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Characterization of Coalescence-Induced Droplet Jumping Height on

Hierarchical Superhydrophobic Surfaces
Xuemei Chen, Justin A. Weibel, and Suresh V. Garimella*
School of Mechanical Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, 585 Purdue Mall, West Lafayette, Indiana
47907-2088, United States
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: Coalescence-induced condensate droplet jump-

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ing from superhydrophobic surfaces can be exploited in

condensation heat-transfer enhancement, imparting self-
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cleaning behavior to surfaces, anti-icing coatings, and other

industrial uses. An intriguing application would exploit this
phenomenon to achieve thermal rectification using a sealed
vapor chamber with opposing superhydrophilic and super-
hydrophobic surfaces. During forward operation, continuous
evaporation occurs from the heated superhydrophilic evapo-
rator surface; self-propelled jumping returns the condensate droplets from the cooler superhydrophobic surface to the
evaporator, allowing passive recirculation of the working fluid without a reliance on gravity or capillary wicking for fluid return. In
reverse operation, when the superhydrophobic surface is heated, the absence of a mechanism for fluid return from the cooler
superhydrophilic side to the evaporator restricts heat transport across the (low conductivity) vapor gap. The effectiveness of this
jumping-droplet thermal diode can be enhanced by maximizing the distance between the opposing superhydrophobic and
superhydrophilic surfaces. It is, therefore, important to investigate the height to which the condensate droplets jump from the
superhydrophobic surfaces such that replenishment of liquid to the superhydrophilic surface is maintained. In this study, we
systematically investigate the height to which the condensate droplets jump from the hierarchical superhydrophobic surfaces
having truncated microcones coated with nanostructures. The condensate droplet jumping height increases with a decrease in
microcone pitch. A general theoretical model that accounts for surface adhesion, line tension, and initial wetting states of multiple
coalescing droplets of different radii is used to predict and explain the experimentally observed trend of droplet jumping height
with surface roughness. The insights provided regarding the effect of surface topography on droplet jumping height are critical to
the design of high-performance thermal diode devices.

1. INTRODUCTION transport occurs when the superhydrophilic surface side is

When vapor condenses on an ultralow-adhesion nanostruc-
tured superhydrophobic surface, the resulting condensate
droplets can jump away from the surface upon coalescence.
This “coalescence-induced droplet jumping” is self-propelled by
excess surface energy released upon coalescence.1−8 The
jumping of condensate droplets has been observed on naturally
occurring superhydrophobic surfaces, including lotus leaves,9
cicada wings,10 water strider legs,11 and gecko skin.12 Inspired
by the structure of these surfaces, various nanostructured13−15
or hierarchical micro-/nanostructured3,16−22 surfaces have been
fabricated to achieve condensate droplet jumping behavior. The
jumping of condensate droplets is of significant interest owing
to their potential for enhancing the performance of a variety of
functional surfaces for applications including self-cleaning
surfaces,10−12 condensation heat transfer,10,13−25 anti-icing
surfaces,26−28 energy harvesting,29 and power generation.30
Beyond these demonstrated applications, the self-propelled
condensate droplet jumping from superhydrophobic surfaces
also has the potential for applications in thermal diode devices
comprising a sealed vapor chamber with opposing super-
hydrophobic and superhydrophilic plates.31,32 Evaporative heat
heated; self-propelled jumping droplets return condensed
working fluid from the superhydrophobic condenser to the
superhydrophilic evaporator. In the reverse operating direction,
when the superhydrophobic surface is heated, the fluid
condensed on the superhydrophilic surface has no mechanism
to return to the heated superhydrophobic side; heat transport
must occur through conduction/convection across the vapor
space. The effectiveness of this thermal diode can be enhanced
by maximizing the spacing between the superhydrophobic
condenser and superhydrophilic evaporator surfaces.32 How-
ever, there exists an upper limit of spacing beyond which the
jumping condensate droplets cannot reach the superhydrophilic
surface. Therefore, it is important to investigate the jumping
height of condensate droplets from the superhydrophobic
surfaces so that the surfaces may be designed for operation at
large spacings. Although there has been a great interest in
exploiting superhydrophobic surfaces for enhanced dropwise
Received: February 26, 2017
Accepted: June 8, 2017
Published: June 21, 2017

