Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021) 429–436

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Journal of Colloid and Interface Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcis

Regular Article

Ultimate jumping of coalesced droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces

Zhiping Yuan a,1, Sihang Gao a,1, ZhiFeng Hu a, Liyu Dai a, Huimin Hou a, Fuqiang Chu b,
Xiaomin Wu a,⇑
a
Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Energy and Power Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
b
School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hypothesis: Jumping of coalesced droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces (SHSs) is widely used for
Received 28 October 2020 enhanced condensation, anti-icing/frosting, and self-cleaning due to its superior droplet transport capa-
Revised 2 December 2020 bility. However, because only a tiny fraction (about 5%) of the released excess surface energy during coa-
Accepted 3 December 2020
lescence can be transformed into jumping kinetic energy, the jumping is very weak, limiting its
Available online 8 December 2020
application.
Methods: We experimentally propose enhanced jumping methods, use machine learning to design struc-
Keywords:
tures that achieve ultimate jumping, and finally combine experiments and simulations to investigate the
Superhydrophobic surface
Coalescence-induced droplet jumping
mechanism of the enhanced jumping.
Machine learning Finding: We find that a more orderly flow inside the droplets through the structure is the key to improve
ADAM energy transfer efficiency and that the egg tray-like structure enables the droplet to jump with an energy
Enhanced jumping transfer efficiency 10.6 times higher than that of jumping on flat surfaces. This energy transfer efficiency
Energy transfer efficiency is very close to the theoretical limit, i.e., almost all the released excess surface energy is transformed into
jumping kinetic energy after overcoming viscous dissipation. The ultimate jumping enhances the appli-
cation of water droplet jumping and enables other low surface energy fluid such as R22, R134a, Gasoline,
and Ethanol, which cannot jump on a flat surface, to jump.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wuxiaomin@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (X. Wu).
1
Zhiping Yuan and Sihang Gao contributed equally.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.12.007
0021-9797/Ó 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Z. Yuan, S. Gao, Z. Hu et al.
1. Introduction
During two or more droplets coalesce on superhydrophobic sur-
faces (SHSs), the surface energy is released due to reducing the gas-
liquid area, and the transfer of released excess surface energy is
then converted into kinetic energy, which drives droplet jumping
[1]. Droplet jumping accelerates the removal of condensate dro-
plets and facilitates dropwise condensation that maintains high
condensation efficiency [2–6]. The jumping droplets also carry
away dirt and subcooled water droplets, enabling self-cleaning
[7–10] and anti-icing/frosting [11–13]. Besides, the jumping dro-
plets from the condensing surface hit hot spots on the chip and
evaporate in the hot spots to cool them down [14–17]. The upward
velocity of the jumping droplet conforms to the capillary-inertia
law:

