VLSI, VHDL AND PCB DESIGN

A Industrial training report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement of the Degree

of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
by
RICHA BHARTI

(REG NO.20130707)

Under the guidance of

DR.SAGAR BOSE

Training head

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SIKKIM MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MAJITAR, EAST SIKKIM-737136, December 2016

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 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks
to all of them.

I am highly indebted to DR.SAGAR BOSE for their guidance and constant supervision as well
as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in
completing the project.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & member of HEWLETT PACKARD
for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.
I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me such
attention and time.
My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who
have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

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 CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION TO VLSI
2. VLSI DESIGN METHODOLOGY

 System specification and architecture design

 Functional design

 Logical design

 Fabrication

 Packaging
3. TOP DESIGN METHODOLOGY

 System level

 Algorithmic

 RTL

 Gate level

 Transistor(also called switch) level

4. DESIGN TRENDS IN VLSI
5. CHALLENGES IN VLSI TECHNOLOGY
6. CMOS FABRICATION PROCESS
7. DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS

 Models associated

 Gate level simulation

8. CMOS CIRCUIT CHARACTERIZATION

 Characterization for analog design

 Power consumption

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  Static dissipation

 Dynamic dissipation

 Analog CMOS

 Temperature range

 Resistance estimation

 Power consumption

 Dynamic dissipation

 Electronic data processing

9. CMOS logic gate design

 Combinational logic analysis

 Basic Combinational Logic Circuits

 AND-OR Logic:

 AND-OR Invert Logic:

 Exclusive-OR Logic:
 Exclusive-NOR Logic:

 Universal Gates
10. DYNAMIC CMOS LOGIC
11. STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC LOGIC
12. SEQUENTIAL LOGIC

 SHIFT REGISTER- SERIAL DATA TO PARALLEL

 SHIFT REGISTER- SERIAL DATA TO PARALLEL

 DATA LATCH

 BINARY UP COUNTER

 BINARY DOWN COUNTER

13. MEMORIES

 MEMORY STRUCTURE

 TYPES OF MEMORY
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  MEMORY MAPPING

 MEMORY ORGANISATION
14. TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY TECHNOLOGIES

 PROM
 EEPROM
 FLASH MEMORY
 NOR FLASH
 NAND FLASH

15. ANALOG DESIGN

 Analog ciruit
 P-N JUNCTION
 Reverse bias
 NPN Forward bias junction
 NPN reverse bias junction
 Relation between alpha and beta
16. Small signal analysis
17. VLSI DESIGN METHODOLOGY
 Introduction

 DESIGN FLOW BUILDING:

 LEVELS OF REPRESENTATION AND DESIGN:

 COMPLEXITY AND DESIGN:

18. SCHEMATIC SIMULATION

 SOFTWARE INTRODUCTION:

 MOS SIMULATIONS:

 METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT THANSISTOR:

19. Ic layout

 LAYOUT RULES:
20. VHDL

 VHDL Basic Terminology and Coding:

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21. PCB
22. CONCLUSION
23. FUTURE SCOPE

INTRODUCTION TO VLSI
Integrated Circuits are tiny electronic circuit used to perform a specific electronic function, such
as amplification. The first integrated Circuit (IC) was invented by Jack Kilby in 1958. As
suggested by Moore, the capacity doubled roughly every 18 month. Today, a large single VLSI
chip can contain over one billion transistors. These days, VLSI chiefly comprises of Front End
Design and Back End design. Front end design includes digital design using HDL and design
verification through simulation and other techniques. The backend design comprises of CMOS
library design and its characterization. It also covers the physical design and fault simulation.
VLSI DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
The design methodology implies the complete process of creating a VLSI design. Following
steps shows various steps involved in creating a VLSI design from Concept to the Final product.

Fig: VLSI DESIGN METHODOLOGY

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SYSTEM SPECIFICATION AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
VLSI design cycle start with a formal specification of a VLSI chip. At this stage, the system
specifications are laid out. This involves a high level representation of the system.
FUNCTION DESIGN
In this stage, main functional units of the system and the interconnect requirements between the
units are identified. The main purpose of this stage is to specify system behavior, in terms of
Input, Output, and Timing of each unit. The outcome of functional design is usually a diagram
showing relationship of time and other aspects between units.
LOGIC DESIGN
In this stage, the logic for the VLSI system is designed. This includes, Boolean expressions,
control flow, word width, register allocation, etc. The outcome of this stage is Register Transfer
Level (RTL) description. RTL is expressed in a Hardware Description Language (HDL) like
VHDL and Verilog.
CIRCUIT DESIGN
The purpose of the circuit design is to develop a circuit representation based on the logic design.
The outcome of this stage is a netlist. Netlist is an electronic circuit system consisting of all of
the circuit element names/reference designators, listed in a format with their input and output
signal names.
FABRICATION
Fabrication process includes lithography, polishing, deposition, diffusion, etc. This process
consists of several steps and requires various masks. Before the chip is mass produced, a
prototype is made and tested.
PACKAGING
Packaging involves putting together the chips on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) or a Multi-Chip
Module(MCM).

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 Top-Down design Methodology

Fig: VLSI PACKAGING

In this methodology, a complete system is described at an abstract level using hardware
description language (HDL) and the use of EDA tools like partitioners and synthesizers.
SYSTEM LEVEL
All the inputs and outputs are described at this level. This level does not touch the hardware
structure at all. It simply treats the design like a black box.
ALGORITHMIC (BEHAVIORAL) LEVEL
This is the highest level of abstraction provided by most HDLs.
RTL (Register Transfer Level/ Dataflow)
At this level the module is designed by specifying the data flow between the registers.