© 2017 American Chemical Society 2883 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00225

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condensation,13−25 none have characterized this jumping height
that is of critical importance to thermal diodes.
We developed a new experimental approach to characterize
the condensate droplet jumping height on hierarchical
superhydrophobic surfaces featuring nanostructured truncated
microcones. The effect of surface roughness (namely, micro-
structure pitch) on the condensate droplet jumping height was
systematically investigated. A general theoretical model that
takes into account the surface adhesion, line tension, and
droplet wetting states of multiple coalescing droplets of
different radii was developed to explain the underlying
mechanisms that lead to the observed jumping height
dependence on surface roughness.
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.1. Characteristics of the Superhydrophobic Surfa-
ces. Figure 1 shows the scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Figure 1. SEM images of the nanostructured truncated microcone
surfaces with pitches of (a) 40, (b) 50, (c) and 60 μm and (d) a
nanostructured surface without microcones (denoted as P40, P50,
P60, and Nano, respectively). An enlarged view of nanostructures on
the hierarchical and flat nanostructured surfaces is shown in the inset
of panel (d).
images of the hierarchical superhydrophobic surfaces, which
consist of nanostructured truncated microcones on a silicon
substrate, and these are denoted as P40, P50, and P60 based on
the microcone pitches, P, of 40, 50, and 60 μm, respectively.
For all of the surfaces, the top (D1) and base (D2) diameters of
Figure 2. Schematic drawing of the experimental setup used to measure the condensate droplet jumping height (right). The image on the left shows
a representative snapshot of condensate droplets impacting the glass slide after they have jumped from surface P40.
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the truncated microcones are ∼16 and ∼32 μm, respectively;
the microcone height (H) and the slant height (L) are ∼11 and
∼13.6 μm, respectively. The nanowires are ∼150 nm in
diameter (Dn) and ∼1.5 μm in height (Hn), at a pitch (Pn) of
∼500 nm. For comparison purposes, a baseline nanostructured
sample (Nano) without microcones was fabricated using a
single-step metal-assisted chemical etching process. All sample
surfaces were silanized to render them superhydrophobic;3
water contact angles of ∼165° and contact angle hysteresis
values of less than 1° were measured.
2.2. Measurement of Condensate Droplet Jumping
Height. Condensation experiments were carried out in an
ambient environment at a temperature of ∼20 °C and a relative
humidity of ∼40%. The condensation setup developed to
measure the condensate droplet jumping height on the sample
surface is shown in Figure 2. The sample was attached to a
temperature-controlled cooling stage (CP-031, TE Technology,
Inc.) set at 0 °C. The condensation process is visualized for 30
min using a camera (EO-5023M, Edmund Optics) and a high-
magnification zoom lens (VH-Z100R, Keyence) with in-line
illumination provided by a 300 W Xe arc lamp (Titan 300,
Sunoptic Technologies). To observe the distribution of
condensate droplets during dropwise condensation, the lens
was focused on each sample surface with a 0.3 mm × 0.23 mm
field of view. To measure the jumping height of the condensate
droplet, separate experiments were performed under the same
conditions with a glass slide inserted between the camera and
the surface; the lens was focused on the underside of the glass
slide (facing the sample) with a larger field of view of 1.53 mm
× 1.14 mm. Condensate droplets that coalesce and jump a
sufficient distance from the surface can be observed to impact
the glass slide. The image on the left of Figure 2 shows a
representative snapshot of condensate droplets attached to the
glass slide after they have jumped from sample P40. The
spacing between the glass slide and the sample surface (S) was
varied from 0.3 to 6.5 mm to investigate the number of
coalesced droplets that jump to these different heights. Testing
at a spacing smaller than 0.3 mm resulted in condensation on
the glass slide. It should be noted that the number of droplets
impacting the glass slide is comparable when the sample is
placed vertically (as shown in Figure 2) and horizontally (facing
upward against gravity), indicating that jumping height is
orientation-independent (section S1). In this experiment, the
vertical orientation is used to eliminate the influence of falling
droplets on the droplet jumping.
2.3. Condensate Droplet Jumping from the Surfaces.
To determine the total number of condensate droplets jumping
from each surface, the condensation process on the sample
surface was visualized. Figure 3 shows selected snapshots of
dropwise condensation on the four surfaces. The images on
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Figure 3. Selected snapshots of dropwise condensation on surfaces (a) P40, (b) P50, (c) P60, and (d) Nano. The images on the left in each pair
show the moment before the outlined group of droplets coalesced, and the images on the right show the moment just after departure by coalescence-
induced jumping. The scale bars are 100 μm.