1=2
v
¼ v = clv =qR ð1Þ
where c is the liquid-gas surface tension coefficient, q is the liquid
density, and R is the initial droplet radius [1,18]. Many previous
experimental and theoretical studies have shown that the dimen-
sionless jumping velocity v* < 0.23 for the jumping of two droplets
on a flat surface, only a small part of the excess surface energy DEs
can be transformed into jumping kinetic energy DEjk, and the
energy transfer efficiency (proportion of DEjk to DEs) is less than
5%, which weakens the usefulness of droplet jumping [19–21].
The limitations of low energy transfer efficiency for application
base on droplet jumping are twofold. One aspect is that the small
energy transfer efficiency results in a droplet with a very small
jumping velocity. The jumping droplets will quickly fall back to
the surface under the ambient airflow and gravity action, and the
transported distance is very short. For jumping droplets with a
small radius, the drag effect of the ambient airflow is significant.
In particular, on the condensing surface, the vapor flow perpendic-
ular to the condensation surface exerts a massive drag on the
jumping droplets [22,23], and this drag increases with the heat
flux, even to the lead the droplets are unable to jump and the
enhanced of condensation by droplet jumping fails [24]. The dro-
plets are insensitive to the airflow drag for larger radius droplets
due to their larger inertial forces but easily disturbed by gravity.
When the diameter is larger than 2 mm for water droplets, the
jumping becomes very weak due to gravity. Another aspect is that
the tiny energy transfer efficiency makes the jumping of many low
surface energy fluid hard or even unable to jump. However, these
work fluids such as fuels, refrigerants, etc, are more widely used
than water in practical applications.
Since its discovery in 2009, droplet jumping has gained a great
deal of attention due to its significant application potential. At pre-
sent, studies on droplet jumping have focused on the effects of sur-
face microstructure [18,25–29], droplet physical properties [30–
33], and droplet initial state [18,34–38] on jumping velocity, jump-
ing height, and energy transfer efficiency. These important studies
have improved the usefulness of droplet jumping to some extent
but have not fundamentally solved the low jumping velocity and
low energy transfer efficiency. Recently, the macrotexture has been
suggested as a potential passive method for enhanced jumping.
Vahabi et al. prepared superoleophobic surfaces with a ridge to
demonstrate coalescence-induced jumping with a high energy
transfer efficiency of 18.8%, which is about 3-fold higher than sur-
faces without macrotexture [19]. Subsequently, similar studies
using macrostructure to enhance jumping have been reported
[21,39], which also demonstrate that macrotexture can signifi-
cantly improve the energy transfer efficiency.
The enhancement of jumping is significant for its application,
but the relevant research is just beginning. Although recent studies
have proposed that the macrotexture can enhance the jumping
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Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021) 429–436
process, the relationship between jumping enhancement and
structural geometry parameters still lacks systematic research.
The enhancement mechanism, as well as the limit of jumping
enhancement, still need further research. Here, we examine the
effect of the symmetric V-shaped groove structure on the energy
transfer efficiency of droplet jumping and find that the interaction
between the liquid-bridge and the surface structure during droplet
coalescence is crucial improving the jumping energy transfer effi-
ciency. We use machine learning to design an egg tray-like ulti-
mate jumping structure that achieves the theoretical maximum
energy transfer efficiency based on experimental data and mecha-
nism analysis. Finally, we analyze the ultimate enhancement
mechanism and its potential applications by experiment and
numerical simulations.
2. Experimental setup
As shown in Fig. 1, our experimental setup contains a visualiza-
tion module and a droplet manipulation module. One deionized
water droplet (Shanghai Titan Scientific Co., Ltd) with a radius of
850 ± 16 lm is produced by a microsyringe and is placed in a suit-
able position using a superhydrophobic needle. The position of the
droplets microscope view is adjusted using the three degrees of
freedom (TDF) stage so that the entire process of controllable
jumping of droplets can be captured. Then another droplet is pro-
duced in the same way and pushed gently into contact with the
previous droplets using a superhydrophobic needle (SN). Then
we used a visualization module consisting of a stereomicroscope
(Olympus SZX 16), high-speed camera (Optronics CP80-3-M-
540), and light source to observe coalescence and jumping of the
