ECE 3300

Electrical Circuits: Laboratory

Experiment 8 Pre-Reading
Transient Response in RC Circuits
©2008 by Professor Mohamad H. Hassoun

In this experiment, the student will examine the types and properties of
capacitors and the transient behavior of simple RC circuits. The student will
also explore a voltage integrator that utilizes a capacitor in an op-amp circuit.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

 Determine a capacitor’s type and its dielectric material by

inspecting the shape of the capacitor.
 Determine the capacitance, tolerance and working voltage from
the printed code on the capacitor.
 Use a multimeter to measure capacitance.
 Use experimental setup to generate and display (on the scope) a
capacitor’s charge/discharge voltage waveform.
 Measure the time constant of an RC circuit using the scope.
 Build and verify the operation of an op-amp-based voltage
integrator circuit.

Capacitance
Capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of electric charge (Q) per unit
electric potential that can be stored in a system of two closely spaced
conducting surfaces. Formally, C = Q/V where V is the potential difference (in
Volts) that exists between the two conducting surfaces. The charge Q is
measured in Coulombs. The unit for capacitance is Coulomb per Volt or Farad
(F).

A capacitor is formed when two conducting plates are separated by a small

distance d. A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store energy
in the electric field between its conducting plates. The energy is stored in the
capacitor by a process called “charging”, whereby electric charges of equal
magnitude, but opposite polarity, buildup on each plate. A capacitor with
capacitance C that is charged with charge Q will have a voltage VC = Q/C
across its plates. The energy (measured in Joules or Farad.Volt 2) in such
capacitor is given by

1 Q2 1
EC   CVC2 (1)
2 C 2

Capacitance is significant when the distance d is very small and/or the surface
area A of the plates of the capacitor is large. When a capacitor has d << A, its
capacitance can be approximated using the formula

 o r A
C (2)
d

where, o is the permittivity of free space (o = 8.854 x 10-12 F/meter) and r
(r > 1) is the relative permittivity of the dielectric material that fills the space
between the plates. A practical capacitor employs a dielectric material (with
a significant r value) between its plates in order to increase its capacitance
(refer to Figure 1). Common dielectric materials used in capacitors are
polystyrene (r = 3), porcelain (r = 6), mica (r = 7), glass (r = 8), Bakelite
(r = 14) and ceramic (e.g, Barium-Titaniter = 1000 or higher). The r values
specified here are representative values.

Figure 1. A practical capacitor utilizes a dielectric material placed between

its plates.

Breakdown Voltage
When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage that
can be used; this voltage must be well below the capacitor’s "breakdown
voltage." The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause
the dielectric inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this
happens, the failure can be catastrophic. The breakdown voltage depends on
the dielectric material used. Mica has an average dielectric strength of about
200kV/mm, polystyrene has a strength of about 23kV/mm, Bakelite can resist
18kV/mm and ceramic can resist 5kV/mm.

Breakdown can occur through other routes than across the dielectric. The
edges of plates can flash over, which is equally undesirable. A high-voltage
capacitor must have a suitable geometry and packaging. Some capacitors have
their working voltage rating (or DC voltage rating) printed on them (e.g.,
“16V”). This rating indicates the working voltage that the capacitor can
withstand. Capacitors are available with voltage rating typically between 6V
and 500V. Manufacturers specify this working voltage since it is critical to
keep the applied voltage well below the breakdown point of the dielectric. In
practice, to be on the safe side, always choose a capacitor whose capacitor
rating is twice (or more than twice) the actual voltage it will be operated at.

Capacitor Markings
Capacitors (used in most electric circuits) usually have very small capacitance
compared to 1F; typically on the order of 10-12F to 10-6F. So, units such as the
micro-Farad (F = 10-6F), nano-Farad (nF = 10-9F) and pico-Farad (pF = 10-
12
F) are used. On most capacitors, a marking is used to indicate the capacitor
value (and sometimes its tolerance and voltage rating). Capacitors, with
relatively large capacitance (such as Electrolytic capacitors) have their
capacitance value and unit printed explicitly; e.g, “220F”. Other capacitors
have marking that displays a decimal number with a decimal point, but no
unit. Here, the displayed value is the capacitance in F. A letter after the
numerical value indicates the tolerance: F =  1%, J =  5%, K =  10% and
M =  20%). For example, a marking of 0.01M stands for 0.01F, with the
“M” standing for  20% tolerance.

For ceramic capacitors, a three-digit code is commonly used. The first two
digits of this code correspond to the first two digits of the value. The third
digit is a multiplier which gives the number of zeros to be added to give the
value in pF. For example, “103K” refers to a 10,000pF or 10nF capacitor with
 10% tolerance. Other capacitors may use a color code similar to that used
for resistors. Table 1 is a list of standard capacitor values.
Commonly Available Capacitors and Their Properties
Ceramic disc capacitors (refer to the top row in Figure 2), are made by coating
two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked
together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values, a single
ceramic disc of about 3-6mm diameter is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high
dielectric constant (constructed with dielectric materials such as Barium-
Titanite) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained
in a small physical size. Ceramic disc capacitors have values ranging from a
few pico-Farads to one or two micro-Farads. Ceramic capacitors are well
suited for high-frequency applications. They are typically used to by-pass
high-frequency signals to ground. Ceramic capacitors have a large tolerance
value (typically,  20%). They also exhibit large undesirable non-linear
changes in capacitance against temperature.