each panel show the moment before droplet coalescence (left)

and after departure by jumping (right), as indicated by the solid
and dashed lines, respectively. Such a coalescence-induced
departure is counted as one coalesced jumping droplet; the
total number of coalesced jumping droplets per square
millimeter (the areal density of condensate droplets) occurring
on each surface within the field of view (0.3 mm × 0.23 mm)
over 30 min is counted (see Table 1). Note that the
coalescence events for droplets smaller than ∼3 μm were not
counted owing to measurement uncertainties.

Table 1. Areal Density of Coalesced Droplets Jumping Figure 4. Areal density of coalesced jumping droplets that impact the
within Specific Height Ranges for Each Surface over 30 min glass slide for different spacings from each sample over 30 min; the
(the Mean Values Are Given, with a Variation of ∼10%) inset shows an enlarged view for the larger spacings. The error bars
represent the variation in the measured areal density across the
areal density of coalesced droplets repeated experimental trials for each corresponding sample.
droplet jumping height (mm) P40 P50 P60 Nano
0−0.3 3149 3226 3342 2028 droplets impacting the glass slide at a spacing of 3.5 mm and
0.3−1 828 564 345 202 larger.
1−2.5 319 209 177 87 2.4. Droplet Jumping Height. The data shown in Figure 4
2.5−3.5 82 78 59 35 are the areal densities of the droplets that jump to or higher
3.5−5 73 63 46 25 than a given height (i.e., spacing between the camera and the
5−6.5 71 51 37 12 glass slide, S) for each sample. To assess the average droplet
>6.5 28 11 8 3 jumping height, we calculated the areal density of droplets that
total 4551 4203 4014 2391 jump to specific height ranges. For instance, the areal density of
droplets jumping in the range of 0−0.3 mm can be deduced by
subtracting the areal density of droplets that impact the glass
slide at a spacing of 0.3 mm from the total areal density of
To assess the height to which the droplets jump, the glass droplets that jump from the surface. The droplet counts for the
slide is visualized during condensation, and the areal density of rest of the jumping height ranges can be calculated similarly
droplets impacting the slide within the field of view (1.53 mm based on the data shown in Figure 4, taking the difference in
× 1.14 mm) over the testing period (30 min) is counted. Each the number of impacting droplets at each spacing increment.
sample surface at each spacing between the glass slide and the The areal densities of droplets jumping to specific height ranges
surface (S) was tested at least three times, observing the glass (0−0.3 mm, 0.3−1 mm, 1−2.5 mm, 2.5−3.5 mm, 3.5−5 mm,
slide at different locations to ensure that the number of droplets 5−6.5 mm, and >6.5 mm) for all samples are calculated, as
counted among all tests at each spacing for a given sample shown in Table 1.
varied by less than 10%, and the mean values are reported. The percentages of the total number of jumping droplets per
Figure 4 shows the areal density of condensate droplets square millimeter from any surface that reach specific height
impacting the glass slide for different spacings, S, for the four ranges are shown for each sample in Figure 5. The majority of
samples. It is observed that there are few jumping droplets that the droplets jump less than 0.3 mm for all surfaces, and the
reach the glass slide as the spacing is increased for all samples. A percentage of droplets that reach higher jumping heights
significant decrease in the number of droplets impacting the decreases for increasing heights. Here, we also observe the
glass slide is observed when the spacing S increases from 0.3 to effect of the microstructures on the jumping droplet height.
1 mm. An enlarged view of the plot area for the larger spacings Compared to the surfaces with microstructures, the distribution
(inset of Figure 4) shows that there are relatively few jumping of droplet jumping heights from the flat nanostructured sample
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Figure 5. Histogram showing the percentage of jumping droplets
within specific jumping height ranges for each sample; the inset shows
an enlarged view of the larger jumping heights.
(Nano) is shifted to smaller droplet heights (see the inset
enlarged view). Only ∼3% of all jumping droplets reach a
height larger than 2.5 mm for sample Nano. The shift in
distribution toward larger jumping heights for the micro-
structured samples also trends with the microcone pitch. For a
decreasing pitch from sample P60 to P40 (i.e., increasing
microstructured surface roughness), the distribution is shifted
from smaller to larger droplet jumping heights. For example,
∼5.2% of all jumping droplets reach higher than 2.5 mm for
sample P40 (254 droplets) versus only ∼3.7% for sample P60
