “Exceptional.”
- m - O
Loop
T D A / w
M (12) m m -
Loop
W C W a w
- 24 tDa M-O___________________
M 7 Ca MM-
6. FINAL DIVISION- derived from the little fingers only.
- Both loop and whorl are subject to ridge counting.
 Radial and Ulnar are subject to the usual procedure.
 Rules in Ridge Counting of Whorl:
a. Plain or Central Pocket Loop Whorl- will be treated as Ulnar Loop.
b. Double Loop Whorl- get the ridge count of the top loop
c. Accidental Whorl- get the least ridge count from any of the whorl pattern
appearing therein.
- m - o 10
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Loop
W C w a w
- 24 tDa M-O____10________________
M 7 Ca MM- 12
NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 | 10

7. KEY DIVISION- getting the ridge count of the 1st loop except the little fingers.
- if there is no loop, the first whorl shall be ridge counted and will be treated as Ulnar Loop.
- M 14 - o 10
Loop
T D a / w
M (12) m m - 12
Loop
W C w a w
14 - 24 tDa M-O____10________________
M 7 Ca MM- 12
CLASSIFICATION OF MISSING OR AMPUTATED FINGERS
1. When one or more fingers from the same hand are amputated or missing, it has the same
classification with that of the opposite finger (together with the ridge count and tracing) except with the
primary classification.
2. Two or more opposite finer are amputated or missing, it is given the classification of PLAIN WHORL,
with ridge trace of MEETING.
3. If all fingers are missing, all shall be treated as PLAIN WHORL AND MEETING.
Finger Abnormalities and Congenitals
1. Macrodactyly- enlargement of fingerprint
2. Polydactyly- having more than the usual normal number of fingers.
3. Brachdactyly- the fingers are abnormally short.
4. Syndactyly- wherein two fingers are joined or fused together.
5. Ectodactyly (Lobster Claw Hand)- it is the absence of one or more fingers in a hand.
Latent Prints
Latent Prints- are those prints that are hidden or concealed which are usually left accidently on the
crime scene. These are prints naked to the human eye but they actually exist.
- the word “latent” is a Latin word which means “something indistinct or hidden.”
- Latent Prints are classified into different categories.
 According to imprinted surface.

a.1 Soft Surface- (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are likely to be three-
dimensional plastic prints.
a.2. Hard Surfaces- are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints

 According to Degree of Visibility
a. Visible Prints- those prints that can be easily recognized such as blood, dirt, ink, paint, or
any colored surface is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface.
b. Semi-visible Prints- prints found on clay, dust, muds and other sticky surface.
c. Invisible Prints- those prints created through sweat or perspiration found on the fingers. It
is the common types observed in the crime scene.
 Other types of latent prints

a. Smudge Prints- prints created due to the sliding motion of the finger.
b. Fragmentary Prints- prints that shows incomplete ridges.
Methods in Developing Latent Prints
a. Dusting Method- considered as the simplest and most common method of developing
latent prints. By using black powder, the powder will adhere on the moisture left on the
surface. Fingerprint powder can be categorized into four:
 Regular Powders
 Luminescent Powder
 Metallic Powder
 Thermoplastic
b. Chemical Fuming- it is used by applying iodine fume into the latent print surface.
c. Cyanoacrylate Fuming- used for the development of latent prints on surfaces made of
plastic, adhesive tapes aluminum foils, and rubber bands.
d. Iodine Dusting Method- same procedure as that of a dusting method but uses an iodine
powder and absorbs the fingerprint which gives yellowish brown prints as a result of
development.
e. Ninhydrin Method- best method applied in developing latent prints in a paper surface.
f. Silver Nitrate Reagent- the application of silver nitrate to a latent print surface and reacts
to the chloride present in the latent print.
g. Iodine Silver Plate Transfer Method- a practical technique used in developing latent
print on human skin. It is done by spraying an iodine fume into the area of the skin. Once
the latent print is developed, it will be transferred to a silver plate then exposed to strong
light for evaluation.
h. Laser Method- modern way of developing latent print.
--END--

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY
 Camera Obscura- (Latin as Dark Room) it was known as the first pinhole camera that
was able to develop a Photograph during the 13 th-14th century. It was invented by
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytam).
 Joseph Nicéphore Niépce- a French inventor who produced the first permanent
photographic image in 1825 which depicts a photo of the glass of the “Le Gras”.
 Louis Daguerre- he was a French artist who partnered with Joseph Nicephore Niepce to
develop and capture a photo that will make it permanent and long-lasting by exposing it
to mercury vapor. It was later on called as “Daguerreotype”
 Henry Fox Talbot- The inventor of the first negative from which multiple positive prints.
He perfected this paper-negative process and called it a “Calotype” (Greek for beautiful
picture)which is being produced in a short time. He is also the inventor of the “Mouse
Trap Camera”
Legal foundation of Photographic Evidence:
 For black and white photographs:
1859-Daguerreotype was use in civil case, Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures)
1874-In criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence, Underzook vs.

Commonwealth
 For color photographs
1943-Civil litigations Green vs. City and county of Denver Colorado, involving spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public.
1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the victim
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Photography = Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and

=“Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”.
Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to
Henry Fox Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical
process required in order to produce a photograph.
2. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to

the police work and in the administration of justice.
3. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography.
PHOTOGRAPH AND PICTURE

Picture- it is a generic term that refers to all representation of an image which are
developed through drawings and paintings.
Photo- it is a picture which can only be produce through the process of photography.

B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is
police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work
as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.
2. For Communication
= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of
communication considering that no other language can be known universally than
photograph.
3. For Record Purposes

= the utmost used of photography in police work.
Different Views in Photographing

a. General View
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and
location of the crime scene.
b. Medium View
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into
section. This view will best view the nature of the crime. (8-10 ft.)
c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the
crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.
d. Extreme Close-up View

= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification
such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.
4. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation
purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through
photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
5. For Discovering and Proving

= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification

Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through
attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute
details of the physical evidence.
Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small
object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a
scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the
aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.
6. For Court Exhibits

= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they
satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A
question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation
to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference
as to where it came from.

Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit
1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.
7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them
from initially occurring.
8. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.
9. Reproducing and Copying

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be
made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts or
person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.
C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed
of 186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light
coming from the object to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is
capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some
chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form
so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called
Photograph.
E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per second.
Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and
frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.
Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through
of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the
units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the
Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of
a millimeter.
Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected,
Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.
Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through
its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either
bouncing or passing through.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a
mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism
(Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a
wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.
 Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
a. Visible Light

= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye.
It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
b. Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.
2. Photographic Rays
a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing
an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered
by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow
photography.
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph
fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.
c. Visible Light
= Is the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for
ordinary photographing purposes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to
1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated
writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. (Sometimes referred to as heat
rays).
3. Light Source
Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man
e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin
clouds that cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.
Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright
sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being
photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the
reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered.
B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focuses the light to the object the common
wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.

Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing.
Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly
uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
Infra-red Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp
2. Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of
metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts.
When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites
the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense
light.
Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges
between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the
discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second
and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or
stopped in the photographs.
Concurrent light
 Light that is scattered
Coherent light
 Light that is aligned such as laser light
Hologram
 The formation of image trough the use of laser light
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can
be composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = Is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents
halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix
“Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography.
Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the
reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having names
ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Kodakcolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor
Kodachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.

2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green.
( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all
colors of the visible light)
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value
system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in
the same principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA and
DIN rating.
II. Photographic Paper

Is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development
and become the photograph.
Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is
the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give
blue-black tones when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is
one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a
black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing.
Slow emulsion.
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of
consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted
on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary
photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under
rough treatment.
B.2. Surface Texture

a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail
is necessary.
B.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when
warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)

1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely
exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box,
lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other
parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image
on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to
hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred
image
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

A. Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the
photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material.
B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed
film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of
the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is
usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than
that of the right number
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person
provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal
exposure.
D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to
the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise
known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the
greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in
which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the

distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear
image.
Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a
single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the
focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single
object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the object
in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is
already focused
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused
the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his
estimation do this.
TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to
its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the
other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for
movie making
5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality
of the image to be formed.
= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an
image.
= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change
the direction of light.
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the
same side of the lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens
producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.

2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that travels
straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the
one the is transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with
respect to one another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion
(curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens
refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and
therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not
equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to
focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of
the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area
coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer
than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of
the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one
that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.
6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)
= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid
that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the
acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves
unexposed silver halides.
Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer
Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator
Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during

enlarging.

Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and
printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful
adjustment on the dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for
purposes of making a balance exposure.
--END—

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION
DOCUMENT
- it derives from the Latin Word “documentum” means “a lesson”.
- is anything upon which a mark, symbol or sign is made which is either visible or invisible for the
purpose of conveying an information or a message to someone. It may be a photograph, plates, or
lithograph.
- once a document is introduced as an evidence, it will be known as documentary evidence.
Document as evidence consist of writings or any material containing letters, words, numbers, figures,
symbols or other made written expressions offered as a proof of their contents. (Criminal Evidence- Rule
130 Section 2)
 Two Categories of Document
1. Standard Document
- it is a document in which the origin is known and its source can be proven. It is also
being used as a comparison with other things in questioned or disputed.
 Types/Sources of Standard Document
a. Collected or Procured Document
- this are standard specimens obtain from different files of documents which is being
executed on a day to day activities of man.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post-Litem Motam Standard)
- it is document being created only upon request and only prepared once for the
purposes of making a comparative examination with the disputed documents. The subject is told
what to write and is aware that the samples will be used for analysis and comparison.
Contemporary Document- documents which are not more than five (5) years before or
after.
Rules in Obtaining Standard Document

A. Collected or Procured Document
1. Amount of Writing- the standard number of document to be collected is 10 but the amount is
not limited to 10 since the more standard collected for comparison is better.
2.
B. Requested/Dictated Document
 Legal Classification of Documents
1. Public Documents
- it is an instrument created and notarized by a competent public official in response to

the exigency or needs of the public with the solemnities required by law. This refers to
clearance (police and court clearance), affidavits, license, and many others.
2. Official Documents
- are instruments issued by government officials vested with authority to do so. These are
documents issued in the exercise or performance of their duties. This refers to laws
created by our law-making bodies and ordinances implemented in the Barangay.