The two capacitors at the bottom of that figure are examples of multilayer
ceramic capacitors. Those capacitors exhibit lower tolerance (  10%) and are
even smaller in size than the standard ceramic disc capacitors of the came
capacitance value. Multilayer ceramic capacitors are also more stable against
temperature variation.
 Figure 2. A variety of ceramic capacitors.

Electrolytic capacitors (electrochemical type capacitors) are generally used

when very large capacitance values are required. Figure 3 shows three
examples of electrolytic capacitors. Here instead of using a very thin metallic
film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution, in the
form of a jelly or paste, is used which serves as the second electrode (usually
the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown
electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than
ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make large
value capacitors of a small size. Electrolytic capacitors are polarized, that is
the voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity;
an incorrect polarization will break down the dielectric oxide layer and
permanent damage may result. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage
exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it
may burst or even explode.

The polarity of electrolytic capacitors is indicated by a “+” sign at the anode

terminal. Alternatively, the capacitor is marked by a thick arrow that points to
the cathode terminal (lead), as can be seen in Figure 3. You must make sure
that all electrolytic capacitors in a circuit are connected such that their anode
is at a higher potential relative to its cathode.

Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1µF to thousands of µF.

Mainly, this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply
circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals.
 Figure 3. Examples of electrolytic capacitors.

Polyester film capacitors uses thin polyester film as the dielectric (refer to
Figure 4). They can have capacitance an order of magnitude greater than that
of the largest ceramic capacitor, and yet they are relatively not much bigger
in size. They can have a tolerance as low as  5%, exhibit good temperature
stability and are not expensive. They are good general purpose capacitors.

Figure 4. Examples of Polyester Film Capacitors.

Mica capacitors use mica for the dielectric. Mica capacitors have good
temperature stability. Because their frequency characteristic is excellent, they
are used for resonance circuits, and high frequency filters. Also, they have
good insulation, and so can be utilized in high voltage circuits. Mica
capacitors do not have high values of capacitance, and they can be relatively
expensive.

A summary of the above types of capacitors is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Common Capacitors and Their Associated Properties.

Property Capacitor Type

Ceramic Electrolytic Polyester Mica
Capacitance Range 1pF – 1F 1F – 0.1F 1nF – 50F 1pF – 100F
Tolerance  10%,  20%  20%  5%,  10%  1%,  5%
Voltage Rating 50V – 200V 6V – 400V 100V – 400V 100 – 1000V
Temperature Stability Variable Very Poor Poor Good
Charge Leakage Average High (poor) Low (Good) Low (Good)
Application High-Frequency Ripple Filter General Purpose Tuned
Circuits

Capacitors as Circuit Elements

There are several symbols used to represent a capacitor. Figure 5 shows some
common capacitor symbols that are used in textbooks and circuit schematics.

Figure 5. Capacitor symbols.

When analyzing circuits with capacitors, a linear model is assumed for all
capacitors. This model is a relation between the current iC through and the
voltage vC across the capacitor, with the direction and voltage polarity
convention shown in Figure 6. By definition, the electric current is the rate of
change of charge, written as i = dq(t)/dt. Since the charge in a capacitor is a
function of the capacitor voltage, Q = CVC or q(t) = CvC(t), then the capacitor
current is:

dvC
iC  C (3)
dt

Equation (3) implies that the capacitor voltage may not change abruptly;
because that would make its current infinite which is physically impossible.
Therefore, the capacitor model must obey the continuity condition: vC(t+) =
vC(t-), for all time.
 Figure 6. Capacitor current direction and voltage polarity convention
assumed in Equation (3).

Capacitors connected in parallel share a common voltage. It can be shown

using Equation (3) that the equivalent capacitance of N capacitors connected
in parallel is given by

Ceq = C1 + C2 + … + CN (4)

Be sure not to exceed the specified voltage on the capacitors when combining
them all with different voltage ratings, or they may be damaged or even
explode. For example, say you connect in parallel three capacitors with
voltage ratings of 16V, 25Vand 50V. Then, the voltage applied must not
exceed the lowest voltage rating, in this case the 16V rating.

On the other hand, capacitors in series share the same current and their
equivalent capacitance can be shown to satisfy the equation

1 1 1 1
   .....  (5)
Ceq C1 C2 CN

Transient Response of Simple RC Circuits

A basic capacitor circuit is shown in Figure 7a. The DC voltage source Vs
drives the series RC circuit after the switch is closed. Assuming that the
capacitor has zero initial energy (i.e., initial charge is zero or initial voltage is
zero), the response for the capacitor voltage, after the switch is closed at t =
0, is given by the equation
t

vC (t )  VS  VS e RC
(6)

The capacitor voltage has a saturating exponential form as can be seen from
Figure 7b; the figure implies that the capacitor is charging. If the switch stays
closed for a long time, the capacitor will reach a value equal to the source
voltage VS. Once that happens, the charging stops and no current will flow in
the circuit.
 (a) (b)

Figure 7. (a) A series RC circuit driven by a DC voltage source. (b)

Capacitor voltage after switching.