droplets. The SHSs are made of pure aluminum, and a computer-
ized numerical control engraving machine (Jinyang CNC4040F)
manufactures the structure on it. The surface is sprayed with a
superhydrophobic nano-SiO2 coating (Changzhou Nanocoatings
Co., Ltd) and then baked in an oven at 80 °C for 30 min. The equi-
librium contact angle h, the advancing angle, and the receding
angle measured by contact angle goniometer (JC2000C1) are
160 ± 1°, 161 ± 1°, and 159 ± 1°, respectively. The roughness mea-
sured by an atomic force microscope (AFM, Bruker Dimension
FastScan) with ScanAsyst-air cantilever (sharp silicon tip with a
nominal radius of 2 nm for PeakForce Tapping in air) is less than
446 nm [40]. The superhydrophobic needle is a stiff filament with
a radius of 150 lm after the same superhydrophobic processing.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM, Zeiss Merlin Compact)
images for superhydrophobic surfaces and more detailed experi-
ments can be found in supplementary materials and our previous
papers [39–41].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Enhanced droplet jumping on superhydrophobic surfaces with a
90° V-shaped groove
Fig. 2 shows an enhanced jumping on SHSs with a V-shape
groove. At the initial moment, two 850 lm droplets are placed in
the V-shaped groove back and forth. The droplets begin to coalesce
after contact, and a liquid-bridge is formed at the contact position.
The liquid-bridge expands rapidly along the radial direction under
the action of surface tension at the gas-liquid interface until it
impacts the two slopes of the groove and moves upward under
the reactive force of the two slopes until it is separated from the
V-shaped groove. Because there is a vacancy at the bottom of the
droplet, the radially expanding liquid-bridge first impacts the sur-
faces on both sides and then contacts the surface below the
vacancy. The droplet moves upward and decelerates under the
Z. Yuan, S. Gao, Z. Hu et al.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup.
gravity, and then falls back. The velocity of the jumping droplet is
0.20 ± 0.04 m/s, the dimensionless velocity is 0.67, and the energy
transfer efficiency is about 38.9%, which is 8.27 times higher than
that (4.7%) on a flat surface [39].
Fig. 3 shows a comparison of the reactive force between flat and
V-shaped groove SHS. The two slopes of the V-shaped groove
change the contact state between the liquid-bridge and the struc-
ture, thus changing the reactive force to the droplets. In the V-
shaped groove, the liquid-bridge has a larger working area with
the surface, and the corresponding central angle hu is larger, thus
obtaining a more significant reaction force and a higher jumping
velocity. In particular, the curvature radius of the liquid-bridge fol-
lows a scaling law ~ t -1/2 [18,42,43]. Therefore, the later the liquid-
bridge impacts the structure, the weaker the reactive force will be,
and the vacancy at the bottom of the droplet is detrimental to the
jumping.
The above analysis suggests that the size of the contact area
between the liquid-bridge and structure and the vacancy between
Fig. 2. Enhanced jumping on SHS with a 90° V-shape groove (Video 1). The white area on the droplet is the light spot. The experimental temperature is room temperature
25.0 °C, the surface tension coefficient, density, and viscosity are 72 mN/m, 998 kgm3, and 1.0 mPas, respectively.
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Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021) 429–436
Fig. 3. A comparison of reactive force between the liquid-bridge on flat and V-
shaped groove surface.
the droplets bottom and the structure are the two crucial factors
of energy transfer efficiency. We measure the effect of these two fac-
tors by central angle hu and the ratio of vacancy volume to droplet
volume X = Vvacancy/Vdroplet. More detail for the derivation of X and
hu is in supplementary materials. Fig. 4(a) shows the variation of
the contact state between the structure and the liquid-bridge, and
Fig. 4(b) shows the dimensionless jumping velocity with the V-
shaped groove angle. Both X and hu decrease as the V-shaped groove
angle increases. When the angle of the V-shaped groove is larger
than 360°-2h [44], Vvacancy is 0. hu reaches the minimum value when
the angle of the V-shaped groove hs is 180° (i.e., a flat surface). With a
combination of the influence of X and hu, the dimensionless velocity
increases first and then decreases with the increase of the V-shaped
groove angle, and reaches the maximum at 90°.
3.2. The machine learning model for designing the ultimate jumping
structure
The above studies suggest that the energy transfer efficiency is
the highest when the V-shaped groove angle hs is 90°, but this is
Z. Yuan, S. Gao, Z. Hu et al. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021) 429–436