3. Private Document
- are documents executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public
by which some disposition or agreements are being proved or set forth.
4. Commercial Documents
- these are instruments defined, executed and regulated in accordance with the Code of
Commerce as well as the Marcantile Law.
 Classification of Document According to Distribution
A. General
- are documents received in full and wide circulation like reports and communication
letters within the organization.
B. Limited
- documents where wide circulation is not necessary and disclosing such information in a
document shall be issued upon the services of the authorized person just like in a library. It is
indicated with an “L” symbol.
C. Restricted
- it applies to documents that must be treated as confidential or that may be withheld

from public circulation. It is indicated with an “R” symbol.
2. Questioned Document
- is a document or paper in which the origin, contents, or circumstances during its

production have been contested as to their authenticity or genuineness either in whole or
in part.
- Though it is interchangeably used with the word “disputed document,” a disputed one is
a document in questioned in which it arises scrutiny between two contesting party
wherein both are either proving falsity or genuineness of a document. There is a legal
actions between two opposing party.
- Albert Osborn, the “Father of Questioned Document Examination” states that:
“A document is usually questioned because its origin, its content, or the
circumstances regarding its production, arouse suspicion as to its genuineness, or it may
be adversely scrutinized simply because it displeases someone by its expected provisions
and a careful examination may show conclusively that the document belongs in the
genuine document class.”
 Classes of Questioned Documents
1. Documents with Questioned Signatures
This are papers containing signatures under suspicion and being disputed
regarding its authenticity usually found on check, note, draft, contract, will, and other
relevant papers.
2. Documents Containing Alleged Fraudulent Alteration

Documents that are allegedly contain fraudulent changes by erasure, addition,
interlineations or substitutions. It is usually found on checks with dubious raised or
diminished amount than the original value.
3. Holograph Document Questioned or Disputed
A class of questioned document wherein the writing of an entire document is

questioned or disputed. It is subject to a scrutiny involving its paper, watermarks, inks,
pens, style or system of writing of a document.
Holograph documents are documents completely written and signed by one
person only.
4. Documents Attacked on the Questioned of their Date and Age
This are questioned documents being investigated as to the age of the instrument.
The age of the writings may have some bearing as to the authenticity of the document.
For some cases, documents have been introduced to have been created a long time age
but actually proven a few months old.
5. Documents Attacked on the Questioned of Materials Used in Their Production
Examinations and analysis being conducted in a document to prove whether or

not the date indicated on the paper matches the materials used in the production of that
paper.
6. Documents that Identify the Handwriting
The most frequently questioned documents being brought under inquiry. This are
documents being investigated to identify the handwriting on a paper that leads to the
identity of the writer.
7. Genuine Documents Erroneously or Fraudulently Attacked
This are documents being questioned on its handwriting or penmanship whether

writing is genuine or forged. In some cases, the writer usually denied to have made the
writing that gives rise to the examination of the documents to prove if it is genuine or
forged.
8. Documents to Identify Typewriting
Documents are under scrutiny regarding the typewriter used in creating a

document.
 Papers
 Brief History of Paper
 The word “paper” was originated from Egypt which they called as “Papyrus” discovered
by them more than 4,000 years ago. Papyrus was made from a grass called “reeds.”
 The first paper was made in China 2000 years ago out from the inner bark of bamboo and
hemp.
 In the 2nd century BC., “vellum” was created as a writing surface which is being crafted
from the skins of goats and lambs.

 Paper is later on spread all over the world and the first papermaking mill was established
in Spain in 1150.
 In 1960, William Rittenhouse of Roxborough, Philadelphia founded the first paper plant in
America.
 Types of Paper
1. Newsprint- least expensive type of paper made of ground wood.
2. Offset- it is more expensive than newsprint due to its content that can resist water.
3. Bond Paper- it is a more and being used regularly in office works.
4. Lightweight-
5. Specialty Paper
6. Gummed Papers
7. Text Paper
8. Coated paper
9. Bristol
10. Kraft Paper
11. Tyvek
12. Safety Paper
 Writing Instruments
- refers to objects used in writing through the application of pressure to the writing
surface by means of an ink or engraving.
 Ink
- is a viscous liquid or dye applied in a pen that produces the visible result of writing.
Types of Ink
1. India Ink- it is the oldest form ink made up of carbon black. It is composed of soot,
known as lamp black.
2. Logwood Ink- it is the cheapest form of ink. It comes from the brownish-red
heartwood of a logwood tree used in preparing the a purplish red dye.
3. Iron Gallotannate- or known as “iron gall ink”. It is a purple-black or brown-black ink

made from iron salts ad tannic acids.
4. Nigrosine Ink- a type of ink made by heating a mixture of aniline and nitrobenzene
and used in negative staining of cells in a microscope.
5. Dye Inks

 Writings
A. Copy Book Form- is an illustration of the basic design of letters that is fundamental to the writing
system.
B. System of Writing- it is the combination of the basic shape and design of letter and writing
movement which was taught in school. It is a design of letters that is essential in identifying the
nationality of the writer which is essential in ascertaining a persons’ identity.
System of Writing
1. The Round Hand System- originated in England characterized by an open flowing hand and a
contrast of thick and thin strokes.
2. Spencerian System
3. Palmer Method- it is the simplified style of Spenceria System wherein it characterized by a

cursive writing with rhythmic motion.
4. Modern American or Commercial System
5. Modern Vertical
C. Writing- is the visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a
combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits
acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
D. Handwriting- is a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious expression of

fixed muscular habits. It is an act of writing using a pen, pencil or any writing instruments
Graphology- is the science that deals with the study of one’s handwriting and the
characteristics binding on it.
Types of Handwriting
1. Cursive- letters are joined together.
2. Handlettering- writings that are separate or disconnected in style.
3. Natural Writing- executed normally and it has no attempt of altering and disguising its
usual writing.
4. Disguised- writings that is executed with deliberate attempt of changing its usual
writing habits to hide one’s identity.
5. Guided/Assisted Writing- writing in which the writer’s hand is at steady while being
assisted by another person.
E. Writing Habits- refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which serves as an
identifying characteristics.
- it is tendency to write in a certain manner which is acquired by frequently doing

it.

F. Significant Writing Habits- elements of one’s writing that are sufficiently unique and well-fixed to
serve as a strong basis of individuality.
 Physiological Basis of Handwriting
The development of writing first evolves on the impulses of the brain that connects with
the organs of the body which subsequently forms a writing process. These impulses is formed
from the writing center of the brain’s cortex, the part that also controls our vision, hearing, sight,
talking, walking and other fundamental movements of our body. The impulse from our brain is
now being transmitted to our finger and directs it to grasp the pen and bring it into motion with
considerable pressure. A center near the area of the cortex is responsible for the fine movement
in handwriting and if this important area becomes a disease, it will cause a person lose the ability
to write which is called “agraphia” The person’s skill in writing involves the four group muscles
which are the finger, wrist, elbow, and shoulder and the combination of this movement will
produce written forms called “motor combination.” At first, a person starts to create symbols
and drawings since they have no idea with the system of writing. Through a guide and
painstaking practice, a person will eventually form his own writing habits. After considerable
time and effort, a person will unconsciously develop his own unique writing habits which is called
significant writing habits.
 History of Writing
 Even in the primitive times, writings have been used based on man’s desire to
communicate with others. Early recorded writings can be found engraved in stones,
carved in woods and clay tablets.
 Cave Drawings are the early recorded history of writings. It is not associated by an
alphabet or any systems of writing but only depicts symbols and drawings. These cave
drawings are called Petroglyphs or Petrograms which was developed between 20,000
and 10,000 BC.
 Carvings as a means of communication gradually evolved into paintings or word pictures

or Ideographs. In Egypt, the word pictures is termed as Hieroglyphics.
 Phonographs- are those word pictures which are translated to sounds or syllables and
later on developed into phonetic symbols called Phonetic Alphabet.
 Sumerians was credited for the creation of the first alphabet.
 Phoenician Alphabet- known alphabet spread by Phoenicians and adapted by the entire
world during the 1700-1500BC which consists of 22 letters and written from right to left.
 Greek Alphabet- derived from the Phoenician Alphabet and developed in Greece by 8th
century BC. They changed the direction of writing from left to right.
 Roman Alphabet or Latin Alphabet- it is initially consisted of disconnected capital and

lower case letters.
 Cyrillic Alphabet- used in Russia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. It was developed in Greece but has
an additional letters with sounds different from Greek.
 Characteristics of Writing

Characteristics- refer to the distinguishing trait, quality, and property found in a writing that
serves as identifying details.
 Types of Characteristics
1. Class/Gross Characteristics- these are characteristics that can be found commonly in the
specimen writing of a person.
2. Individual Characteristics- characteristics which are highly peculiar and personal which is
unlikely to occur in other handwriting.
 Elements of Forms in Writing
Form- refers to shape of the individual letters.
1. Arc- the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or crook.
2. Beard- is an introductory up and down strokes found in some capital letters. Also sometimes
called as double hitch.
3. Blunt- characterized by abrupt beginning or end.
4. Buckle Knot- is a horizontal or loop strokes.
5. Central Part- is the body of the letter characterized by small rounded or circular stroke.
6. Ductus-link and Ductus-broken- refers to the connection between each letters which are
either joined or disconnected.
7. Eyelet/Eyeloop- refers to small oblong strokes usually found on a lowercase letters.
8. Hitch- an introductory backward strokes found in capital and small letters.
9. Humps- the outer curved portion or surface of the letter.
10. Knob- is a tiny pool of an ink found at the beginning or ending stroke of a letter. It is also
termed as “Blots.”
11. Loop- an oblong stroke.
12. Stem/Shank/Staff- known as the backbone of the letter described as a long downward
stroke.
13. Whirl- is the single upward stroke found opposite the stem.
14. Initial/Terminal Spur- a long running initial and terminal stroke of a letter.
15. Through- it refers to a garland form of a letter.
16. Embellishment/Rubrics- this are the flourishes and designs useful only for ornamentation but
not essential or unnecessary to the legibility of ones writing.
 Writing Movement
- it is the act of moving to form letters and symbols and all factors relative to the motion
of the writing instrument. It is a primary determinant of the speed of writing of a person.
Types of Writing Movement
1. Finger Movement- commonly employed by beginners. It is the action of the thumb, index
and middle fingers in writing. This writing movement results into a rough lines and irregular
connections between letters. The motion of the pen appears slow and dull.
2. Hand Movement- writing movement that has limited freedom and involves the action of the
entire hand. The wrist is the pivotal point of the writing.
3. Forearm or Muscular Movement- considered as the most skillful type of movement. It

includes the motion of the arms while the hands and fingers are steady. This movement
shows extreme speed and there is force and continuity of the writing movement. It covers a
wide range and longer radius than the other movements.
4. Whole arm- it is used in ornament or large writings.
Kinds of Muscles Involved in Writing Movements