(150 droplets). This redistribution is also reflected in the
average droplet jumping height, which is shown in Figure 6a.
The average droplet jumping height for each sample surface is
calculated as a weighted average of the mean heights of each bin
(note that the bin for >6.5 mm is dropped because of the
unknown jumping height). The average jumping height
increases with a decrease in the microcone pitch. The flat
nanostructured sample (Nano) exhibits the lowest average
droplet jumping height. Given that sample P40 provides the
largest average jumping height, it has the potential to enable a
jumping-droplet thermal diode to function with a larger vapor
gap, which would increase the thermal rectification.32
2.5. Theoretical Modeling of Droplet Jumping Height.
A theoretical analysis is performed to understand the observed
experimental trend in droplet jumping height with surface
roughness. While our experiments were conducted with the
surface in an orthogonal orientation with respect to gravity, in
the analysis, we treat the jumping droplet as an object propelled
vertically upward at an initial speed Uj, with the maximum
height determined by the air resistance and gravitational forces.
Through this analysis, we will assess the relative importance of
Figure 6. Comparison between the (a) average experimental droplet jumping height and (b) theoretical predictions for each sample. Although the
vertical axis range of panel (b) is shifted, it has the same scaling as that of panel (a) for the purpose of comparing the trend in the jumping height.
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the gravitational resistance and comment on the suitability of
comparing the model to our experiments. The initial droplet
jumping speed is predicted using a coalescence-induced
jumping model that we developed previously, which is modified
to account for surface adhesion, line tension, and initial wetting
states of multiple coalescing droplets of different radii.3 On the
basis of the experimental visualizations of the dropwise
condensation process occurring on the sample surfaces, we
measured the number and the radius of coalescing droplets that
result in jumping events during the 30 min experiment on each
sample surface (Figures S3 and S4) and calculated the droplet
jumping height for each jumping event. The average calculated
droplet jumping height of all jumping events on each sample
surface is then compared with the experimentally measured
data to verify the model. Note that the initial wetting states of
the droplets before coalescence were considered. On the
hierarchical superhydrophobic surfaces, the condensate droplets
may reside in a composite state, where the droplet is larger than
the microstructures and sits in contact with at least two
truncated microcones. Alternatively, when the droplets are
much smaller than the microstructures, they sit in a Cassie state
on the nanostructures; all droplets are in the Cassie state for the
flat nanostructured surface. Droplet coalescence can occur for
various combinations of such Cassie- and composite-state
droplets on the hierarchical surfaces with different microcone
pitches, which affects their initial surface energy and resulting
jumping velocity.
Previous theoretical models that predict droplet jumping
velocities are based on energetic arguments; an ad hoc form of
viscous dissipation has been typically included in the energy
balance,5−8 which may overestimate the viscous dissipation. For
example, some studies report that the coalescence of droplets
below a critical radius (∼10−20 μm) does not lead to jumping
on a superhydrophobic surface owing to the dominant viscous
dissipation during coalescence.5−8 However, experimental and
numerical studies have demonstrated that the coalescence of
smaller droplets (<10 μm, even down to nanometer size) could
cause the droplets to jump away from the surfaces.4,33−35
Recent studies have provided strong evidence that viscous
dissipation is not important at length scales larger than 1
μm.4,35,36 Instead, finite surface adhesion and unequal
momentum flow in the vertical direction govern and limit the
droplet jumping.4,37 The droplet jumping velocity Uj has been
numerically simulated to be ∼0.23× the characteristic jumping
velocity U0 given by the capillary-inertial scaling for the
coalescence of two equally sized droplets on a nonwetting
surface with an apparent advancing contact angle of 180° and
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Figure 7. Calculated droplet jumping velocity as a function of the jumping droplet radius on different superhydrophobic surfaces. The red curve in
each panel is the fitted value of droplet jumping velocity for all coalescence cases during 30 min of condensation; the colors of symbols in each panel
represent the jumping velocity induced by the same number of coalescing droplets.

