Comparative Study on Induration of Wet Iron Ore Pellets in Different

Straight Grate Furnaces in Iran using Mathematical Models

Mahmoud Makkiabadi1,2, Aliakbar Taghipour1, M A Parvez Mahmud3,*

1Technicaland Engineering office, Gohar Zamin Iron Ore Company, Sirjan, Iran
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
3School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia

*Corresponding author: M A Parvez Mahmud (m.a.mahmud@deakin.edu.au)

Abstract
The current study presents mathematical modelling of the pellet induration process in several straight-
grate pelletizing plants in Iran. The change in the essential parameters includes gas and pellet
temperature, moisture, and oxidation rate for pellets in three drying, sintering, and cooling stages in
the pelletizing plants of Gohar Zamin, Gol Gohar Sangan, Mobarakeh steel and Khuzestan steel. This
article is validated by a semi-industrial study conducted by Mobarakeh Steel Company. By using this
model, the oxidation of magnetite is followed by sintering of the oxidized magnetite. The results show
that the magnetite oxidation for the lower layers of the pellet about 11% is less than the upper layers.
This model can enhance induration productivity, optimise fuel costs, reduce power consumption,
control gas temperature and pressure, and as an operator training simulator. This simulation also helps
the control room monitor the conversion percentage of magnetite to hematite in pellets and extract
the best for the oxidation rate.

Keywords: Iron ore pelletizing, Straight grate, Induration process, Mathematical modeling

1. Introduction
Pelletizing is one of the essential processes of iron ore and effective operations for using raw
materials. Three technology types a shaft furnace, straight-grate, and grate-kiln process are usually
utilized for induration of iron-ore pellets [1]. In a straight-grate system, green pellets are poured on a
hearth layer of fired pellets then the drying, sintering, and cooling operation are performed in seven
stages by moving directly in the grate [2]. The hearth layer barricades a severe thermal shock to the
pellets by preheating the air. This paper concentrates on the pellet induration process of Iranian
pelletizing plants with the straight grate type.
As shown in Fig. 1, the straight grate is divided into seven different zones using the convective heat
transfer mechanism. The first step is the pellet drying operation that is located in two zones of Updraft
drying (UDD) and Downdraft drying (DDD), then the pellets have been fired in zones of Preheating
(PH), Firing (F), and After-firing (AF). Finally, fired pellets with temperatures of about 1000 oC enter
into Cooling 1 and 2 zones.
In UDD, DDD zones, the gas stream passed through the second cooling zone using a fan, dry the
pellets to 200-330 oC. In preheating, firing, and after-firing zones, off-gases of the first cooling zone
are heated under the burner in the combustion chamber. In these zones, the gas temperature rises to
about 1200-1300 oC. The ambient air is blown into the first and second cooling zones using a fan to
cool the pellets to 90 °C.

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From 1975, Hasenack et al. [3] and Voskamp and Brasz [4] started modelling the pellet temperature
profile calculation in moving pellet beds. Hasenack et al. studied the analysis of all main parameters
such as pellet and gas temperature profile in the straight grate. They eliminated to show calcination
of carbonates and oxidation of carbon since they used a non-fluxed pellet with no addition of
carbonaceous materials. In terms of last researches, a substantial number of modeling for induration
have been put forward for the grate-kiln system [5-6], iron ore sintering [7], and pellet induration in
shaft furnaces [8]. Furthermore, the oxidation phenomenon for magnetite at a pellet scale has been
investigated experimentally, and a mathematical model is developed successfully by Kumer [7].