1. Extensors- muscles responsible for the upward movement of fingers and tends to make it
straighten out.
2. Flexors- muscles responsible for the downward movement of the fingers.
3. Lumbrical- this are the combination of the extensor and flexor muscles that forms a lateral or
horizontal strokes.
 Line Quality
- the term used to describe the smoothness of a line and a writing movement.
- the quality of movement can be distinguished into five classes:
a. Clumsy, illiterate and halting.
b. Hesitating and painful through weakness or disease.
c. Nervous and Irregular
d. Strong, heavy and forceful
e. Smooth flowing and rapid
 Elements of Writing Movement
1. Pen Pressure- this refers to the degree of weight applied in a writing which may be heavy or
light.
2. Pen Emphasis- it is the act of intermittently or periodically forcing the pen against the paper
surface with an increase in speed. It is characterized
3. Rhythm- it is a quality of handwriting characterized by the harmonious recourse or balance of

motion of handwriting.
4. Skill- it refers to the degree of proficiency of person’s writing.
Classification of Skill
a. Poor Skill- characterized by lack of legibility and symmetry or any of its features.
b. Good Skills- reveals both legibility and symmetry in writing.

c. Medium Skill- it describes writing that does not fall into poor or good class.
5. Speed- it refers to the rate of movement of a writer and interpreted as either fast, slow, or
moderate.
6. Pen Lift- is the interruption of the strokes caused by sudden removal of the pen and leaves a
gap at certain points of a word or letter.
7. Shading- it is the widening of a line in a letter because of the application of pressure and
there is an increase in the width of the strokes.
8. Pen Position- it is the location and angle of the pen to the surface of the paper.
9. Pen Hold- it is helpful in identifying the position of the pen by carefully examining the ink
stroke of the letters or words.
10. Pen Scope- it refers to the reach of the hand or the coverage of writing while the wrist is at
rest.
11. Retracing or Retraced- it is a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke that creates
superimposition of line in the letter.
12. Retouching or Patching- a stroke that goes back over the defective portion of the stroke to
correct or alter the words or letters being written.
 Factors that Affect Writing Characteristics
1. Natural Variations- is the usual or normal deviation in a writing specimen of an individual

handwriting.
2. Transitory Change- those changes that exist because the factors or causes that is still affecting
the writer, the normal writing condition of the writer will revert back to its normal form once
that causes seize to exist.
3. Tremors- is the weakening of the strokes characterized by a wavering or shaky strokes resulting
to irregular pen lines attributed to brain impulses which affect the muscles.
a. Genuine Tremor
 Weakness or Sickness (Pathological Tremor)- characterized by a convulsive

manner of writing which is beyond the will and control of the writer.
 Old Age- indicates muscular weakness in writing and shows unusual departures
of letters from its intended course. It also shows carelessness and unconscious
strokes.
 Illiteracy and Uneducated Person- shows different pen strokes caused by

hesitation in writing and unfamiliarity of the proper formation of letters and
words in a writing process. Heavier and thicker pen lines may be found due to
illiteracy in handwriting.
b. Tremor of Fraud
 The strokes are too heavy resulting to widening of the strokes of a letter.

 There are periodic interruptions of the writing movement that causes varying pen
pressure.
 Process Governing Identification of Handwriting
A. ANALYSIS- (process of recognizing the characteristics of handwriting) or the identification of

elements. Elements of a persons’ handwriting may it be known or unknown specimen must first
be analyzed and examined which includes the habit or behavior of writing that makes it different
from other people.
B. COMPARISON- (comparison of all the characteristics after analysis) the elements of the known
and unknown specimen after thorough examination and analysis must be compared.
C. EVALUATION- (interpretation of analyzed characteristics) similarities and dissimilarities of

characteristics between known and unknown specimens will be given value for identification
based on their likelihood and occurrence. It is the process of obtaining the correct interpretation
of characteristics. This is the determination if the writings are genuine or not.
 Signatures
- it is a person’s name written by himself on a document as sign of acknowledgment.

 Model Signature- a signature which is prepared for a traced forgery.
 Evidential Signature- specimen signature which was executed in a particular date, time,
and place under a particular writer’s condition and for a particular purposely.
 Classes of Signature
1. Formal or Complete- used to sign a very important document.
2. Informal or Cursory Signature- used for routine document.
3. Careless Scribble- used for not so important document such as delivery of mail
or receipt of purchase equipment etc.
 Forgery
- is an act of falsifying, counterfeiting or altering a material, document or currency notes

with the intent of defrauding a person. In a legal parlance, the element of forgery
requires an “intent to defraud”.
 Indications of Forgery
a. Blunt starts and stops
b. Pen Lifts and Hesitation
c. Tremor
d. Speed and Pressure
e. Patching

 Major Types of Forgery
1. Simple Forgery- also known as “spurious signature.” It is a forgery wherein a person does not try
to copy any model or facsimile of a signature they are attempting to forge.
2. Simulated or Copied Forgery- known as “free-hand signature.” It is a reproduction or imitation of

signature that resembles model signature copied through free hand. It is done through constant
practice until he acquired the mental picture of the model signature. This is also known as the
most skillful type of forgery.
3. Traced Forgery- a forged signature that completely resembles the model signature by the
process of tracing the outline of the genuine signature. This method of forgery is easy to detect
since “a person cannot create his own signature that is exactly alike”
Methods of Tracing
a. Projection or Transmitted Light Process (Direct Tracing)- it traces a signature through
a transmitted light at the bottom of both paper then trace the outline appearing at
the bottom of the paper.
b. Carbon Outline Process (Indirect Tracing)- the forger use a carbon paper. The carbon
paper will be placed at the middle of two papers then the model signature at the top
will be traced with dry pen or any pointed instrument which leaves an imprint to the
fraudulent document bearing the exact pattern of the original signature.
c. Indentation Process- a forger will trace the model signature with adequate pressure
over a blank paper using a stylus or any pointed writing materials that form an indent
signature. The depression created on a blank paper will now be overwritten with an
ink to make the indented signature visible.
 Detection of Document Problems
i. Alteration- is the change or modification in any form to the original content of the
document either by addition or deletion to replace it with substances which is not part of the
original preparation.
Methods of Alteration
 Erasure- refers to the removal of letters, words or symbols in a document either through
mechanical or chemical. It can e detected through transmitted light or ultra-violet light
examination.
o Mechanical Erasure- it is done by means of abrasive method or scrapping the

writings intended to be removed.
o Chemical Erasure- it is done by the application of bleaching agent or ink

eradicator.
 Addition- by adding words or figures.
 Substitution- by replacing the entire page with a new one.
 Interlineations or Intercalation- addition of writings in between lines.

ii. Obliteration- process of smearing or overwriting an original writing. It is done by the
application of superimposing ink. It can be detected through the use of Infra-red Light
Examination.
iii. Charred Document- refers to partly burned document. Detected through Infra-red Light.
iv. Invisible Writing- writing that is incapable to be seen and no visible ink strokes. It is done
by applying Sympathetic Inks. It can detected through the application of heat and ultra
violet process.
v. Contact Writing- it is the application of the partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden
contact of a paper with another sheet containing fresh ink. It can be detected by Ultra-
Violet Light.
 Techniques Employed in the Examination of Questioned Document
1. Microscopic Examination- it used in the detection of retouching, patching and unnatural pen lifts
especially in signature analysis. It aids in the decipherment of erasures in a document with a very
minute details.
2. Transmitted Light Examination- done by allowing the light at the bottom of the paper to passed
through. It aids in the detection of erasures.
3. Oblique Light Examination- it is done by reflecting the light that is pointed at a certain angle to
the paper surface.
4. Ultraviolet Examination
5. Electrostatic Detection- using the electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA), forensic document
examiner will be able to detect indented writings.
6. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC)- used in the examination of obliterated writings and
watermarks.
 Typewriter
- a mechanical or electronic device that has a set of keys (alphanumerical values) when
pressed will create an imprint to the paper and produce a visible writings by means of
carbon ink.
 Types of Conventional Typewriter
1. Pica Type- 10 letter per inch of horizontal spacing

2. Elite Typeface- 12 letter per inch of horizontal spacing
 Typeface- it is the printing surface of the typeblock which bears the character (letters, numbers,
or symbols) in a typewriter.
Typeface Defect- it is the damage in the typeface that produces an abnormal print in a paper.
There are different types of typeface defects:

a. Clogged (dirty) Typeface- the typeface consists of dirt or ink in an enclosed letter such as
o, a, b, p or g. It is caused by the overused typewriter or the utilization of newly replace
carbon ink.
b. Rebound- a letter that creates a double impression in a printing surface.
c. Twisted Letters- characters produced an inclination on its angle to the baseline.
d. Off-its-Feet- characters are not equally printed in terms of its outline.
e. Vertical Mal-alignment- characters are either printed below or above of its proper
alignment.
f. Horizontal Mal-alignment- characters are either printed at the right or left of its proper
alignment.
--END--