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GATE LEVEL
The module is implemented in terms of logic gates and interconnections between these gates.
Design at this level is similar to describing a design in terms of gate-level logic diagram.
Transistor (also called Switch) Level
This is the lowest level of abstraction. A module can be implemented in terms of switches,
storage nodes, and the interconnections between them.

CHALLENGES IN VLSI TECH.

Shrinking geometries, lower power voltages, and higher frequencies of integrated circuits have a
negative impact on reliability. All these factors increase the number of occurrences of
intermittent and transient faults. The approach of fault avoidance and fault tolerance is used to
increase the reliability of VLSI circuits. As technology scales, many new opportunities emerge
for VLSI designers. Understanding technology trends and specific applications is the main
criterion for designing efficient and effective chips. There are several difficult and exciting
challenges facing the design of complex Integrated Circuits. To continue its phenomenal
historical growth and continue to follow Moore’s law, the semiconductor industry will requires
advances on all fronts.

CMOS FABRICATION PROCESS

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors (CMOS) have been one of the main technologies
for economic growth during the past half-century. These circuits have enabled the creation of
many important products such as personal computer, cellular phones, global positioning systems,
medical instruments as well as other applications.
MOS TRANSISTOR
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET or MOS, for short) is certainly
the most dependable of the contemporary digital designs.

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 Fig: MOSFET
The voltage applied to the gate terminal determines if current should flow through the source and
the drain ports and how much current flows between the source and the drain ports. At the
surface level, the transistor can be considered to be a switch. The larger the voltages difference
between gate and source the larger the current.
NMOS TRANSISTOR
NMOS Transistor consists of n+ drain and source regions, embedded in a p-type substrate.
PMOS TRANSISTOR
PMOS Transistor consists of p+ drain and source regions, embedded in a n-type substrate.
In a complementary MOS technology (CMOS), both devices are present. The circuit symbols
for the various MOS transistors are shown in the adjacent page.

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 Fig: MOS TRANSISTORS

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF A
MOSFET
The MOSFET is a device where the voltage on the gate terminal controls the flow of current
between the output terminals, Source and Drain. The source terminal is common between the
input and the output of a MOSFET. The output characteristics of a MOSFET are then a plot of
drain current (iD) as a function of the Drain —Source voltage (Vds) with gate source voltage
(Vgs) as a parameter.

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Fig: I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET

Fig. operation of MOSFET

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THE CMOS TECHNOLOGY
CMOS Stands for "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor." This technology is used in
making transistors. The CMOS-based transistors either positive or negative charge, they run
efficiently, using up very little power. Due to this efficiency, processors that use CMOS-based
transistors can run at extremely high speeds without getting too hot.
OXIDATION
Oxidation is the process by which a layer of silicon is grown on the surface of a silicon wafer.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of impurity atoms at the surface of the silicon into the bulk of the
silicon.
ION IMPLANTATION
Ion implantation is the process by which impurity ions are accelerated to a high velocity and
physically lodged into the target material
DEPOSITION
Deposition is the means by which various materials are deposited on the silicon wafer. The
deposition is typically made through a chemical-vapour deposition (CVD).
ETCHING
Etching is the process of selectively removing a layer of material. When etching is performed,
the etchant may remove portions or all of:- The desired material; The underlying layer; The
masking layer.

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EPITAXY
Epitaxy growth consist of the formation of a layer of a single silicon on the surface of the silicon
material across the interface.
CMOS PROCESS STEPS
Step 1 – Implantation and diffusion of the n-wells.
Step 2 – Growth of thin oxide and deposition of Silicon nitride.
Step 3 – Selective removal of the silicon nitride.
Step 4 – Growth of the thick field oxide (LOCOS –localized oxidation of silicon).
Step 5 – Removal of the nitride, growth of the thin gate oxide and deposition of polysilicon.
Step 6 – Selective removal of polysilicon.
Step 7 – Implantation of the NMOS and PMOS (not shown) source and drain diffusion.
Step 8 – Deposit a thick oxide layer (BPSG –borophosphosilicate glass).
Step 9 – Open contacts.
Step 10 –Deposit first level metal.
Step 11 –Etching unwanted metal and passivation.

CMOS INVERTER

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 The circuit diagram of the CMOS inverter is shown in figure (4).

ADVANTAGES OF CMOS INVERTER

• The voltage swing is the same as the supply voltage.

• The size of the transistors can be minimized.

•. The inverter can be designed to have a low input impedance, making it less sensitive to noise.

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 DIGITAL FUNDAMENTAL
There are two types of digital logic :- combinational logic and sequential logic. In practice both
types of logic are used.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 True is represented by the value 1.

 False is represented by the value 0.

 Variables are represented by letters and can have one of the two values, either 0 or 1.
Operations are functions of one or more variables.

 AND is represented by X.Y

 OR is represented by X+Y

 NOT is represented by X'

OPERATIONS AND EXPRESSIONS

Addition and multiplication are the basic operation in Boolean algebra.