zero adhesion.4,37 In this study, we assume that the internal expressions of Es, E′s , Eadh, and Eline for multiple Cassie-state
flow momentum generated during two-droplet coalescence is droplets (R1,C, R2,C, ......RN,C) and multiple composite-state
identical for the multiple-droplet coalescence case, with the droplets (R1,comp, R2,comp, ......RN,comp) have been derived in our
same proportionality constant of ∼0.23.4,37 Furthermore, we previous work3 and are given below.
consider the dissipation forces induced by surface adhesion and The surface energy equations of multiple Cassie-state
contact line tension between the condensate droplets and the droplets (Es,C) and multiple composite-state droplets (Es,comp)
surface. are, respectively, expressed as follows
When droplet coalescence occurs, if all of the released surface
⎧⎛ 2 ⎞
energy ΔEs (ΔEs = Es − E′s , where Es and E′s are the surface Es,C = π sin 2 θ ⎨⎜ + 1 − fn ⎟σlv
energy before and after droplet coalescence) after balancing the ⎝
⎩ 1 + cos θ ⎠
interfacial adhesion-induced dissipation energy Eadh and line- ⎫N
tension-induced dissipation energy Eline is converted to kinetic + fn (σsv − σlv cos θe) + σsv(rn − fn )⎬∑ R i ,C 2
energy Ek, then ⎭ i=1
(3)
E k = ΔEs − Eadh − E line (1)
⎧⎡ 2
where Ek = 1/2mU02, m = 2/3πρR′3(2 − 3 cos θ + cos3 θ) is the Es,comp = π sin 2 θ ⎨⎢ − 2fn rf
mass of the jumping droplet, R′ is the radius of the jumping ⎩⎣ 1 + cos θ
droplet, and U0 is the corresponding characteristic jumping ⎤ ⎫N
velocity. + rf (1 − fn cos θe)⎥σlv + rf rnσsv ⎬∑ R i ,comp2
⎦ ⎭
However, because of the incomplete conversion of the excess i=1
energy to translational kinetic energy as a result of limited (4)
momentum to provide droplet jumping, the actual droplet where f n = πDn2/4Pn2 and rn = 1 + πDnHn/Pn2 are the solid
jumping velocity Uj is estimated to be ∼0.23× the characteristic fraction and surface roughness of the nanowires, respectively; rf
jumping velocity given by eq 1, which is expressed as = 1 + [0.5πL(D1 + D2) + 0.25π(D12 − D22)]/P2 is the surface
roughness of the truncated microcones; σlv, σsl, and σsv are the
Uj ≈ 0.23U0
liquid−vapor, solid−liquid, and solid−vapor surface tensions,
⎡ 6(ΔEs − Eadh − E line) ⎤1/2 respectively; and θe ≈ 115° is the equilibrium contact angle
= 0.23⎢ ⎥ with water on the silane-coated flat and smooth surface. The
⎣ πρ(2 − 3 cos θ + cos3 θ)(R13 + R 2 3 + ···RN 3) ⎦
surface energy of multiple Cassie-state droplets coalesced with
(2) multiple composite-state droplets can be obtained by summing
where θ = 165° is the apparent contact angle of the droplet, R1, the corresponding surface energy obtained from eqs 3 and 4.
R2···RN are the radii of condensate droplets before coalescence, The surface energy of a coalesced jumping droplet (Es′) is
and N is the number of coalescing droplets. The energy expressed as
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Es′ = 4πR′ 2σlv
N
= 41/3πσlv(2 − 3 cos θ + cos3 θ )2/3 (∑ R i 3)2/3
i=1
The dissipation energies during multiple-droplet coalescence
are determined by the surface morphology, solid−liquid contact
area, and solid−liquid contact line length. The adhesion-
induced energy dissipation energies for the coalescence of
multiple Cassie-state droplets (Eadh,C) and multiple composite-
state droplets (Eadh,comp) are given below
N
Eadh,C = πfn σlv sin 2 θ(1 + cos θe)∑ R i ,C 2
i=1
N
Eadh,comp = πrf fn σlv sin 2 θ(1 + cos θe)∑ R i ,C 2
i=1
The line-tension-induced energy dissipation at the triple line
for the coalescence of multiple Cassie-state droplets (Eline,C)
and multiple composite-state droplets (Eline,comp) is expressed,
respectively, as
N
π 2(sin 2 θ)σDn
E line,C = ∑ R i ,C2
(Ln + Dn)2 i=1
π 2rf (sin 2 θ)σDn
N pitch for the microstructured surfaces, which all yield a greater
E line,comp = ∑ R i ,comp2
(Ln + Dn)2 i=1
On the basis of the measured coalescing droplet radius, the
theoretical droplet jumping velocity Uj (eq 2) can be calculated
according to eqs 3−9. The calculated droplet jumping velocity
Uj as a function of the jumping droplet radius for all
coalescence events on different surfaces is shown in Figure 7.
The corresponding energy budget of different jumping droplet
radii on each surface is given in Figure S5 to examine the