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUE
 Polygraphy- is the scientific method of detecting deception through the use of a
polygraph instrument. It also known as “scientific truth verification.”
o Deception- the act of misleading and deceiving that is accompanied by

lying.
 Polygraph- comes from the Greek word “Poly” means “many or more than one” and
“Graphein” means “to write.”
- it is one of the instrument used to monitor and record the physiological changes of the
person specifically the pulse beat, respiration and skin resistance.
- the word polygraph was first used by Thomas Jefferson to describe one of his
invention which could rewrite repeated words but not intended to be used for lie
detection.
- polygraph is only used as a means of interpreting the changes of the physiological
reactions but does not precisely determined deception on the part of the subject.
- it is being compared to an X-ray machine in which it records the internal changes in
the human body and subject for an interpretation.
 Two Types of Polygraph Instrument
a. Conventional or Analog Polygraph Instrument
- the old and traditional type of polygraph instrument.
b. Computerized Polygraph Instrument
- appears as a digital and contemporary type of polygraph instrument in

which it allows the examiner to collect physiological data from the subject in the
most convenient way.
 THE TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPHY
1. The Psychological Leg Basic Premise
- states that the specific nervous system can be stimulated which results to
involuntary mental and emotional responses that can be identified if a person has
the intent to deceive.
2. The Physiological Leg Basic Premise
- it states that a person’s physiological changes can be recorded after the

stimulation of the specific nervous system.
3. The Mechanical Leg Basic Premise
- it states that a polygraph instrument is capable of graphically record the

indication of physiological changes of the person.
 EARLY METHODS OF DECEPTION

1. Trial by Combat- the two parties who are in dispute will fight in a duel or combat and
whoever won the fight will be considered innocent and the loser will be adjudged as
guilty. It is a practice done in ancient England.
2. Trial By Ordeal- a person is being subjected to an unpleasant situation in order to

determine his guilt.
- the word “Ordeal” came from the Latin word “Dei Indicum” which
means “a miraculous decision.” If the wound or injury made by such ordeal heals, a
person is considered innocent, otherwise, the accused is said to be guilty. It relies on
the belief that a person is declared guilty or not through a “Divine Providence”
a. Ordeal of Hot Water- a person will be instructed to retrieve a stone from boiling
water.
b. Ordeal of Boiling Oil- practiced in West Africa. A person must a retrieve an item
in a boiling oil and those who refused the task will be automatically adjudged guilty.
c. Red Hot Iron Ordeal- the accused will touched a hot metal 9 (nine) times using
his tongue.
d. Order of Hot Needle- a person’s lips will be teased by a hot needle.
e. Ordeal of Cold Water- a person will be accused of witchcraft and the accused
who sink or drown is considered innocent while those who floats will be tagged as
witch.
f. Ordeal of Rice Chewing- an accused is required to swallow rice and if he failed to
swallow or spit it out dry, he will be adjudged guilty.
g. Ordeal of Red Water (The Trial of the Eucharist)- an accused is required to run
for an hour and immediately eat a cup of rice and drink dark-colored water. It will
serve as emetic and once a person vomits the rice, he will be considered innocent.
h. Ordeal of the Cross- the accused and the accuser must stand on the side of the
cross and have to stretch out their hands horizontally. The first person who lowers
their arms will lose.
i. The Test of the Axe- a group of person will be arranged in circle and an axe will
be spun in the center of the group. When the axe’s blade stop at a particular person,
he is considered as guilty.
j. The Test of the Candle- the accuser and the accused are each given a candle
with the same length. These candles will be lighted at the same time. The one with a
candle that burns longer determines who speaks the truth.
k. Donkey’s Tail (Ash Tail) Ordeal- all accused person are required the strike a
donkey’s tail and when the chosen donkey cries, an accused will be adjudged guilty.
 Other Methods of Lie Detection
1. Brain Waves
2. Brain Imagery
3. Eye Tracking
4. Facial Analysis
5. Narco-Interrogation
6. Reaction Time
7. Voice Stress Analysis

8. Word Association Test- invented by Francis Galton, a series of stimulus and non-
stimulus words are read to the subject and instructed to answer as quickly as
possible.
9. Use of Alcoholic Beverages- it is due to the belief in “In Vino, Veritas” (In Wine,
There is Truth)
10. Use of Hypnotism
11. Polygraphy
 PERSONALITIES IN POLYGRAPHY AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Angelo Mosso- made used of the “plethysmograph” and the “scientific cradle” that
measures the flow of blood. He advocates that the “detection of fear” has a direct
influence in the physiological reaction of the body.
2. Cesare Lombroso- made a modification of the plethysmograph resulting in the

hydrosphygmograph which is used as a blood pressure pulse test in the actual
criminal suspect.
3. Francis Galton- used the word association test. It was injected with several relevant
and irrelevant words and would be presented to the patient. There will be an inner
reaction by showing either delay or more rapid reaction.
4. Sir James Mackenzie- devised the ink polygraph which records the vascular pulses
of the person.
5. Dr. William Marston- the inventor of the systolic-blood pressure along with the
“discontinuous technique” in which there is a repeated inflation of the cuff after
obtaining readings during examination.
6. Sticker- made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic issues.
7. Veraguth- first to use the word association test with galvanometer and termed the
psychogalvanic skin reflex.
8. Vetturio Benussi- used the Marey Pneumograph used to record the inspiration-
respiration or the subject’s breathing in the detection of deception.
9. John Larson- In 1921, he added a breadboard as a base to the instrument, Cardio-

Pneumo Psychogram which he borrowed from Dr. Robert Gesell. It was later known
as the “Breadboard Polygraph”. He is considered as the “Father of Polygraphy” for
being the first person to detect deception in a more scientific way.
10. Leonard Keeler- he designed the “kymograph” and added to the polygraph
instrument. In 1938, he included the “Psychogalvanometer” as the third instrument.
He also developed the “Relevant-Irrelevant Technique” and considered as the
“Father of Modern Polygraphy”
11. John Reid- addition of a portable chair that is able to detect muscular movements or
known as “Reid Polygraph”
12. Cleve Backster- formulated the numerical scoring or “Backster Zone Comparison
Technique”
13. Richard O. Arther- pioneered the Arther II polygraph which consists of a marker used
to record the beginning and ending of a question until the subject answered.
 THE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF LYING
 Psychology- the study of behavior and the mind.
o Emotion- the word emotion came from the French word emouvoir, which means
“to stir from up”
- it is a conscious experience or feeling characterized by sudden drift of

physiological reactions from the calm state of the organism.
 “Fear Theory”
- or known as “Fear of Detection.” It is a theory being adapted in the

polygraph examination and states that a lying person fears detection which
causes sudden physiological reactions.
o Deception- it is an act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying. A

deceptive person is trying to act in such a way that makes a person believe it to be
true.
o Lie- it is the deliberate way of giving information to someone that is not true.
 Types of Lie
1. Big Lie- the person you are lying to already knew the truth.
2. Bluffed Lie- a person pretends that he know or he is capable of doing

something which he does not actually possess.
3. Emergency Lie- a truth shall not be told because it may cause harm to other
person.
4. Lie of Exaggeration- adding or exaggerating information which is not part of

the truth.
5. Lie of Fabrication- truth are being falsified or made up.
6. Lie of Omission- there is an omission or reduction of relevant part of the truth.
7. Misleading Lie-
8. Noble Lie- lies to someone for the benefit of the others.
9. Puffery Lie- exaggerated lies found on advertisement and commercials.

10. Lie of Compliment- lies intended to please others.
11. White Lie- lying to avoid minor issues.
12. Red Lie- means to destroy the ideologies or creating propaganda.
13. Malicious Lie- to mislead and obstruct justice.
14. Jocose Lie- sarcastic lie.
 Psychophysiology- it refers to the study of the effect of the human mind to the body.
This specific reactions is because of the application of the “stimuli” into the human body
which brings signals to the brain and this stimulation of the brain results to physiological
reactions.
o Stimulus- it is something that causes reaction or response to a person.
 The Nervous System- the complex network of interconnecting nerve and cells which is
responsible in carrying messages to and from the brain to various parts of the body. It is
divided into two: the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- it is the main functioning system of the nervous system which consist of the brain
and spinal cord.
 Brain- it receives and transmits the stimuli and it dictates the body how to react from
such signal.
 Spinal Cord- the main responsible in sending signals to and from the particular parts
of the body.
o Sensory Signal- comes in to the spinal cord to the brain.
o Motor Signal- comes in to the brain to the spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System- this are series of nerves that connects the central
nervous system to the organs of the body.
 Somatic Nervous System- it concerns with the voluntary activities of the body and
reactions that can be controlled.
 Autonomic Nervous System- it concerns with the involuntary activities of the body
or the reactions that cannot be controlled such as heartbeat and breathing. It is the
main concern in polygraphy.
 Two Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System
b. Sympathetic Nervous System- an “emergency or action system” that

is responsible in sudden changes in physiological reactions.

o Epinephrine- hormones that stimulates sympathetic nervous
system.
c. Parasympathetic Nervous System- the “housekeeping or equilibrium

system” of the nervous system which brings back the body into normal
(homeostasis) state.
o Neropinephrine- a hormone that gives energy in times of

stress and brings back the normal state of a person.
 Responses to Threat
Fight, Flight, or Freeze (F3)
 The Polygraph Instrument
1. Pneumograph- detects and records changes in respiration or breathing of the

subject.
- it is composed of two 5-inch pens:

For Thoracic Breather or Upper Chest (commonly found on boys)
For Abdominal Breather (commonly found on girls)
a. Rubber Convoluted Tube-
2. Cardiosphygmograph- detects and records changes in the cardiovascular (blood

volume, blood pressure and pulse beat) functions of the subject.
- it has a 5-inch pen.
a. Blood Pressure Cuff- attached at the upper right arm (brachial artery) of a
subject.
b. Shygmomanometer- indicates the amount of air pressure present in the

apparatus.
c. Recording Pen Unit- it is five (5) inches in length.
d. Air Pump- it is used to supply air to the cardiosphygmograph.
e. Vent- it is designed to release excess air pressure from the system.
3. Galvanograph- detect and record changes in skin resistance.
a. Finger Electrode Plate- attached to the index and ring fingertips.
b. Recording Pen Unit- 7-inches in length.
c. Amplifier Unit- converts electrical signal into mechanical system.
o 5 microamp- it is the sensing current found on the electrodes which is

far below the threshold of feeling.
d. Sensitivity Control- adjust the desired tracings.