ADDITION MULTIPLICATION

0+0=0 0*0=0

0+1=1 1*0=0

1+0=1 1*0=0

1+1=1 1*1=1

Laws Of Boolean Algebra

1. Commutative law of addition : A+B=B+A

2. Associative Law Of Addition : A+(B+C)= (A+B)+C

3. Commutative Law Of multiplication : A*B=B*A

4. Associative Law of Multiplication : A(BC)=(AB)C

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 5. Distributive Law : A(B+C)=AB+AC

RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

1. A+0=A
2. X=A+1=1

3. X=A.0=0

4. X=A.1=A

5. X=A+A=A

6. X=A+A!=1

7. X=A.A=A

8. X=A.A!=0

9. A’ bar =A

10. A+AB=A

11. A+A’B=A+B

12. (A+B)(A+C)=A+BC

DeMorgan's THEOREMS

 (A+B)!=A’B’
 (AB)!=A’+B’

LOGIC GATES

Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic gates. Digital systems are
said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT,NAND,
NOR,EXOR,EXNOR gates.

K-MAP

The Karnaugh map provides a simple and straight-forward method of minimizing Boolean
expressions. With the help of K-map, Boolean expressions having up to four and even six
variables can be simplified.

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A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of grouping together expressions with common
factors and therefore eliminating unwanted variables. The K-map can also be described as a
special arrangement of a truth table.

CMOS CIRCUIT
CHARACTERIZATION

CMOS is a technology for constructing integrating circuits (ICs).CMOS technology is put to use
in microcontrollers, microprocessors, static RAM, and some other digital logic circuits. CMOS is
an extensively used type of semiconductor. CMOS semiconductors use both NMOS and PMOS
circuits. For the reason that only one of the circuit types is on at any given time, CMOS chips
need less power than chips which use only one type of transistor. This makes them especially
attractive for use in devices that are battery-powered, such as portable computers.
There are two characterizations of CMOS:

 Low power consumption

 High noise immunity
CMOS devices do not exhibit as much waste heat as other variants of logic. CMOS also grants a
high density of logic functions on a chip. It was essentially for this reason that CMOS became
popularly used technology to be materialized in VLSI chips.
The principal difficulty in using a digital CMOS technology for analog design is that the method
is optimized and distinguished for primarily one trade-off i.e. between speed and the power
dissipation.
Technology characterization for analog design involves a number of issues.

 Owing to the lack of globally applicable analog benchmarks, many test structures have to
be built to suffice the needs of various systems. Op-amps, filters, comparators, data
converters, oscillators, phase-locked loops, frequency synthesizers and RF trans-receivers
incorporate many different functions that heavily depend on poorly modeled properties of
devices.
 Some device characteristics, for example, capacitor mismatch and thermal noise are
difficult to measure. Thus proper circuits must be involved on the die to allow reliable
measurement.
 Some measured properties are difficult to incorporate in simulations. For example, the
voltage dependence of the output impedance of transistors cannot be easily included
 in the simulation of an op amp. Such cases may mandate designing a complete circuit to
measure the overall effect.

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  The large number of test structures requires substantial characterization time and effort. It
is therefore desirable to automate the measurements to the extent possible.
 The test structures together with circuits must be composed such that they can be ported
into the following generation of the process with minimal modifications.
Characterization for Analog Design
The device and circuit properties of interest in analog design can be grouped into six categories:

 Dc behavior
 Ac behavior
 Linearity
 Matching
 Temperature dependence
 Noise
Power consumption
Static CMOS gates are very energy efficient because they diffuse nearly zero power when in
idle. As the CMOS technology shifted below submicron levels the energy consumption per unit
area of the chip increased tremendously. Power dissolution in CMOS circuits takes place because
of two components:

 Static dissipation
 Dynamic dissipation
Analog CMOS
Besides digital applications, CMOS technology is also put to use in analog applications. For
instance, there is CMOS operational amplifier ICs are within reach in the market. Transmission
gates may be used as a substitute of signal relays. CMOS technology is also extensively used for
RF circuits all the way to microwave frequencies, in mixed-signal applications
Temperature range
Conventional CMOS devices are applicable over a range of -55 degree Celsius to +125 degree
Celsius. Functioning temperature near 40K have been attained using over clocked AMD Phenom
II processors with a composition of liquid nitrogen and liquid helium cooling.
Resistance Estimation
Each layer of transistor-forming material has both a resistance and a capacitance that are
fundamental components in estimating the performance of a circuit or a system.
The resistance of a uniform conducting slab is
R= (P/t) (I/w)
Where P= resistivity, T=thickness, I= conductor length, w= conductor width
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Capacitance Estimation
The total load capacitance on the output of a CMOS gate is the sum of

 Gate capacitance (of other inputs connected to the output of the logic gate)
 Diffusion capacitance (of the drain regions connected to the output)
 Routing capacitance (of connections between the output and other inputs)
Power Consumption
The two components of CMOS power consumption are

 Static dissipation
 Dynamic dissipation
Static dissipation
If the input is either at one of its steady- state logic values (0 or 1), there is no direct path from
supply to ground. Thus no static power dissipates.
However, some small static dissipation actually exists due to

 Reverse biased leakage between diffusion regions and the substrate

 Sub threshold conduction

Dynamic dissipation

 It consists of short circuit power and load capacitance charging/discharging power. Short
circuit dissipation is due to existence of a direct path from supply to ground when the
output charges either from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1.
 Short circuit dissipation depends on the input rise/fall time, the load capacitance and gate
design.
 Dynamic power dissipation can be limited by reducing supply voltage, output capacitance
and the switching frequency.
 Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
 EDP indicates the use of mechanical methods to treat commercial data. Typically, this
uses moderately simple, repetitious activities to process massive volumes of similar
information For instance: stock updates applied to an inventory, booking and ticketing
transactions to an airline’s reservation system, banking transactions applied to account as
well as customer master files, billing for utility services.
 Data processing amenities became ready for use to smaller organization in name of the
Computer Services Bureaus. Organizations used these amenities for testing programs
while awaiting the arrival of their own machine.