The kinetic rate expressions and transport parameters were taken from the literature. The kinetic
model for the combustion of carbon was taken by Wynnyckyi and Batterham [9]. Davis and Englund
[10] conducted a study on modelling heat and mass transfer, including air injection during the
induration of the bed. Their model contained convection heat transfer from the gas, radiation from
the flame, conduction, and radiation from the wall. Thurlby [11,12] and Young et al. [13] have
proposed models devoted to the grate-kiln systems. Thurlby et al. [14] have developed a model of
steady-state condition for the straight-grate iron-ore induration of the pellets. Kucukada et al. have
presented modeling of a pilot scale induration furnace for iron ore pellets [15]. Cross and Blot [16]
have utilized the induration process model to measure the suitability of the first drying zone with the
updraft or downdraft gas flow streams. To reduce the burner fuel, they have optimized all needed
profiles like the gas temperature profile in the Firing and After-Firing zones. A mathematical model
for pilot-scale iron ore induration furnace has determined energy savings by coke addition to the
pellet, and oxygen injection to the furnace has been presented by Shuai Tan et al. [17].
Sadrnezhaad et al. [18] introduced a mathematical model for the induration process of Khuzestan
pelletizing plants. All laws of mass, heat, and momentum transfer are implemented for modelling and
evaluating the temperature gradient within the pellets based on all reactions such as drying of
moisture, calcination of limestone, and coke-magnetite. The results showed a productivity
enhancement of 20%, natural gas fuel consumption decrease of 17%, and an electrical power saving
of 17%.
A vital parameter for the iron ore pellet induration process is to consider the bed void fraction. Barati
[19] investigated a dynamic simulation of the pellet induration process in Mobarakeh steel plant
include heat transfer between gas and pellet, gas flow, evaporation and condensation of moisture,
oxidation of magnetite, combustion of coke breeze, calcination of lime and dolomite, and shrinkage
of pellet and pellet bed slump. Results showed that if the pellet shrinking is constant along the bed,
the results will be changed about 3% to 4%. Thus, the overall error introduced by neglecting the pellet
shrinking is relatively tiny.
Zhou et al. [20] studied a mathematical model based on the computational fluid dynamics method,
heat and mass transfer in porous media, and the unreacted shrinking core model for the oxidation
reaction of an individual magnetite pellet during preheating. The results showed that the oxidation
rate on the pellet’s surface is much faster than that of the inside of the pellet.
The change in the oxidation degree of the pellet at different pellet temperatures and oxygen
concentrations was simulated with the commercial software COMSOL by Zhou Pu et al [20]. Their
results shown that the oxidation rate on the surface of the pellet is much faster than that of the inside
of the pellet and there was a non-isothermal phenomenon inside the pellet that leads to an increase in
temperature inside the single pellet.
Umadevi et al [21] studied the drying, preheating, and roasting characteristics of magnetite pellets
and magnetite–hematite blend pellets in order to improve the utilization of the magnetite resources in
a current induration furnace designed for hematite resources without affecting the pellet plant
performance by.

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Interaction between iron ore and magnesium additives during the induration process of pellets is
studied by Wang et al. [22]. In addition, the interaction between iron ore and two types of magnesium
additives and the mechanism during the induration process of pellets were investigated.
Prusti et al [23] investigated the effect of limestone and dolomite flux on the quality of pellets using
high LOI iron ore. This study illustrated the effect of limestone and dolomite as flux material in
palletization of an Indian goethetic-hematite iron ore with 59.75% Fe, 4.52% SiO2, 3.84% Al2O3, and
4.85% LOI.
Induration of ilmenite pellets by oxidation is an essential step in the pelletization process since it
decides the physical and metallurgical properties of the pellets. The optimization of oxidation
parameters and characterization for direct reduction application was studied by Nayak et al. [24].
Their results showed that the oxidation temperature of 900 °C at a short roasting time of 15 min has
been found suitable to achieve recommended requirements of various pellet properties such as cold
compressive strength, porosity, metallization, tumble, and abrasion indices. X-ray diffraction and
microstructural analysis indicate that the recrystallization of hematite in the oxidation process
improves the mechanical strength of the pellets.
In this paper, a comprehensive study of straight-grate pellets of Gol-Gohar, Gohar-Zamin, Mobarakeh
Steel of Isfahan and Khuzestan Steel is presented. To compare the characteristics of gas and pellet
temperature, moisture and oxidation rate, a mathematical model of pellet induration process for
several pelletizing plants in the straight grate system is introduced. Also, the conversion rate of
magnetite to hematite is calculated for each plant separately in order to physically understand the
main factors affecting the magnetite conversion process.

2. Straight grate induration furnaces

At least 78 million tons of pellets are needed to be produced per year to achieve about 55 million tons
of steel by 2025 in Iran. Boundary and initial conditions of induration straight grate for all pelletizing
plants are extracted in Table 1. Schematic view of a typical straight grate induration furnace for
Gohar-Zamin company is shown in Fig. 1.

UDD DDD PH F AF C1 C2

UDD: Updraft Drying PH: Preheating AF: After Firing C2: Cooling 2
DDD: Downdraft Drying F: Firing C1: Cooling 1

Fig. 1. Schematic view of a typical straight grate induration furnace.

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 Table 1. Parameters of 8 Iranian straight grate iron pellet indurating furnaces.