4. Kymograph- it is a motor that drives out simultaneously the chart paper from the
polygraph machine. It runs at the speed of five (5) seconds per vertical chart division
or twelve (12) division in one minute.
a. Cutter Bar- cuts the paper after each examination.
b. Rubber Roller- designed to pull the paper out of the machine.
c. Paper Rail Guide- secures the paper’s movement without shaking.
d. Synchronous Motor- runs the paper at the uniform speed.
5. Pen and Inking System- it provides for the permanent record of the examination in
the chart paper.
 Polygraph Examination
- refers to activities that takes place between a polygraph examiner and a subject.
It is also referred to as, “Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (PDD)”
- it encompasses the procedure from pre-test examination to post-test interview or
interrogation.
 Polygraph Examiner- is a person who is able to detect deception through his/her

knowledge in using the polygraph instrument, interpret the result, and renders an
opinion regarding the truthfulness of the subject’s statement thereafter. They are
also referred to as “Forensic Psychophysiologist” and “Polygraphist”.
o Responsibility of a Polygraph Examiner
1. Examiner is an impartial seeker of the truth and he never allows personal

feelings and prejudices in favor of or against the subject which affects the
result of the examination.
2. A truthful subject must be reported truthful and deceptive subject must be

reported deceptive.
3. He must assure that the subject is safeguarded against possible error in

interpreting the examination’s result and must be aware that a subject is
allowed to undergo such examination whose physical and mental state makes
him unfit.
 Subject or Examinee- a person who undergoes and administers polygraph

examination and is being asked a series of questions which he must answer.
o Subjects Suitable for Examination
1. They must be free from any prohibited drugs for 12 hours before the exam.
2. They should not smoke for 2 hours before the exam.
3. They should not be suffering from hypertension or highblood.

4. Must have at least 5 hours of sleep
5. Must have a pulse beat of 70-75 per minute.
6. Must not be pregnant.
7. Must not be hungry.
 Polygraph Room- it is a place where the polygraph examination will be

conducted between the polygraph examiner and the subject.
1. It must be spacious
2. Well ventilated and well lighted
3. Sound Proof
4. Must not consist of colorful decorations as it may affect the outcome of
the examination.
 Phases of Polygraph Examination
Phase I- Pre-Test Interview

- is the examination being conducted from the beginning of the examination up to
the activation of the polygraph instrument.
- it is done to prepare or condition the subject for the actual test as its primary
purpose.
1. Determining the subject’s suitability for the test.
2. Informing the subject’s Constitutional Rights
3. Taking the subject’s consent
4. Explaining the functions of the instrument
5. Taking of the subject’s personal data.
6. Preparing the subject for the test- if the subject is highly nervous, it is advisable to
prolong the pre-test interview.
Phase II- Actual-Test (Test Execution)

- consists of all the process that occur once the test questions have been
administered.
o Polygraph Chart (Polygram)- this is where the physiological reactions of the

subject during the actual test are being recorded. It has a measurement of one
hundred (100) feet and one-half (1/2) inch vertical division.
o Chart Markings- are labels or annotations of the physiological tracings of the

subject.
 Types of Chart Markings
1. Primary Markings- markings being placed at the beginning and end of the
examination during each particular set of questions and answers.
a. X- start of the test.

b. I I – a vertical line which indicates the start and end of questions.
c. + - positive sign indicates that the subject answers with “yes”
d. - a negative sign indicates a “no’ answer.
e. XX- indicates the end of test.
2. Secondary Markings- are markings that must be placed only if there are
distorted tracings or artifacts.
Phase III- Post-Test Interrogation or Interview
- the opinion of the examiner is being considered in this examination. If the

examiner finds the subject truthful and cooperative, he must undergo an interview and
reported as truthful or negative. If the subject has a presence or indication of deception, he
must undergo an interrogation to obtain confession or admission surrounding the commission
of the crime and must be reported as deceptive or negative.
 Polygraph Questions and Techniques
 Types of Polygraph Test Questions
a. Irrelevant Questions- it is used to establish the norm for the examinee and questions
that has no connection with the matter under investigation
Ex. Were you born in the Philippines?
b. Symptomatic Question- done to ensure that the subject will not be asked with un-
reviewed questions.
Ex. Do you believe that I will not ask you questions we have not reviewed?
c. Sacrifice Relevant Question- a question used as an introduction to the relevant

question which is designed to absorb the response of the subject once the relevant
question will be asked.
Ex. Regarding the crime of robbery, are you willing to answer the question
truthfully?
d. Relevant Question- questions that is connected with matters under investigation. It is

designed to obtain reactions from a deceptive subject.
 Types of Relevant Question
o Primary Relevant- questions that has direct involvement of the subject under
investigation.
Ex. Did you kill Jose?
o Secondary Relevant- a question that is in support on the primary issue.
Ex. Did you participate in the killing of Jose?

o Guilty Knowledge- designed to determine if the subject has a knowledge or
information on the identity of the perpetrator or the facts of the case in connection
with the investigation.
Ex. Do you know who owns that unlicensed firearm used to kill Jose?
o Evidence Connecting Question- a subject will be asked if he has an idea about

particular physical evidence that would incriminate a perpetrator.
Ex. Do you know where the unlicensed firearm is right now?
e. Control Questions- it is the same in nature with the relevant question designed to gain
response from truthful subject. It is used in comparison with the relevant question. It is
also termed as Comparison Question.
Ex. Did you kill someone 10 years ago?
 Polygraph Techniques
a. General Question Test (Relevant-Irrelevant)- it is consist of series of relevant and

irrelevant questions.
b. Peak of Tension Test- a question which consist of padding questions. Only one
relevant and series of irrelevant questions is being used in this technique.
c. Card Test (Acquaintance Test)- used to obtain the reaction of the subject if he
commits deception. Subject is instructed to answer “NO” to all cards even if it is
repeatedly shown to him.
d. Guilt Complex Test- used to those overly responsive subjects.
e. Silent Answer Test- the subject will answer only in his mind.
f. Comparison Question Test- the responses given on the relevant and control questions
are being compared.
 Accuracy of a Polygraph Questions
1. Accuracy- is a measurement of the extent to which an observed situation reflects the

true situation. It is a quality of being true or exact. Polygraph test is believed to have
more than 90% accuracy.
2. Reliability- stability or consistency by measuring the rate of decision based on the

agreement among the polygraph examiners on the polygraph chart.
 Interrater Reliability- denotes agreement by two or more examiners to

finalized the result.
 Intrarater Reliability- done by only one examiner by examining again the

chart on different occasions.
3. Result Errors
 False negative- wrong decision that the subject is truthful.

 False Positive- wrong decision that the subject is deceptive.
--END—

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
 BALLISTICS
- it is a science of the motion, launching, flight and movement of the projectile.

 There is “SCIENCE,” since it evolves into a systematized study and experimentation
of firearms, bullet, and its effect to the target.
 There is “MOTION,” since it involves the movement of the projectile.
 There is a “PROJECTILE,” since the one in motion refers to the metallic or non-
metallic ball being propelled by the firearms.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORD BALLISTICS

 The word “Ballistics” is derived from the Greek Word “Ballo” or “Ballein” which literally
means “to throw.”
 Its development was derived from the Roman War machine called the “Ballista” (a gigantic
catapult used to hurl missile)
 It is now developed in a contemporary society and can be interchangeably used with the
word “Firearms and Bullet Identification”
 When used in conjunction with the word “Forensic,” it refers to the application of ballistics
in the administration of justice like Forensic Firearms Investigation and Identification.
BRANCHES INVOLVING BALLISTICS
1. INTERNAL BALLISTICS- refers to the motion of the projectile from the breech up to the muzzle
of the firearm. The processes involved in this branch are:
a. Firing pin striking the primer.
b. Ignition of the priming mixture
c. Burned priming mixture passes through the flash hole into the propellant charge
d. Combustion of the gunpowder or propellant.
e. Expansion of the high-pressure gas.
f. Pressure is developed.
g. Confined propellant creates extreme pressure and energy
h. Recoil of the gun
i. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
j. Engraving in the cylindrical surface of the bullet (rifling)
2. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS- refers to the study of the bullets’ or missiles’ flight after it leaves the
gun muzzle and before it strikes the target. The process involve are:
a. Muzzle Blast- the noise created at the muzzle point.
b. Muzzle Energy- the energy generated at the muzzle point.