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 Combinational Logic
In digital circuit theory, combinational logic is a kind of digital logic which is performed by
Boolean circuits, in which the output is a pure function of the current input only. This is
contradiction to sequential logic, where the output does not depend solely on the current input
but also on the history of the input. In other terms, sequential logic has memory where as
combinational logic does not.
Combinational logic is put to use in computer circuits to carry out Boolean algebra on input
signals and also on stored data. Effective computer circuits normally consists of a mixture of
combinational as well as sequential logic. For instance, the part of an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), that does math calculations is assembled using combinational logic. Other circuits which
are used in computers, such as full adders, half adders, full subtractors, half subtractors,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders and decoders are also built by using combinational logic.
Combinational Logic analysis
When logic gates are connected in unison, to produce a specified output for some specified
sequence of input variables, with no storage incorporated, the resulting circuit is in the class of
combinational logic. In the combinational logic, the output level is at all occasions dependent on
the combination of input levels.
Basic Combinational Logic Circuits
1. AND-OR Logic:
In SOP form, basic combinational circuits can be directly implemented with AND-OR
combinations if the complement terms are available. In general, an AND-OR circuit can have
any number of and gates, each with any number of inputs, as shown below:

Fig: AND-OR logic diagram

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 2. AND-OR Invert Logic:
When the output of a SOP form is inverted, the circuit is called an AND-OR-INVERT circuit.
The AOI configuration lends itself to POS implementation. The output expression can be
changed to a POS expression by applying Demorgan’s theorem twice as shown below:

.
Fig: AND-OR-Invert logic diagram
3. Exclusive-OR Logic:
The output of an Exclusive-OR gate is HIGH whenever its inputs A and B are different, its logic
diagram and symbol is illustrated below:

Fig: Exclusive-OR logic diagram

4. Exclusive-NOR Logic:
The output of an Exclusive-NOR gate is HIGH whenever its inputs A and B are the same, its
logic diagram is illustrated below:

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 Fig: Exclusive-NOR logic diagram

Universal Gates
NAND gates are sometimes called universal gates because they can be used to produce the other
basic Boolean functions.

(a) One NAND gate used as an inverter

(b) Two NAND gates used as an AND gate

(c) Three NAND gates used as an OR gate

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 (d) Four NAND gates used as a NOR gate

NOR gates are also universal gates and can form all of the basic gates.

(a) One NOR gate used as an inverter

(b) Two NOR gates used as an OR gate

(c) Three NOR gates used as AND gate

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 (d) Four NOR gates used as a NAND gate

DYNAMIC CMOS LOGIC

In the context of logic design, the phrase dynamic logic is used as compared to clocked logic as
it makes clear the difference between this type of design and static logic.
STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC LOGIC

 In the dynamic logic, a clock signal is put to use to evaluate combinational logic but in
the static logic, this is not the case.
 Dynamic logic is twice as fast as static logic.
 Dynamic logic can be difficult to work with, whereas static logic is easier.
Dynamic logic greatly increments the amount of transistors that are switching at given time,
which also increases power consumption over static CMOS.

Static Logic Example Dynamic Logic Example

out=A

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Fig. CMOS NAND Fig. CMOS NAND

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
Sequential logic is timed by clock pulses.
e.g. D type flip -flop
Here, in D flip-flop, on the rising edge of the clock pulse, the input D is copied to the output Q.
The input at D is ignored at all times except during the rising edge of the clock pulse.

SHIFT REGISTER- SERIAL DATA TO PARALLEL

Once serial data has been clocked into each flip-flop, parallel data is available at the four outputs,
Q0 to Q3.

SHIFT REGISTER- PARALLEL DATA TO SERIAL

The input data shifts one place to the right on each clock pulse and serial data emerges from the
output.

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DATA LATCH

BINARY UP COUNTER

The net effect is for whole circuit to count upwards in binary.

BINARY DOWN COUNTER

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 MEMORIES
Memory can be defined as a physical device which is used to store data or programs.
MEMORY STRUCTURE

TYPES OF MEMORY

Random Access Memory (RAM)

The RAM is a volatile memory, which means that we can access the information written to it as
long as power is on, but it is no longer assessable when the power is off.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a non-volatile memory. It is a collection of storage mechanism used in computers as
well as in other electronic devices.