When a charged capacitor with initial voltage Vo is connected in parallel to a

resistor (see Figure 8a), the capacitor will gradually dissipate its energy in the
resistor (in the form of heat). As that happens, the voltage across the capacitor
decays exponentially according to
t

vC (t )  Vo e RC
(7)

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) A parallel RC circuit with initial capacitor voltage Vo. (b)
Capacitor voltage.

The exponentially decaying response in Equation (7) is plotted in Figure 8b.

Initially, the capacitor maintains a constant voltage Vo. As soon as the switch
is closed at t = to, a current iC(t) starts to flow in the circuit and the resistor
dissipates energy at the rate (power) iC2R. This discharges the capacitor. After
sufficient time, all the capacitor energy will be lost and the circuit current
becomes zero. It should be noted that the capacitor current for the circuits in
Figures 7 and 8 can be obtained by differentiating the capacitor voltage
according to Equation (3).

The product RC in Equations (6) and (7) has the unit of seconds, and it controls
the rate at which the voltage changes. In circuit textbooks, the constant RC is
t

renamed as  (the circuit time constant). Figure 9 show plots of y (t )  Ae

for
A = 4 and  = 0.5 and 4. The larger the time constant is, the slower the rate of
decay. When t = 0, the signal value is A. When t = , the signal value drops to
A/e = 0.368A; i.e., the signal amplitude drops by 63.2 percent of the value of
the signal at t = 0. Therefore, the time constant (of an exponentially decaying
signal) is defined as the time it takes the signal to drop by 63.2 percent of its
t

initial value, at t = 0. Given a graph of y (t )  Ae , one can employ this


definition to approximate the time constant from the graph. It should be noted
that the signal drops by over 99 percent after 5 time constants, since
5
 A
y (5 )  Ae 
  0.0067 A
e5
which corresponds to a 99.33% drop in the value of y.

t t
 
Figure 9. A plot of the signals y (t )  4e 2
and g (t )  4e 0.5
..

The charging and discharging of a capacitor is difficult to monitor with a

voltmeter. This is because the time constant is, typically, very small. For
example, for R = 100k and C = 0.1F the time constant is  = RC = 0.01s.
Alternatively, a scope can be used to monitor the charge/discharge cycle
(transient response) of a capacitor, as explained below.

Figure 10 depicts a DC voltage source in series with a switch. The switch can
have two positions: “up” and “down”. When the switch is in the “up” position,
the voltage VS is applied to the series RC components. This results in the
charging circuit in Figure 7. On the other hand, when the switch is in the
“down” position, the voltage applied to the circuit is zero and we end up with
the discharging circuit of Figure 8.

Figure 10. A Capacitor charge/discharge circuit.

The capacitor will become fully charged if the switch stays “up” for a time
greater than or equal 5RC. The final capacitor voltage will be very close to VS.
Next, if the switch is placed in the “down” position (for a time greater than or
equal 5RC) the capacitor will become fully discharged. The capacitor voltage
will become close to zero. Repeating this switching pattern will result is a
uniform sequence (signal) of charge/discharge patterns that can be measured
with a scope. The question remains: “How is it possible to change the switch
position at the high rate of 5RC seconds?” Well, a function generator can be
used to simulate the DC source and switch combination; a positive going
square wave can be generated with amplitude equal to VS and period T = 10RC
(i.e., frequency equal 1/10RC). Such a wave is depicted in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Square wave required to simulate the switching of a DC voltage

between 0 and VS.
The complete circuit with the square wave input is depicted in Figure 12. A
scope can be used to display and measure the voltage across the capacitor.
With proper scaling and use of the scope’s cursor system, one can measure
the time constant .

Figure 12. A Capacitor charge/discharge circuit utilizing an input square

wave.

Voltage Integrator
Combining capacitors, resistors and op-amps in a single circuit leads to very
useful circuits. One particular useful circuit is the voltage integrator circuit
shown in Figure 13. The output of this circuit is proportional to the integral of
the input, and is given by (assuming that the input is applied at t = 0)
t
1
RC 0
vo ( t )   vin ( )d  vo (0) (8)

When the capacitor is discharged at t = 0, we can drop the term vo(0) in Eq.
(8). In practice, any initial energy in the capacitor will be quickly dissipated
in the load resistor and, therefore, the vo(0) term can be safely assumed to be
zero.

Figure 13. A voltage integrator circuit.

If the signal vin = Acos(t) is applied to the circuit in Figure 13, then the output
will be vo = - (A/RC)sin(t). Recall that for linear op-amp operation, the
output amplitude must not exceed the op-amp’s saturation voltage; so for a
sinusoidal input, we must have A/RC < |vsat|. Also, as long as RL is
sufficiently large (say, greater than 1k) it will have no effect on the circuit.