c. Conditions of the bullet in flight
 Yaw- it is the tumbling motion of the bullet in flight.
 Precession- it is the rotating movement of the bullet.
 Nutation- refers to the unsteady movement of the bullet or wobbling movement

of the bullet.
 Trajectory- refers to the steady-flight or parabola-like flight of the bullet.
d. Gravitational Effect
e. Range- the distance between the muzzle and the target.
 Accurate Range- the distance in which the shooter has the control of his shots.
 Maximum Range- farthest distance the projectile can be propelled.
 Effective Range (Wounding Capability)- distance where the projectile can inflict
damage.
 Maximum Effective Range- the farthest distance the projectile is effective against
the intended target.
f. Velocity- rate of speed of the bullet in flight. It is expressed in Feet per Second (f/s).
g. Air Resistance/Aerodynamic Drag- resistance encountered by the bullet in flight.
h. Pull of Gravity- the downward reaction of the bullet due to its weight.
3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- refers to the impact or effect of the bullet on the target. It is used to determine the
knocking power of the bullet once it hits the target.
- this can be sub-divided into two:
 Penetration Potential- capability of the bullet to penetrate various materials.
 Wound Ballistics- effect of the bullet on the living tissue.
- Terminal ballistics involves the following:

a. Terminal Accuracy- refers to the size of the bullet groupings on the target.
b. Terminal Energy- energy of the projectile when it hits the target.
c. Terminal Velocity- speed of the bullet once it hits the target.
d. Terminal Penetration- depth of the bullet to the target.
4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS- it is a discipline that refers to the investigation and identification of the
cartridge and what firearm it is specifically fired at. The branch of science which the police used
as their guide in their investigation.
a. Field Investigations- it is all the investigative activities done in the field involving the use of
firearms and ammunitions. It is the procedures and methods from collection up to the
transmittal of fired shells and bullets to the crime laboratory as well as the firearms used at
the crime scene.
b. Technical Examination- it is a tasked done at the laboratory. It involves the examination of

bullet and firearms by taking a test bullet and making a comparison of the standard and

questioned specimen through photomicrography and preparing laboratory reports
thereafter.
c. Legal Proceedings- the presentation of evidence and technical reports to the trial court as
well as the taking of the testimony of the expert witness.
 FIREARMS
IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF FIREARMS

 The earliest known type of handgun was simply a small cannon. Its mechanism works by putting
a powder, wad and small ball at the muzzle end of the cannon. The ball is being discharged by
igniting the priming charge through the match or hot iron.
 1247 and 1311- the earliest used of small cannon was in Seville, Spain.
 1449- first recorded used of the hand cannon as a cavalry weapon. The hand cannon was heavy
and inefficient so the creation of the small arms or hand guns was developed.
 Matchlock- the first major advance in pistol that can be fired using one hand. A slow-burning
piece of cord or a match is used to ignite the priming charge. The part that holds the piece of cord
is known as the “Serpentine”, the forerunner of the modern trigger.
 Wheel lock (arquebus)- credited the creation to Johann Kiefuss of Nuremberg, Germany in
1517. It is designed made for ambush than the matchlock. A type of firearm that has serrated
wheel. When the trigger is pulled, the serrated wheel will rub against the iron pyrite and generate
spark. The spark will pass through the “flash pan” and provides combustion to the loose powder.
 Flintlock- the same with the wheel lock but replaced the iron pyrite with a flint.
 Snaphaunce (1570)- early form of flintlock. A weapon with a mainspring inside the lock plate and
a priming pan cover which had to be manually pushed back before firing.
 Miquelet- like the snaphaunce, it is also a type of flintlock where the mainspring will be
automatically pushed back before firing.
 Pin-Fire Cartridge (1836)- developed by Le Faucheux, the first self-expanding cartridge.
 Rim-Cartridge (1845)- developed by Flobert.
 Revolver- the earliest form of revolver was made during the days of King Charles I in 1650. The
original patents of revolver belongs to Samuel Colt in 1835.
 Self-loading Pistol (1892)- the first successful self-loading pistol appeared. Patented by Austrian
Schonberger and made by company Steyr.
 1896- creation of the self-loading pistol with the introduction of 7.63 mm Mauser
 1898- creation of the Luger Pistol
 Alexander Lacassagne- first to recognized the significance of the striations etched found on a
bullet from a murder victim
PERSONS BEHIND THE CREATION OF FIREARMS
1. COL. CALVIN GODDARD- known as “The Father of Modern Ballistics.” Through his expertise, he
was able to established a comparison microscope used to determine whether or not a bullet or
shell was fired on a particular firearm.
2. HORACE SMITH- founded the Smith and Wesson, the maker of the breech-loading rifles.

3. JOHN BROWNING- the “Wizard of Modern Firearm”
4. JOHN THOMPSON- pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machinegun.
5. David Williams- creator of the first-known carbine.
6. Samuel Colt- create the first practical revolver.
7. Uziel Gal- he invented a sub-machine gun in the 1950’s wwhich was used by the Israeli Army
during its Sinai campaign in 1956.
8. Alexander John Forsyth- “Father of the Percussion Ignition”
9. Henry Derringer- manufacturer of the Pocket Pistol.
DEFINITION OF FIREARM
A. LEGAL DEFINITION
- Sec. 877 of Revised Administrative Code, Sec. 290 of Nat’l Internal Revenue Code and
Republic Act No. 8294 as follows:
“FIREARMS OR ARMS as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotgun, pistols, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from which the bullets, balls,
shots, shells, or other missiles maybe discharged, by means of gun powder or other
explosives. This term also include air rifles and air pistols not classified as toys under the
provision of Executive Order No. 712. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof.
-Republic Act 10591 defines firearms as:

“FIREARM refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or
light weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any
projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases from burning
gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement. For
purposes of this Act, the barrel, frame or receiver is considered a firearm.
-26 US Code 5845 defines firearms as:

The term “firearm” means (1) a shotgun having a barrel or barrels of less than 18
inches in length; (2) a weapon made from a shotgun if such weapon as modified has an
overall length of less than 26 inches or a barrel or barrels of less than 18 inches in length;
(3) a rifle having a barrel or barrels of less than 16 inches in length; (4) a weapon made
from a rifle if such weapon as modified has an overall length of less than 26 inches or a
barrel or barrels of less than 16 inches in length; (5) any other weapon, as defined in
subsection (e); (6) a machinegun; (7) any silencer (as defined in section 921 of title 18,
United States Code); and (8) a destructive device. The term “firearm” shall not include an
antique firearm or any device (other than a machinegun or destructive device) which,
although designed as a weapon, the Secretary finds by reason of the date of its
manufacture, value, design, and other characteristics is primarily a collector’s item and is
not likely to be used as a weapon.
B. TECHNICAL DEFINITION
- a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of the

expansive forces of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
A. ACCORDING TO BARREL CONSTRUCTION
 Smooth-Bore Firearms= firearms that have no rifling inside the gun barrel. Ex. Shotgun and
musket

 Rifled-Bore Firearms= firearms that have rifling inside the gun barrel. Ex. Pistols and
revolvers
B. ACCORDING TO CALIBER OF THE PROJECTILE
 Artillery (Missile)= type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch diameter.
Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas

 Small Arms= firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter.
Examples: Pistol and Revolver
C. SHOULDER ARMS- those types of firearms that are fired from the shoulder
 Rifles= shot through a rifled bore barrel with a measurement of more than 22 inches.
 Carbine= a barrel with not longer than 22 inches.
D. ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
 Single Shot Firearms= designed to fire only one shot every loading. Ex. Pistol, Revolver,
Shotgun
 Repeating Arms= designed to fire several loads or shot in one loading. Ex. Automatic Pistol,
Rifle, Machine Gun.
 Automatic Firearm= constitute a continuous firing in a single press of a trigger.
 Slide Action Type= loading take place by back and forth manipulation either under or over
the gun. One shot per loading.
 Bolt Action Type= one loading and several shots.
E. HANDGUNS= types of firearm designed to be fired using one hand only.
 Pistol= derived from the Italian word “Pistoia” which means “city.”
 Revolver= designed to position the cartridge for firing by the action of the rotating cylinder
that serves as a chamber.
o Single Action= a revolver wherein the hammer should be manually cocked before
squeezing the trigger.
o Double Action= a revolver that does not need manual cocking. The hammer will
automatically cock after pressing the trigger.
SHOTGUN
- smooth bore shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or shots.
- it is classified depends on its barrel construction.
o Cylinder Bore Type= the bore diameter is the same throughout the barrel.
o Choke Bore Type= the bore has a diminishing diameter (choke) towards the
muzzle of the shotgun. It is designed for more accurate shots.
o Paradox Gun= it has a rifling a few inch from its muzzle point. It is usually found
on a “Buck shot” guns.
- Categories of shotguns according to its mechanism:

o Single-Barreled Shotgun- it has one barrel and capable of holding one cartridge
only at a time.
o Double Barreled Shotgun- two barrels that is either position side by side or over
and under.
o Pump Action Shotgun- most common type of shotgun. It functions by putting

shot shells into the magazine tube and manually pulling the pump handle after
each succeeding shots.
o Semi-automatic Shotgun- capable of automatically feeding the chamber with a

new cartridge after the first shot has been fired.
o Bolt Action Type- use for hunting and sporting.
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF GUN

1. Cane Guns- it is termed as a “Walking Stick” It is a walking cane that has a hidden gun built in it.
2. Freakish Guns- it is a gun in which it cannot be identified as a real gun or is designed in a different
manner to avoid easy identification.
3. Flare Gun- used to trace or send signal.
4. Tool Gun- it has a resemblance of a gun but is intended to be used in carpentry and construction of
furniture.
5. Zip Gun- a home-made gun that is usually used in street crimes or gang wars. Locally known as
“Paltik”
 AMMUNITION
IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF AMMUNITION
 The first form of ammunition is consisted of a loose powder that is carried through a flask or horn
and loaded inside the barrel through the muzzle of the firearm. Early projectiles used are stone
balls and arrows.
 By the 15th century, lead ball is wrapped in a wad filled with black powder.
 At the later part of the 16th century, a pre-measured charges were wrapped in a paper bag. This
paper bags will be torn and poured in the barrel followed by the wadding then the bullet.
 Towards the end of the 1600s, the bullet was tied into the top of the powder bag resulting in the
first “self-contained” cartridge.
DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
A. LEGAL DEFINITION
Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the NIRC and also in Sec. 877 of the RAC defined as:
- it refers to ammunition as a “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun,
revolver, and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missile may be fired by mean of
gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
elsewhere in the code.
B. TECHNICAL DEFINITION
-the term ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single unit or single cartridge.
- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gun powder and the primer

- In a shotgun cartridge, it refers to complete or unfired cartridge consisting of pellets,
primer, case, wads, and gunpowder.
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CARTRIDGE
- It is derived from the Latin Word, “Charta” which means “paper”