MEMORY CELL
A memory cell is the tiniest unit of information storage which holds a single 1 or 0. memory
cells are classified together to form words. the position of each cell in the memory is called
physical address. Some important terms defining a memory cell are given below-
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capacity : number of bytes or bits that a memory can take hold of.
density : capacity/size
serial-access : the amount of time taken to access data depends on the physical position of the
data within the memory.
Access time : the time taken to read the data from a given memory location.
bandwidth : the speed at which the data can be transferred from the memory to the host
computer.
Latency : Latency alludes to the delay between starting a memory access and the start of the
transfer.
Static memory : once we write the data into a static memory cell, data remains at that point until
it is either modified by over-writing it with new data, or by removing the energy source if it is a
volatile memory.
Dynamic memory : DRAM stores data in the form of an electronic charge which resides on the
'inter-electrode capacitance' of a FET.
Ideal memory has the following characteristics-

 High speed
 Small size
 Highly robust
 Low cost
 Low power consumption

MEMORY MAPPING
Reset vector : The reset forces the program counter to address 0h on any given device.
Interrupt vector : the program counter is forced to address 0004h when an interrupt is
acknowledged.
calibration information : it is stored in the program memory in some devices.
program counter : the PC specifies the address of the instruction to call for execution.
stack : it permits a combination of upto 8 interrupts.
program memory paging : CALL and GOTO instructions have implementations.
MEMORY ORGANISATION
Data memory comprises of -

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 1. General Purpose Register (GPR) - GPR area is regulated to make an allowance for
addressing the general purpose RAM greater than 96 bytes.
2. Special Function Registers (SFR) - SFRs are for the registers that keep the authority of
peripheral and core functions.
BANKING : The data memory is divided into four different banks.
INDIRECT ADDRESSING INDF, AND FSR REGISTERS : Indirect addressing can be
defined as a mode of addressing data memory in which the address of the data memory in the
instruction is not settled. Any instruction using the INDF register actually gains access to register
that is pointed out by FSR (File Select Register).
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY TECHNOLOGIES

 PROM
 EEPROM
 FLASH MEMORY
 NOR FLASH
 NAND FLASH

ANALOG DESIGN
Some of the examples of new analog functions are MOSFETs, charge pump voltage regulators,
and LED drivers.
ANALOG CIRCUITS
An analog circuit is one that uses consecutive time voltages and currents.
P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is the interaction of the two semiconductor materials (p-type and n-type). P-N
junctions are the primary building-blocks of most of the semiconductor electronic devices such
as diodes, solar cells, transistors, LEDs and ICs.

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In NPN, conduction through the forward biased junction is mainly by majority carrier electrons
from the n-material (emitter). While, in the reverse biased junction, electrons are the minority
carriers in the p-material and the holes in the n-material.

Relationship Between Transistor Current Gain, Alpha And DC Current Gain, Beta
DC current gain = output current/input current = Ic/Ib
Again, Ie = Ib+Ic--------(KCL) and Ic/Ie = alpha
Thus, Ib = Ie-Ic, or Ib = Ie- alpha.Ie, or Ib = Ie (1-alpha)
Therefore, beta =Ic/Ib =Ic/Ie.(1-alpha) = alpha/(1-alpha)
If now alpha= 0.99, then beta will be 99.
SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF CMOS

SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER DESIGN

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Single stage amplifiers such as common-source(CS), common-gate(CG), and common-
drain(CD) in case of MOSFETs and common-collector(CC), common-base(CB) and common-
emitter(CE) amplifiers in case of BJTs are the basic building blocks of complex analog systems.

VLSI DESIGN METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION:
VLSI is an acronym which stands for ‘Very Large Scale Integration’. This is a field that involves
packing more and more logic devices into smaller areas. The number of applications of
integrated circuits in high performance computing, consumer electronics, telecommunication and
now in the field of mechanical engineering(MEMS) has been rising steadily, and at a fast pace.
The other important characteristic is that the information services tend to become more and more
personalised, which means that the device must be more intelligent to answer individual
demands and at the same time they must be portable to allow flexibility.
DESIGN FLOW BUILDING:
The design process is usually evolutionary in nature. It starts with a given set of requirements.
Initial design is developed and tested against the requirements and when the requirements are not
met, the design has to be improved. It is explained in terms of an Y-chart.
The Y-chart mainly consists of three major domains namely:
1. Behavioral domain
2. Structural domain
3. Geometrical layout domain
The design of VLSI processor may be divided in five major sections:
1. High level design
2. Operative part design
3. Control part design
4. Memory design
5. Design of miscellaneous parts.

The subsequent step is the logic design of networks which constitutes of subunits and registers.
When logic networks or system architecture are designed, performance as well as errors are
checked with the help of CAD programs, called as ‘logic simulation’. The subject of the logic
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design is to decide their interconnection pattern, the overall structure of blocks, to specify the
structure of data path in addition to control sequences of data path.
Simulator analyses whether the network consists of hazard analysis. Logic design as well as
simulation is a principal issue of VLSI CAD.
LEVELS OF REPRESENTATION AND DESIGN:
There are four types of logic simulators according to the levels of abstraction of simulated
elements.
1. Switch
2. Gate
3. Function
4. RTL
Logic networks have to be converted to electronic circuits. When the designers specify electronic
circuit necessity such as power supply voltage, speed, types of logic operations, in addition to
signal level tolerances, it is advisable to have CAD programs which accordingly design
electronic circuits to meet all the requirements, and also specify parameters such as dimensions
of transistors together with magnitudes of currents. The CAD programs normally yield the
analysis of direct-current performance, transient behaviour, signal distortion, stationary
alternating-current performance, noise interference, sensitivity including parameter optimization
of electronic circuits.
COMPLEXITY AND DESIGN:
Engineering a VLSI chip is an extremely complex task. When attempting to describe the field to
a no-technical group, the idea of VLSI design funnel was found. At the engineering level, digital
VLSI chips are classified by the approach used to implement and build the circuit. A full custom
design is one where every circuit is custom designed for the project. This is an extremely tedious
and time-consuming process that makes it impractical for designing an entire system.
VLSI CHIPS:
Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) allow digital designers to create ICs. For
particular applications. ASICs are very popular for prototyping or low-volume production runs.
They are designed using an extensive suite of CAD tools that portray the system design in terms
of standard digital logic constructs: state diagrams, function tables, and logic diagrams. Usually,
an ASIC designer does not need any knowledge of the underlying electronics or the actual
structure of silicon chip. Design automation CAD tools are responsible for taking the logic
design and building most of the chips. One drawback of ASIC design is that all the
characteristics such as speed are set by the architectural design: the designer does not have
access to the electronics, so delay times cannot be changed. Modern ASICs have evolved to a
high level of sophistication, and are generally capable of providing solution to a large class of
problems.
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BASIC CONCEPTS:
VLSI design is a system design discipline. Many aspects can be taught without any reference to
silicon circuits. System solutions can be generated using the CAD tools, and the necessary data
turned over to the manufacturing group for production. Simplifying the design processes is
important. However, many of the most powerful techniques and ideas of VLSI reside at lower
levels and are therefore lost. Circuits work, but they are not as fast or as small as they could have
been.