dominant forces during the jumping process. The high scatter
in the droplet jumping velocity for each surface in Figure 7 is
due to the coalescence of multiple droplets of unequal radii. By
fitting the scatter data to the allometric function (y = axb, the
red curve on each panel), we found that the droplet jumping
velocity decreases with an increase in jumping droplet radius,
and the value falls between 0.25 and 1.5 m/s for all surfaces,
depending on the number and size of coalescing droplets and
the surface morphology. The trend of droplet jumping velocity
with the jumping droplet radius is in accordance with the
experimental observations by Kim et al.37 and Cha et al.,38 and
the average droplet jumping velocity on our nanostructured
surface (∼0.7 m/s) is comparable to their measured values on
surfaces with nanostructures only (0.5−0.6 m/s),37,38 indicating
that our model can well-predict the droplet jumping velocity.
To calculate the droplet jumping height, we consider the
gravitational (Fg) and frictional (Fa) forces acting against the
droplet motion in air. Note that the drag force due to vapor
flow toward the condensing surface can be neglected for our
experimental conditions (section S4). The equation of droplet
motion at any time t is given by
Fg + Fa = −mU ′(t )
2
where Fg = mg is the gravitational force and g = 9.8 m/s is the
gravitational acceleration. According to Stokes’ law, for low
2ρa U (t )R ′
Reynolds number Re = ηa
, the friction force is expressed
Article
as Fa = kU(t), where k = 6πηaR′ is the air friction coefficient, ηa
= 1.827 × 10−5 Pa·s is the viscosity of air, and U(t) is the
vertical jumping speed at time t.
(5) Integrating the droplet jumping speed U(t) from time 0 to tm
{the time required for the droplet to jump to the maximum
height at which U(t) is zero, tm = −(m/k)ln[mg/(mg + Ujk)]},
the droplet jumping height is calculated as
tm
h= ∫0 U (t ) d t
= (m /k)[Uj + mg /k][1 − e−ktm / m] − mgtm/k (11)
We calculated the droplet jumping height of each
(6) coalescence event on different sample surfaces using the
measured radius of the coalescing droplet. The average droplet
jumping height of all jumping events on each sample surface is
then compared with the experimentally measured data, as
(7) shown in Figure 6. It should be noted that if we only consider
the gravitational force on the droplet jumping behavior, the
respective maximum droplet jumping heights are ∼10 times
larger than the values with air friction included. This confirms
that the influence of gravity on the droplet jumping height is
negligible compared with the air friction force. From Figure 6, it
can be seen that the trends of the theoretical data with the
microstructured surface roughness follow the experiments. That
(8)
is, the jumping height increases with the decreasing microcone
jumping height than the flat nanostructured surface. The larger
(9) droplet jumping height on the hierarchical surface with a
smaller microstructure pitch is likely due to the larger
percentage of composite-state droplets that the surface enables.
According to eqs 3 and 4, the surface energy before coalescence
of multiple composite-state droplets is larger than that of
multiple Cassie-state droplets, which results in an increased
corresponding energy released upon coalescence, yielding an
increased droplet jumping height on the hierarchical surface
with a smaller microcone pitch.
We note that the theory overpredicts the jumping heights
relative to the measured values. This may be attributed to the
fact that this theory assumes that the complex fluid dynamics
occurring during the coalescence between the two equally sized
droplets on the superhydrophobic surface is identical to that in
the multiple-droplet coalescence case. This assumption implies
that the magnitude of the internal flow momentum generated
by the coalescence of two droplets equals that of the multiple-
droplet coalescence cases. However, the internal flow
momentum necessary to enable droplet jumping should be
somewhat different for the cases of multiple-droplet coales-
cence in the experiments because on the hierarchical super-
hydrophobic surface, droplets with uneven sizes, different