Fig. 4. The variation of the contact state between the surface and liquid-bridge (a) and dimensionless jumping velocity with the V-shaped groove angle (b). The experimental
data point is the average value of 10 repeated experiments, and the error bar is the standard deviation. The energy transfer efficiency can be transformed from the 90° V-shape
groove by scaling the square ratio of v*.

only the maximum energy transfer efficiency in the V-shaped

groove structure, not necessarily the maximum energy transfer
efficiency under all conditions. We expect to design a structure
that can achieve maximum energy transfer efficiency, but it is
impractical to test all possible structural shapes and parameters.
The machine learning model has a good generalization ability to
establish the mapping between the jumping velocity and the struc-
ture parameter through limited experimental data, making
machine learning suitable for designing the proper structure.
Fig. 5 shows the machine learning model we use for designing
the ultimate jumping structure. The model consists of a neural net-
work module and an optimization module. The input of the neural
network module is the experimental data of jumping in a V-shaped
groove structure. In particular, we do not directly input the struc-
ture parameters but input the initial contact state between droplet
and surface structure. According to the analysis above, we take hu
and X as input parameters. Since there is a specific geometric rela- Fig. 5. Machine learning model for designing the ultimate jumping structure. The
tionship between the droplet contact state and the structure, the training sample is the 70 sets of experimental data in Fig. 3b, which contains 7
shape of the structure can be obtained by determining the droplet different V-shaped groove angle. The training and testing of the neural network and
contact state. Considering the limited number of input samples, we the iteration of the ADAM optimizer are all completed by the ADAM toolbox and the
Deep Learning Toolbox in MATLAB 2020. We first store the multiple sets of droplet
use GA-BP (genetic algorithm error backpropagation) [45] to
contact states and dimensionless velocities obtained from the experiments as files
improve the robustness of the neural network. The output of the in rows, and then we use Deep Learning Toolbox to build the neuron network and
neural network is the dimensionless jumping velocity measured use the toolbox to read in the data to train the neuron network. After training, the
by experiments. The algorithm used in the optimization module trained neuron network is packaged into a function and input into the ADAM
is ADAM (Amsterdam Decoding And Modeling) [46], and the target toolbox. The ADAM toolbox is then used to iterate and find the maximum
dimensionless jumping velocity and corresponding structure.
parameter is the reciprocal of the dimensionless jumping velocity
given by the neural network. The output of the optimization mod-
ule contains the reciprocal of the maximum dimensionless jump- an egg tray-like surface, with two hemispherical pits of the same
ing velocity v* and the corresponding hu and X. radius as the droplet on the surface, and two droplets placed in
The neural network is trained with experimental samples and the pits and then exactly tangent to each other.
tested randomly after the training. As shown in Fig. 6, the neural
network output matches well with the experimental results, which 3.3. Coalescence-induced droplet jumping on the egg tray-like ultimate
shows that the neural network model is reliable. The reciprocal of jumping structure
the trained neural network is input into the optimization module
as the objective function. After about 25 iterations, the minimum Fig. 8 shows the jumping process on the surface with the egg
reciprocal of the dimensionless jumping velocity given by the tray-like ultimate jumping structure. The morphology evolution
ADAM optimizer is 1/1.367, and the corresponding droplet contact of the droplets on the egg tray-like structure is similar to that of
state is hu = 180° and X = 1.3e4. the plane and V-shaped groove structures. The first step is the gen-
The machine learning method suggests that when the vacancy eration and rapid radial expansion of the liquid-bridge, and then it
volume below the droplet is close to 0 and the central angle is rebounds under the surface reactive force. However, the measured
180°, the dimensionless jumping velocity and energy transfer effi- dimensionless jumping velocity is as higher as 0.779 ± 0.016, and
ciency of the jumping droplets are the highest. To ensure such a the measured maximum energy transfer efficiency is as higher as
contact state and to ensure that the droplet is tangent to the sur- 52.4%. Besides, the difference between the measured value and
face, the droplet and the structure can only be as shown in Fig. 7, the predicted value by the machine learning method is 6.2%. The
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Fig. 6. (a) The test results of the neural network. (b) Iteration plot of ADAM. The iteration plot first descends rapidly and then flattens out after 25 iterations, but the X
becomes negative, inconsistent with the physical facts. Therefore, we take the results of the 25th iteration as the target value.

Fig. 7. Ultimate jumping structure (egg tray-like structure) designed by machine learning method and the initial state of droplet contact with the structure.

Fig. 8. Ultimate droplet jumping on SHS with an egg tray-like structure (Video 2). The inset in the snapshot at 44.5 ms is an enlarged view of the egg tray, where the black
column is the superhydrophobic needle. The experimental operation and preparation of surfaces are the same as the previous experiments.

two data are mutually validated, proving the reliability of machine The numerical method used in our previous studies is applied to
learning on the one hand, and proves that the ultimate jumping study the energy conversion processes of the ultimate jumping and
structure can make the energy transfer efficiency reach the maxi- the ordinary jumping on a flat surface. The simulation was com-
mum on the other hand. pleted in OpenFOAM by our newly developed solver, jump-