- Also from the French Word, “Cartouche” which means “a rolled paper”
PARTS OF CARTRIDGE
1. Bullet- a projectile being propelled through the barrel of the firearm by means of the expansive
forces of gases once the gunpowder or propellant is burned. It is termed as “slug” in the police
parlance.
2. Cartridge Cases- a cylindrical container for the gunpowder and the one that holds the bullet.
Sometimes called as “Shell” or “Case” and “shell cup” in a shotgun.
3. Gunpowder- it is a powder charge that once ignited by the primer will build a tremendous
pressure inside the contained cartridge case and suddenly propel the bullet from the barrel up to
the target. Also termed as “Propellant”
4. Primer- contains a highly sensitive priming mixture that initiates combustion to gunpowder once
struck by the firing pin. Termed also as “Percussion”
PARTS OF A SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE
1. Primer- contains a highly priming compound that explodes when hit by the firing pin.
2. Case- holds the other parts of the shell. It is either made of plastic or brass.
3. Powder Charge- propels the shell once burned and formed pressure inside the shell.
4. Wad- it separates the shot from the powder. It also holds the pellets once it passes through the
barrel and until it leaves the muzzle. It is made up of plastic or paper.
5. Pellets or Slug- shotguns varies depends on the projectile it propels either it is a pellet/shots or
slugs.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITION
A. ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF THE PRIMER
 Pin-fire Cartridge- developed by Le Fauchex. The primer or ignition cap is concealed

inside the cartridge case with a pin attached in it. It is no longer used (obsolete).
 Rim-fire Cartridge- developed by Flobert. The priming compound is located at the rim of
the case and ignites once the cavity of the rim was struck by the firing pin.
 Center-Fire Cartridge- the priming cap is placed at the center of the base of the cartridge
case. Most commonly used cartridge in our time.
B. ACCORDING TO RIM DIAMETER
 Rimmed Case Type- a cartridge that has its rim on the shell.
 Semi-Rimmed Type- the diameter of the cartridge case is bigger than its rim.
 Rimless Type/Bottlenecked Type- a cartridge that has no rim at all.
 Rebated Type- it is a rimless type of cartridge but has a rim diameter smaller than the
body of the case.
 Belted Type- a cartridge that has a belt around its body.
C. ACCORDING TO CALIBER OR GAUGE
 Caliber- term or unit of measurement found mostly on a rifled type of firearms like pistols,
revolver and rifles. It can be converted into millimeter.
 Gauge (U.S.) & Bore (U.K.)- a unit of measurement found mostly on a smooth-bored
firearms like shotguns. The gauge is the number of lead balls or pellets of the bore
diameter equal to the weight of one pound. Ex. 1/12 of a pound is 12-Gauge and 1/20 of a
pound is 20-Gauge.
o Types of Shotgun Slugs/Bullets
 Brenneke Slug- invented by German ammunition designer, Wilhelm Brenneke. It is

made of a solid lead and usually fired in a cylinder type of shotgun. It can provide
deeper penetration but can only travel short range once it leaved the muzzle.
 Foster Slug- developed by Karl Foster. Fired on a choked bore shotgun and allows
an accurate shot with a range of 50-70 yards.
 Sabot Slug- used primarily in rifled barrel to provide much higher velocity. It is usually
fired in a paradox gun.
 BULLET

DEFINITION OF BULLET
- The word “Bullet” was derived from the “French word” “Boullete” which means a small ball.
- it refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearms. In a police
parlance, it is termed as “slug.” In a shotgun, it is termed as “shots” or “pellets”
TYPES OF BULLETS
A. Lead Type Bullet- composed of a lead metal and alloyed with quantities of antimony to give it
hardness.
B. Jacketed Bullet- it is covered by thin layer of a much harder material like copper or zinc alloy
added with a thick coat of lacquer to prevent corrosion. It is commonly used in high-powered
weapons.
C. Soft Point or Semi-Jacketed- a bullet covered with a jacket but reveals the lead at nose of
the bullet.
D. Hollow Point- the nose has a cavity that makes the bullet expand on impact especially at soft
targets.
E. Saboted Bullet- a bullet that is smaller than the bore diameter. A bullet surrounded by a
plastic sheet that discards once it leaves the muzzle thus creating a much higher velocity.
TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO THE BULLET TIP (NATO COUNTRIES COLOR CODING)
A. Ball Type (NO COLOR)- used commonly against personnel.
B. Tracer Bullet (RED)- used in military operations where the bullet leaves a trace on its tail while
on its flight.
C. Dark Ignition Tracer (ORANGE)- known as delay tracer bullet. The bullet will ignite some
distance away from the muzzle.
D. Armor-piercing Bullet (BLACK)- used against armored vehicles and target.
E. Incendiary Bullet (BLUE)- it sets fire on target.
F. Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullet- it detonates once it reaches the target.
 CARTRIDGE CASE
- a metallic or non-metallic container, usually cylindrical in shape, which holds the primer, powder
charge or bullet. It is made up of 70% copper and 30% Zinc.
- It is also termed as Shell, Case, Casing or Brass.
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1. Base- it is the bottom portion of the shell where head stamp and primer will be found. Head
stamp indicates the caliber and manufacturer of the ammunition.
2. Rim- it limits the forward movement of the cartridge in the firearms chamber or cylinder.
3. Extracting Grooves- a depressed portion between the body and rim of the shell that is actually
being withdrawn from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket- it holds the primer in the central position and prevents the gas from escaping.
5. Body- the part that houses the gunpowder.
6. Shoulder- supports the neck of the cartridge.

7. Cannelure- it is a groove around the body of cartridge case that prevents the bullet from being
pushed down the case. It is also consist of lubricated substance which is essential in identification
process.
8. Crimp- it is located at the mouth of the case to hold the bullet in place and avoid the bullet being
pulled out from the case.
9. Neck- it is where the bullet being placed.
10. Vent or Flash Hole- it is the hole at the bottom of the body but located inside the primer. It is
where the ignited priming mixture pass through to provide combustion to the gunpowder. There
are two types flash holes namely:
o Boxer Type- a cartridge that has only one flash hole. It was designed by Colonel Edward
Boxer.
o Berdan Type- a cartridge that has two flash hole designed by Col. Hiram Berdan.
 Primer
- it is considered as the ignition system of the cartridge. It contains the highly sensitive
compound. When struck by enough force from the firing pin, it will ignite into a flame and imparts
combustion to the propellant. The action of the primer is called, “Percussion.” It is commonly
found on the center-fire type of cartridge.
PARTS OF THE PRIMER
1. Primer Cup- it covers the priming mixture, the anvil and the disc.
2. Priming Mixture- the highly sensitive compound that actually ignites. Also called “Percussion
Powder.”
3. Anvil- it absorbs the blow of the firing pin and provides that creates friction which in turn
provides ignition for the priming mixture.
4. Disc- provides insulation for the priming mixture against attack from moisture.
 GUNPOWDER
- also termed as gun propellant or simply a propellant. It is a chemical explosive created to

propel the projectile in a firearm through the action of expansive forces of gases.
- the first known gunpowder is a “Black Powder” (75% Potassium Nitrate, 15%
Charcoal/Saltpeter, and 10% Sulfur)
- the one being widely used today is the “Smokeless Powder”, (40% nitroglycerine and
60% nitrocellulose)
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER
 Black Powder
- Black powder is the first known gunpowder and believed to have originated in CHINA. It was
used in fireworks and signal during the 10th century. It seems discovered by accident by an alchemist
who seeks for an immortality while inventing the elixir of life.
- In 142 AD, during the Han Dynasty, in the “Book of the Kinship of the Three,” author Wei
Boyang was the first person to write regarding gunpowder. He described the mixture of three powders
that would “fly and dance” violently that later on pave way to the creation of fireworks.
- By 904 AD, during the Tang Dynasty, it was only the time when the people began to use
gunpowder for a weapon. It was evident after the invention of small cannonballs inside the bamboo
tubes. It was the idea that pave way to the creation of guns and cannons.

- The Chinese Emperors tried to keep it a secret from foreign countries but by 1100’s AD, their
secret had been discovered by the Islamic and Roman Empire and started to learn how to use
gunpowder for weapons.
- By 1216 AD, a monk named Roger Bacon (Constantin Anklitzen) of England described
gunpowder as a weapon.
 Smokeless Powder
- people realize that the use of black powder is inefficient and messy that made the invention of
smokeless powder.
- In 1864, the first smokeless powder were made when both nitrocellulose (gun cotton) and
nitroglycerin developed in Europe.
- In 1884, a French Chemist named Paul Viellie improves the stability issues of the guncotton. He
treated the guncotton with mixture of ether and alcohol. These formulation is called “Poudre B.” It
is the first “single base powder.” It was first used in a rifle named Lebel Model 1886.
- In 1888, Alfred Nobel created the “Ballistite” The chemical formula was 45% guncotton, 45%
nitroglycerine and 10% camphor. It was the first “double-base powder.” It has even greater range
than Poudre B.
- In 1889, Sir James Dewar and Sir Frederick Abel invented the cordite. It was made of
nitroglycerine, guncotton and petroleum substance with the addition of acetone to gelatinized the
substance.
 FIREARMS MANUFACTURE
a. Drilling- first procedure to be done to a metal is to drill a hole using a Gun Drills or Deep
Hole Drills. This procedure only creates irregularities on the inside surface of the barrel for
the meantime.
b. Reaming- the procedure that creates a very fine surface into the bore of the barrel after
the drilling operation which creates a perfect circular hole.
c. Cut Rifling- it creates the spiral grooves inside the barrel using some form of a cutter or
the rifling operation process.
d. Lapping- is the process of polishing the land and grooves of the barrel to remove the
remaining imperfections and machining marks for an uniform end to end surface of the
barrel.
 FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
- it is the process of determining a firearm through close examination of bullet and the
shell casing by looking at the reproducible marks created by the firearm. It is based on the
principle of uniqueness and distinguishing characteristics of evidences.
- All cases of firearms identification involve two examinations: Class Characteristics and
Individual Characteristics.
 CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
- also termed as “General Rifling Characteristics.”