wetting states, initial positions, or arrangements are more likely
to coalesce, which could alter the droplet coalescence dynamics
substantially. In particular, the uneven coalescence of multiple
droplets may create momentum in various directions away from
the surface normal, causing the measured droplet jumping
height to be decreased. Such a decrease is not considered in the
theoretical predictions, which would cause the theory to
overpredict the experiments.
(10)
3. CONCLUSIONS
We systematically investigated the effect of surface topography
on the coalescence-induced droplet jumping height during
dropwise condensation on hierarchical superhydrophobic
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surfaces. The droplet jumping height exhibits dependence on
the microstructured surface roughness of the substrate; the
jumping height increases with a decrease in the pitch of
truncated microcone features on the surface. To explain the
mechanisms underlying the droplet jumping height observed in
the experiments, an energy-based model for the jumping
dynamics is employed. The initial speed of the jumping droplet
is predicted based on the difference between the surface energy
released during coalescence and the dissipation energies
between the droplets and the surface, taking into account the
different initial droplet wetting states on each surface. This
initial droplet jumping speed is used to estimate the jumping
height. The trend in variation of the theoretically predicted
jumping droplet height as a function of the sample micro-
structure pitch is consistent with the experimental data; namely,
a higher surface energy for droplets in the composite state,
which are more prevalent on surfaces with a smaller
microstructure pitch, results in an increased energy transfer
to the released droplet upon coalescence, which increases the
droplet jumping height. The insights provided by this study,
specifically regarding the role of surface roughness in governing
the coalescence-induced droplet jumping height, can guide
efforts to improve hierarchical superhydrophobic surface
designs for jumping-droplet thermal diode devices and in
other applications for which this behavior governs performance.
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
4.1. Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Surfaces. We
fabricated nanostructured truncated microcones on a silicon
substrate using a two-step wet-etching process that we
developed previously.3 Briefly, the truncated microcones were
first created using photolithography and anisotropic tetrame-
thylammonium hydroxide etching, following which the
nanostructures were etched across the entire surface using a
metal-assisted chemical etching process. Surfaces with center-
to-center microcone spacings were fabricated by varying the
photolithography mask patterns.
■
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
*
S Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the
ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00225.
Droplet numbers and sample orientation, number, and
radii of coalescing droplets during 30 min of con-
densation, energy budget as a function of jumping
droplet radius, and drag force on droplets owing to vapor
flowing toward the condensing surface (PDF)
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: sureshg@purdue.edu (S.V.G.).
ORCID
Suresh V. Garimella: 0000-0003-1421-2912
Author Contributions
The manuscript was written through contributions from all
authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of
the manuscript.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
2889
■
Article
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this work provided by the Cooling
Technologies Research Center and the National Science
Foundation Industry/University Cooperative Research Center
at Purdue University was gratefully acknowledged. We thank
researchers at the Toyota Research Institute of North America,
specifically Drs. Feng Zhou, Ercan M. Dede, and Shailesh N.
Joshi, for their technical discussion on this topic.
■
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2890 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00225

ACS Omega 2017, 2, 2883−2890