SCHEMATIC SIMULATION
SOFTWARE INTRODUCTION:
Simulation is the process of reproducing or imitating the behaviour. Simulation software can be
described as, a program that give an allowance for the user to witness an operation through
simulation without really performing that operation. The software is often used to design
equipment so that the end product will be as close to the design specifications so as to avoid huge
expenses during process modification.
MOS SIMULATIONS:
(MOS)Metal Oxide Semiconductor is a device in which a metallic oxide (as silicon dioxide)
serves as an insulation layer.
METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT THANSISTOR:
MOSFET is the common term for the Insulated Gate Field Transistor (IGFET). There are two
basic forms of MOSFET:
1. Enhancement MOSFET
2. Depletion MOSFET.
PRINCIPLE:
By applying a transverse electric field across the insulator, which is deposited on the
semiconductor material can be managed.
In depletion MOSFET, the constraining electric field decreases the number of majority carriers
that are available for conduction when in fact in the enhancement MOSFET, application of
electric field produces an increment in majority carrier density in conducting regions of the
transistor.

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The MOS circuits are composed of bidirectional switching elements which are connected by
bidirectional wires with memory because of the interconnected devices and also device
capacitances.
GATE LEVEL SIMULATION:
The Boolean logic gate model has performed the theoretical basis for logic design ever since the
advent of electronic logic. In this model a circuit is composed of several logic gates connected by
unidirectional memory less wires. A logic gate may be a simple inverter, NAND gate, NOR gate,
or a more complex functional unit such as a flip-flop or a register. The logic gates compute
Boolean functions of their input signals and transmit these values along wires to the inputs of
other gates to which it might be connected. Each gate input has a unique signal source.
Information is stored only in feedback paths of sequential circuits.
SWITCH LEVEL SIMULATION:
A set of digital simulators known as switch level simulators has emerged recently as an
alternative to conventional gate-level simulators, especially for the MOS circuit simulations. One
of the initial switch-level simulators which were implemented was the MOSSIM. And there after
a large number of switch-level simulators have been implemented.
CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT SIMULATORS:
TRADITIONAL SPICE:
It uses the following techniques to ensure the typical SPICE accuracy:
1. Creating a flat net list.
2. Finding and maintaining a DC operating point.
3. Making use of globalised formatting settings.
4. Making use of original device equations.
5. Solving the full original matrix.
DIGITAL FAST SPICE:
Some of the techniques used by the digital simulators are:
1. They do not maintain DC operating points.
2. Makes use of simplified device models.
3. Divide up into sub-circuits and solve the matrix independently.
4. Use simulations that are event driven.
5. They use block level simulator tuning.

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6. Make use of hierarchy to represent the redundant circuits.
ANALOG FAST SPICE:
It uses all the techniques of traditional SPICE to deliver true accuracy. These devices often
provide a better accuracy when compared to the other types.
SPICE simulators are those which maintain true SPICE accuracy but the performance and
capacity are limited. Digital fast SPICE simulators have increased performance as well as
capacity but they have to compromise with accuracy. Analog fast SPICE simulator on the other
hand gives accurate waveforms to the spice noise floor 5x-10x faster, with 5x-10x higher
capacity.

IC LAYOUT
INTRODUCTION:
Integrated circuit is an arrangement of small circuits on a single chip. Silicon chip is usually
preferred as it is a semiconductor. Today the integrated circuits have become an important part of
most of the electronic equipments. ICs are also preferred for their low cost. ICs can be made very
compact, producing up to several billion transistors and other electronic components in an area
as small as the size of a fingernail.
INTRODUCTION TO IC LAYOUT:
IC layout is the placement of the circuits and electronic components on a chip. It is the
representation of an integrated circuit in terms of geometrical shapes corresponding to the metal
oxide or semiconductor layers that make up the components of the integrated circuit. The
performance of an integrated circuit depends on the IC layout and hence one has to be careful
with the inter-connections and the geometric shapes and their placements. A layout engineer
must keep in mind the criteria like performance, size, density, and manufacturability during the
process of layout of the chip.
LAYOUT RULES:
Design rules are essentially required to know the physical limitations of a particular
manufacturing process. The design rules specify the geometric and connectivity restrictions in a
semiconductor process. These rules are necessary to ensure whether or not most of the chips are
working after the fabrication.
The first and basic rules are the single layer rules. The width rule specifies the width of any
shape in the design. The spacing rule specifies the placement of the objects keeping in mind the
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space between them. There are also layer two rules that specify the relationship between the two
layers.