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Z. Yuan, S. Gao, Z. Hu et al.
Fig. 9. (a) and (b) are the internal flow of the jumping droplets on the flat surface and egg tray-like surface the just detached from the surface. (c) The proportion of released
surface energy, total kinetic energy, and jumping kinetic energy. The simulation results of the flat surface have been verified by experiments in our previous study
[20,39,47,48]. The simulated jumping velocity is 0.22 m/s, which is 4.7% different from the experimental measurement value of 0.23 m/s, and it shows that the simulated
result of jumping on the egg tray-like surface is also reliable.
Fig. 10. The simulated jumping velocity of 850 lm droplet varies with the liquid–
gas surface tension coefficient. The coalesced droplet on the flat surface with a
surface tension coefficient smaller than 30 mN/m cannot be separated from the flat
surface (i.e., no-jumping), while it can be separated from an egg tray-like surface.
ingFoam. Details of the simulation method and data analysis are
available in the supplementary materials. The surface energy
released during coalescence is partly dissipated by viscosity, partly
transformed into kinetic energy, and partly into potential energy.
Since the scale of jumping droplets is microscopic, we neglect
the potential energy and only discuss the surface energy, the vis-
cous dissipation, and the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy
consists of the energy of all flows inside the droplet, both disor-
derly and orderly. The jumping kinetic energy is part of the total
kinetic energy and is determined by the upward velocity of the
droplet centroid containing only orderly flow. Fig. 9 compares
the internal flow and the energy ratios between the flat and the
egg tray-like surface. The internal flow of the droplets on the flat
surface is disorderly, while it is orderly for the jumping droplet
on the surface with an egg tray-like structure. The velocity vector
of the fluid cluster is redirected to the jumping direction due to a
more potent reactive force from the egg tray-like structure and
makes the internal flow more orderly. The most significant differ-
ence between these kinds of jumping is the ratio of jumping kinetic
energy and the total kinetic energy. Only a tiny fraction of the total
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Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 587 (2021) 429–436
kinetic energy is upward jumping kinetic energy on the flat surface
because the most internal flow is disordered. While on the egg
tray-like surface, most of the total kinetic energy is ordered
upward kinetic energy. That is to say, on the egg tray-like surface,
most of the excess surface energy is transformed into jumping
kinetic energy except the viscous dissipation. Since viscous dissi-
pation is unavoidable, 59.1% is the maximum ratio of the excess
surface energy transformed to the total kinetic energy. The ideal
situation is that the jumping kinetic energy is equal to the total
kinetic energy, and the jumping kinetic energy transfer efficiency
on the designed ultimate jump structure is 52.4%, which is very
close to this theoretical limit (59.1%).
The significance of the ultimate jumping is twofold. On the one
hand, for water droplets, the enhanced jumping enhances the anti-
icing/frost performance and the heat transfer efficiency of the con-
densing surface. On the other hand, low surface energy fluids,
which is unable to jump on the flat surface, can jump on the
designed egg-tray like surface due to the high energy transfer effi-
ciency. As shown in Fig. 10, when the surface tension coefficient is
below 30 mN/m, the droplets cannot jump on a flat surface but can
jump on the surface with the egg tray-like structure.
4. Summary and outlook
We experimentally studied the enhanced droplet jumping on
the symmetric V-shaped structure and explicitly suggest that the
enhanced liquid-bridge-surface interaction can improve energy
transfer efficiency. For the first time, we use machine learning to
design and experimentally verify an egg tray-like structure that
can achieve the theoretical maximum energy transfer efficiency,
which we called the ultimate droplet jumping. The egg tray-like
structure regulates the interaction between the surface and the
liquid-bridge and redirects the disorderly internal flow to the
jumping direction, allowing more released surface energy to be
transformed into jumping kinetic energy. The energy conversion
rate of the ultimate jumping has increased tenfold from less than
5% of a traditional jumping to 52.4%, and the dimensionless jump-
ing velocity increased from less than 0.23 to 0.779 [1,19,39]. The
high jumping velocity increases the value of water droplet jumping
in anti-icing, self-cleaning, chip cooling, and other applications.
What is more, the high energy transfer efficiency enables the
jumping of low surface energy fluid that is unable to jump on
the flat surface, which provides more application scenarios for
Z. Yuan, S. Gao, Z. Hu et al.
droplet jumping. The present study focuses on enhancing single
droplet jumping, and future studies may extend to the ultimate
jumping of large numbers of droplets on superhydrophobic sur-
faces with structured arrays.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhiping Yuan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original
draft, Visualization, Writing - review & editing. Sihang Gao: Con-
ceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization,
Writing - review & editing. ZhiFeng Hu: Data curation, Visualiza-
tion, Writing - review & editing. Liyu Dai: Data curation, Writing
- review & editing. Huimin Hou: Writing - review & editing.
Fuqiang Chu: Writing - review & editing. Xiaomin Wu: Conceptu-
alization, Writing - original draft, Supervision, Resources, Funding
acquisition, Project administration, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (No. 51976098).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.12.007.
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