- it is the preliminary examination on all types of physical evidence. It is a design or
characteristics of an object that is common to a particular group.
o SEVEN GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
A. Caliber (Bore Diameter of the barrel)- either caliber or gauge and the
distance between two opposite lands of the barrel.
B. Number of Lands and Grooves- the number of lands and gooves in a rifled
barrel always has the same number.
o Lands- the elevated portion of the barrel of the gun.
o Grooves- the depressed portion of the barrel of the gun.

C. Width of Lands
D. Width of Grooves
E. Direction of Twist- the rifling inside the gun barrel may either twist to the left
or to the right and will cause the bullet to rotate making stability to the bullet
in flight.
F. Pitch of Rifling- it is the measure of twisting of the lands and grooves for
every one complete turn (360 degree)
G. Depth of Grooves- grooves are usually measured thousands of an inch

deep and the height is equal to the height of the land.
 Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= rifling having 4 lands and 4 grooves, right twist, and equal width of lands and
grooves. (4RG=L)
2. Carbine Type= rifling having 4 lands and 4 grooves, right twist, and grooves is 2 times the
width of the lands. (4RG2x)
3. Smith and Wesson= rifling having 5 lands and 5 grooves, right twist, and equal width of lands
and grooves. (5RG=L)
4. Colt= rifling having 6 lands and 4 grooves, left twist and grooves is 2 times the width of the
lands. (6LG2x)
5. Browning= rifling having 6 lands and 6 grooves, right twist and grooves is 2 times the width of
the lands. (6RG2x)
6. Winchester= rifling having 6 lands and 6 grooves, right twist and grooves is 3 times the width
of the lands. (6RG3x)
7. Webley= rifling having 7 land and 7 grooves, right twist and grooves is 3 times the width of the
lands. (7RG3x)
o INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- characteristics which are peculiar and cannot be found in other types of firearms.
It is acquired during or after the manufacture of the firearm. These are the product
of manufacturing imperfections. It is also the effects on the firearm after it has
been used.
 PRINCIPLES INVOLVE IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
- Two things marked by the same tool will produce the same markings but no two things
marked by two different tools will create the same markings. Just like the effects of the
firearm into the bullet and shell once its fired from the said firearm.
A. BULLET IDENTIFICATION/MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
1. Land Marks- marks left on a fired bullet caused by the contact of the elevated portion
(lands) to the bullet.
2. Groove Marks- bullets caused by the grooves of the barrel.
3. Skid Marks- it is due to the sudden forward movement of the bullet from the chamber
before it spins to the barrel.

4. Stripping Marks- caused by “worn-out” and “loose-fit” barrel or because of corrosion and
erosion of the barrel.
5. Shaving Marks- usually found on bullet fired from a revolver wherein the cylinder is
poorly aligned to the barrel.
6. Slippage Marks- bullets passing through a either oily or oversize barrel.
B. SHELL IDENTIFICATION/MARKS FOUND ON A FIRED SHELLS
1. Firing Pin Mark- it is found on the base portion of the shell near the center of the primer
of the shell. It is considered as the most important marks for identification on fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark- it is caused by the backward movement of the shell on the breech
block of the firearm.
3. Extractor Mark- it is found on the extracting groove once the fired cartridge is withdrawn
from the chamber.
4. Ejector Mark- it is found on the rim of the case cause by the removal of the fired case
from the firearm.
5. Shearing Mark- marks created around the firing pin mark or rippled-like marks.
6. Magazine Lip Mark- this markings found around the cartridge during the loading into the
magazine.
7. Chamber Marks- caused by the irregularities of the chamber of the firearm.
 SEVEN PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS ON FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber of firearm from which it was fired.
- an examination is done on a rifled barrel as shown by its class characteristics.

- it is done by measuring the diameter of the bullet. Count the number of lands and
grooves then get the width of its lands and grooves and look for the direction of twist.
2. Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber of firearm from which it was fired.
- it is done by identifying first if it is a pin-fire, rim-fire or center-fire cartridge and determine
the caliber of the cartridge case.
3. Given a bullet and fired firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm.
- done by taking 3 test bullets using the suspected firearm and compare the test bullet
with the bullet found at the crime scene.
4. Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.
- the solution given for problem number 3 is similar for problem number 4.
5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from the same
firearm.
6. Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were fired from
the same firearm.
7. Given a firearm, to determine whether or not the firearm is serviceable.
 Laboratory Instruments Used in Firearms Identification
A. Bullet Comparison Microscope-
- most prominent and common tool used in comparing the test bullet or shell to the bullet
and shell found at the crime scene.
B. Torsion Balance
- used to measure the equivalent weight of the bullet.

C. Bullet recovery Box
- used in getting at least three test bullets and shells. After taking a test bullets or shells, a
mark must indicate the last two digit of the firearm’s serial number and the number of test
bullet e.g. (T-88-1, T-89-2 and T-90-3)
D. Chronograph
- used to measure the velocity of the bullet.

E. Caliper
- used to measure the caliber of the firearm.

F. Helixometer
- used to measure the pitch of rifling of the firearm.
 COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF FIREARMS EVIDENCES
TYPE OF PROCEDURE PACKING/STORAGE

EVIDENCE/SAMPLES
Firearms found or Keep calm and take your time.
received Safety first! Wet or bloodstained
 Photograph the weapon on weapons must be dried at
site: where was it? room temperature before
 Do not handle the weapon being packaged in a
without gloves on account of suitable box. Weapons
fingerprints. found in water must be
 Always point the barrel of the saturated with thin
gun in a safe direction lubricating oil and sent to
the PNP CL. (barrel,
chamber and receiver)
Pistols The bolt is especially

 Take out the magazine, important. The aim is to
leaving the cartridges inside. prevent oxygen in the air
 Raise the slide catch lever coming into contact with
and, if possible, thumb it up to the metal, causing it to
arrest the slide in the open oxidize (rust) and thus
position. destroying some of the
evidence.
Double-barrelled rifles Mark and place in a dry

 Point the weapon in a safe plastic evidence bag.
direction.
 Open the rifle. Some rifles
have ejectors that eject the
cartridge cases. Watch where
they land!
 Make a note of the make and
the location of any
cartridges/cases before
removing them.
Other types of firearms Mark and place in a dry

 Get help from weapons plastic evidence bag.
experts, preferably scene-of-
crime officers or the PNPCL;
alternatively from weapons
instructors, firearms dealers,
military personnel etc.
Bullets and cartridge Wrap each bullet in

cases  Bullets and cartridge cases kitchen rolls or similar
must not be handled with tools material and package in
that make marks (such as small plastic boxes. Write
pliers and forceps). any notes on the box,
 Moist or blood-stained never on a bullet or case.
materials must be air-dried at
room temperature. Rust or
oxidization may destroy
evidence.
 Bear in mind the risk of blood
infection from blood-stained
materials.
Bullets trapped in an Mark and place in a dry

object  Photograph the object in plastic evidence bag.
which the bullet is trapped
together with a measurement
scale or similar object that can
be used as a measurement
reference. Take an overall view
and detailed views.
 Take away the whole object
if possible. If this is not
possible, uncover the area
where the bullet is located.
Leave a good deal of the
material surrounding the bullet.
 If the bullet must be
uncovered on site, remove the
material around the bullet
carefully so that it can be
detached without being
touched.
 If possible, avoid damaging
the entry hole.
FROM THE PNP FIELD MANUAL ON INVESTIGATION OF CRIMES OF VIOLENCE AND OTHER
CRIMES (2011)
--END--

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KING SOLOMON REVIEW CENTER

Saint Lorenz Building, Annunciation Street,

PROF. CHERVIN LOEWE B. NAVILLA, RCRIM

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |1

- Also referred to as Police Science or Forensic Science

FIRST KNOWN METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION

a. Portrait Parle (Personal or Verbal Description)- it means “speaking likeness.” It is an

Early Study in Fingerprint

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |2

Fingerprints as a Method of Identification

1907- US Navy begins using fingerprint

1908- US Marine Corps started using fingerprint.

1924 – An act of Congress established the Identification Division of the NBI.

Related Studies in Fingerprints

- is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.

B. Dactylography- scientific study of fingerprint as a means of identification.

C. Dactylomancy- scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of identification.

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |3

Basic Principles of Fingerprint

 Individuality – (Francis Galton) no two persons have the same fingerprint.

Finger Composition and Structure

B.1. Composition of Friction Skin

A. THE THREE GENERAL/FAMILY OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS.

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |4

B. THE EIGHT STANDARD FINGERPRINT PATTERN

Galton and Henry System Galton-Henry System with FBI Modification

B.1. Arch (5%)

2. Tented Arch (T)- is a type of pattern having an angle of 90 degrees or less, an

B.2. Loop (35%)

a. There must be a delta

b. A sufficient re-curving ridge passing or touching an imaginary line drawn

c. There must be ridge count of at least one.

B.3. Whorl (60%)

a. Plain Whorl (W) – at least one circuiting ridge is touched or cross by an

b. Central Pocket Loop (C) – no circuiting ridge is touched by the imaginary

c. Double Loop Whorl (D)

 2 separate loop formation

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |5

In a single fingerprint impression, there are a hundred of ridge characteristics present.

(Basic Types of Ridges: Island (Dot), Ending, & Bifurcation)

1. Ridge Dot (Island Ridge)- ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.

The two fingerprint terminus (Focal points)

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE

Important Terms to Remember in Fingerprint Classification

CLASSIFICATION FORMULA- is a numerical description of a set of fingerprints which is

FILING- process of locating the proper place in a fingerprint file.

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |6

FORMATION IN THE CLASSIFICATION LINE

KEY MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL

MAJOR PRIMARY SECONDARY SUB-SECONDARY FINAL

DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

1. PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION- summation of all numerical value designated only to Whorl

PAIR OF FINGERS IN A CLASSIFICATION CARD

FIRST PAIR FIRST PAIR SECOND PAIR SECOND THIRD PAIR

NOTES ON FORENSIC SCIENCE BY CLBN | 2022 |7

All denominators (Odd Numbers): 0+0+4+2+0= 6

23/6 + 1/1 (Pre-established Fraction) = 24/7