VHDL
Introduction:
VHDL stands for the VHSIC(very High Speed Integrated Circuit) Hardware Description
Language. It is a language used for describing the behaviour and structure of electronic system.It
is an IEEE standard. It is a hardware description language, which is used to describe digital as
well as mixed signal systems like field-programmable gate arrays and integrated circuits in
electronic design automation. It can also be used as a general purpose parallel programming
language.
History:
VHDL was declared an IEEE standard in the year 1987, and this version of the language has
been widely used in the elctronics industry and academy.VHDL was originally developed at the
behest of the U.S.Department of Defence in order to document the behavior of the AISCs that
supplier companies were including in equipment.
The idea of being able to simulate the ASICs from the information in this documentation was so
obviously attractive that logic simulator were developed that could read the VHDL files. The
next step was the development of logic synthesis tools that read the VHDL, and output a
definition of the physical implementation of the circuit.
Due to the Department of Defense requiring as much of the syntax as possible to be based on
Ada, in order to avoid re-inventing concepts that had already been thoroughly tested in the
development of Ada, VHDL borrows heavily from the Ada programming language in both
concepts and syntax.
VHDL Basic Terminology and Coding:
A VHDL entity describes a hardware module. A Certain hierarchical part of a hardware design is
writing up in VHDL by an Entity mutually with Architecture. Specific entity makes a decision of
the interface to the block of hardware, in spite that the Architecture puts on the details of its
internal structural or behavior.

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Entity Declaration:
Syntax: entity entity_name is
Port declaration;
end entity_name;
An entity starts with ‘entity’ and end with the keyword ‘end’. Ports are interfaces through which
an entity can point out with its environment. Each port must have different name, direction and a
type also an entity may have no port declaration.
Architecture:
This contributes to the internal representation of design or it tells what is there inside a design.
We can describe Architecture using the means of structural, dataflow, behavioral or mixed style.
Syntax:-architecture architecture_name of entity_name
architecture_declarative_part;
begin
Statements;
end architecture_name;
Package declaration:
Package declaration is done to put forward components, types, constants, functions and so on.
Syntax:- package package_name
Declaration;
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 endpackage_name;
Package body:
A package body is used to represent the definitions and methods that are bring forward in the
identical package.
Behavioral Modeling:
The behavioral modeling describes the function of an entity in an abstract way. It describes the
internal of a component. In this fashion of modeling, the internal function of an entity can be
performed using a set of statement.
In this modeling, some of the most commonly used concurrent and sequential statements will be
introduced. VHDL provides concurrent statements for parallel operations or abstract models for
a circuit in a behavioral manner. These statements can be executed by a simulator at the same
simulation time. The process statement is the primary concurrent statement in VHDL. Within the
process, sequential statements define the step-by-step behavior of the process.
Basic unit of Behavioral Description is found in architectures and occasionally entities. Entities
can only contain passive process (process that do not make assignment to signals).
Process Statements:
Process statements define sequential execution of entire or some portion of the design. List of
sequential statements:

 Signal assignments
 Variable assignments
 Case assignment
 Exit statement
 If statement
 Loop statement
 Next statement
 Null statement
 Procedure statement
 Wait statement
Signal Assignment Statements:

 In signal assignment changes occurs after a delay.

 A signal changes a delay after the assignment expression is evaluated.
 Syntax: signal_name <= value;
Variable Assignments:

 Used to update a variable.

 The variable is executed immediately.
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  Syntax: variable-name := expression;
Structural Modelling:
It describes in what way the components are combined. Behavioral models assumed to survive in
local working directory or in a library. Structural modeling makes easy use of hierarchy and
adsorption in modeling complicated systems. Structural models can be integrated into models
that also use processes and CSA statements. Different instances of a component have twin input
port names. That is not a problem, since the port name is associated with a particular instance
through a sole label. Components that are consent to be used are put forward within the
declarative section of the architecture. The original description must be fixed in some place that
CAD tools can track. E.g. working directory, a library or in some directory whose path is in the
search path of CAD tools.
Creating a structural VHDL model involves two steps:

 Drawing the annotated schematics

 Converting it to VHDL
Component Declaration:
Syntax: component component-name [is]
List_of_interface ports;
end component component_name;
Test Bench:
We can the accuracy of a code by writing a testbench. A testbench is used for generating
stimulus for the entity under test.
Data-flow Modeling:
In this style of modeling, the internal working of an entity can be performed using concurrent
signal assignment. Let’s take half adder pattern which is producing one XOR gate and a AND
gate.

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Library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_164. All;
entity ha_en is
port (A,B:in bit;S, C:out bit);
end ha_en;
architecture ha_ar of ha_enn is
begin
S<=A xor B;
C<=A and B;
end ha_ar;
Here STD_LOGIC_1164 is an IEEE standard that defines a nine value logic type called
STD_ULOGIC.

DIGITAL DESIGN:
The digital IC design can be divided into three parts:
1. Electronic system level design
2. Register transfer level design (RTL)
3. Physical design.

ANALOGUE DESIGN:
Analogue signals were designed using hand calculations before the advent of microprocessor and
software based design tools. These circuits were basic, which included not more than ten
transistors and a few connections. Op-amp is an example for such circuits. This method needed
continuous trial and error process and over-engineering to achieve a good chip that can be
manufactured. Reuse of already proven designs allowed progressively more complex ICs to be
built upon former knowledge. The initial circuit simulator for analogue ICs was known as SPICE
(Simulation Program with Integrated Circuits Emphasis).

PASSIVE COMPONENT DESIGN:

An electronic element is a physical entity in an electrical machine, which is put to work to affect
the electrons. The passive elements consist of resistors, networks, capacitors, magnetic devices,
sensors, etc. A passive element or circuit is one that consumes energy, but does not bring in
energy. The integrated circuit uses passive components that are scattered between inside as well
as outside of an integrated circuit package. The passive equalizer circuit has off-chip elements
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that are arranged on a (PCB) printed circuit board together with on-chip components that are
assembled on a common integrated circuit die to act as a receiver chip. These on-chip
components consist of one or more changeable resistors for adjusting a level of equalization. The
off-chip components consist of one or more resistors for fine tuning the input impedance
matching of the integrated receiver circuit.

PCB LAYOUT
A printed circuit board or PCB is put to use to support mechanically and connect electrically, the
electronic elements using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces that are etched from
copper sheets layered onto a non-conductive substrate.

Fig: PCB Layout

The architectural design of PCB can be analyzed as the ultimate measure of electronic circuit
design and also as the initial step and the most significant step in the production of PCBs.
However, there are certain standard practices in PCB designing which are followed by most
designers. They can serve as a guideline.

Layout Planning: The Layout of a PCB has to consolidate all the information on the board
before one can go onto the artwork development. This means that a concept that obviously
defines all the features of the circuit and to a certain extent also of the final equipment is a
requirement before the actual layout can start.

Layout scale: Depending on the exactness required, artwork should be designed at a 1:1 or 2:1
or even 4:1 scale. The layout/artwork scale commonly applied is 2:1. It offers a reasonable
compromise between accuracy gained and handling convenience. A 2:1artwork has 4X the actual
PCB area and a 4:1 artwork is of 16 X the PCB areas. The 4:1 scale is therefore, applied only
where very high precision is required.

Grid System: The use of grid system in layout/artwork design is a commonly accepted
practice. Components are manufactured with their leads into grid intersections and numerically
controlled drilling equipment can easily be programmed accordingly.

Board types: There are two types of PCB boards:

 Single sided board
 Double sided board
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Single sided boards: The single sided PCB boards are extensively used in the environment
electronics, in which the manufacturing cost has to be kept low. However, we can’t neglect the
cost factors even in Industrial electronics. The single sided boards must be readily available
whenever a particular circuit can be accommodated on such boards.

Fig: single sided board Fig: double sided board

Double sided board: This type of PCB board can be made with or without the plated-
through holes. The production of boards with these plated-through holes is very expensive.
Therefore, plated-through holes are used only when the circuit density and complexity do not
leave us with a choice. Even on such boards the number of plated-through holes should be kept
minimum for the reason of reliability and economy.

Packages: There are many PCB design packages within reach on the market, a few of which
are shareware, freeware or full versions of limited component. Before we even begin to layout
our PCB, we must have a complete and detail schematic diagram. A lot of people jump directly
into the PCB design with nothing other than the circuit in their head, or the schematic described,
with no pin numbers and order. This just isn’t insufficient enough, if we don’t have an exact
schematic then our PCB will most likely head up a mess, and take you twice as long as it should.

Fig: tracks Fig: packages

Tracks: There is no particular specification for the size of the track. Size of the track depends
on the electrical requirements of the design, clearance available and the routing space. Each and
every design will have different requirements set which can differ between tracks on board. Big
tracks have low DC resistance, low inductance, cheap and easy for the manufacture to etch. The
lower limit of the width on the track depends on track/space resolution.
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Pads: Pad sizes, shapes as well as dimension will depend on the element being used, and also
the manufacturing process which is used to assemble the board, among other items.

Vias: Vias combine tracks from one side of the board to the other, by way of a hole in the
board. On all but poor homemade including low end commercial prototypes, vias are formed
with electrically plated holes, known as Plated Through Holes (PTH). These plated through holes
give an allowance for electrical connection between several layers on the board.

Polygon: Polygons are ready for use on many PCB packages. A polygon automatically fills in
an area, which is desire with copper, which flows around across from pads and tracks. They are
very beneficial for laying down ground planes.

Clearance: Electrical clearances are an extensive requirement for all boards. If the clearance
between tracks and pads is too tight, it may lead to “hairline” shorts also other etching problems
during the construction process. This is very troublesome to find fault, once the board is fit
together.

CONCLUSION
All the terms i.e. VLSI, VHDL AND PCB DESIGN can be better related to the process flow
involved in deploying an IC(Integrated Circuit) into production environment.
VLSI or very large scale integration is a technology that helps us integrate millions of transistors
in one small chip. It is a structured design flow that enables millions of transistors to sit together
and work on a single microchip by saving microchip area. This comes under the circuit design
process flow.
VHDL or VHSIC HDL or Very High Speed Integrated Circuit Hardware Description Language
is a programming language that help us automate the design of ICs. It enables us to simulate our
designs before actually sending it out to fabrication.
One of the key concepts in electronics is the PCB or printed circuit board. It is a board that has
lines and pads that connects various points together. A PCB allows signals and power to be
routed between physical devices. A PCB design can be done with various software such as
Eagle.

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 REFRENCES
1. Student Reference Guide on 'VLSI, VHDL AND PCB DESIGN' by hp education
academia program
2. Search Engines such as Google Chrome

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