Khuzestan
Goharzamin
Gol-e- Sangan I I
Parameters [unit] Gol-e- Mobarakeh
Gohar I Sangan II Khuzestan
Gohar II
II
Capacity [MTPY] 5 5 5 7 3
Working time [day] 300 300 300 300 300
Total Area [m2] 624 624 672 624 624
Total bed length [m] 45 45 45 45 40
Width of pallet Cars [m] 4 4 4 4 4
Inlet pellet moisture [%] 9 9 9 8.8 9
Velocity of Pallet [m/min] 4 4 4 4.05 4
cars
Induration Time [min] 39 39 41 38.5 37
Green pellet height [cm] 35 35 35 35 30
Hearth layer [cm] 10 10 10 10 10
Time [min] 3 3 4.5 5 5
UDD
Length [m] 12 12 18 20 20
Time [min] 3.75 3.75 3 5 3
DDD
Length [m] 15 15 12 20 12
Time [min] 3.75 3.75 3.75 2 3
PH
Length [m] 15 15 15 12 12
Time [min] 12.75 12.75 11.25 13 12
F
Length [m] 51 51 45 52 48
Time [min] 2.25 2.25 3.75 2 2
AF
Length [m] 9 9 15 12 12
Time [min] 9.75 9.75 11.25 9 9
C1
Length [m] 39 39 45 36 36
Time [min] 3.75 3.75 4.5 2.5 3
C2
Length [m] 15 15 18 10 12

3. Mathematical Induration Modeling

This work has developed a numerical solution of the described equations with a finite element method
(FEM). Constant parameters and the boundary conditions for various stages and primary conditions
have been fixed using the physics of the units. The bed of pellets and time are divided into 0.01cm
and 0.1 seconds, respectively. Integration of the discretized equations of gas and pellets over the
elements requires determining the gas flow rate in each element. Generally, the pressure drop
measurements are more reliable and readily available than the gas flow rate. After calculating all the
pressures in all the elements in time, if the calculated pressure difference with the experimental
pressure difference is negligible, the gas and pellet temperatures will be recorded at time t. The same
path is repeated for t + dt. Changes in gas moisture in the bed can be calculated. After the time has
elapsed along the entire length of the induration machine, the program is completed, and all gas and
pellet temperatures are stored and displayed. If the calculated pressure difference does not match the
experimental pressure difference, the initial guess for gas flowrate will be updated:ù

 Mathematical modelling for a straight grate iron ore pelletizing, main equations such as
energy balance, evaporation, chemical reactions, and gas flow are required. The process is
assumed to occur at steady-state conditions and the critical assumptions in the formulation
of the mathematical are presented: The vertical gas velocity in the bed is much higher than
the grate.

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  Heat losses in all induration machines are negligible.
 Heat transfer between gas and pellets is governed by convection.
 The height of the bed does not change during the drying zone.
 There are evaporation and condensation of moisture in the drying zone.
 The radiant heat transfer mechanism is omitted.

3.1 Heat Transfer Modeling

In the iron ore induration machine, the heat transfer between the gas and pellet is defined based on
:the heat transfer coefficient of forced convection. By discretizing the equations during the height of
the bed (dz) and time (dt,) and ignoring the change of parameters across the bed (dy), the equations
of heat balance for gas and pellet phases include drying of the pellets and reactions of the magnetite
can be written as [20]:
∂𝑇𝑔 1
‒ 𝑓𝑔𝐶𝑔 =+ ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑔 ‒ 𝑇𝑝) + 𝑅𝑤∆𝐻𝑤
∂𝑧
∂𝑇𝑝
𝜌𝑝𝐶𝑝 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑔 ‒ 𝑇𝑝) ‒ 𝑅𝑤∆𝐻𝑤 + 𝑅𝑚∆𝐻𝑚 2
∂𝑡
Several methods [22] have been suggested to calculate the heat transfer coefficient of forced
convection between gas and pellet phases. The reliability of different heat transfer explanations is
evaluated by Seshadri and Pereia [23]. The experimental and theoretical analysis results showed that
the best formula for the Nusselt number could be calculated by Eq. 3. It is worth noting that the heat
transfer coefficient calculated by this equation fundamentally has the radiation heat transfer
coefficient effect. Nusselt number and gas-pellet apparent contact area can be calculated by Eq. 4 and
5, respectively:
𝑘𝑔 3
ℎ = 𝑁𝑢
𝑑𝑝

4
1

𝑁𝑢 = 2.0 + 0.6 ( )
𝑅𝑒𝑝 2
𝜀𝑏
(𝑃𝑟)1/3

6(1 ‒ 𝜀𝑏)
𝐴= 5
∅𝑑𝑝

3.2 Evaporation
In the UDD and DDD stages, humidity reduction operation for raw pellets can occur in two steps:
1. Start the evaporation process until the pellet moisture reaches the critical moisture level (Eq.
6).
2. The pellets’ moisture content is less than the necessary amount of moisture (Eq. 7) [20].
𝑅𝑤 = 𝑘𝑤𝐴(𝑤𝑔𝑒 ‒ 𝑤𝑔) 𝑊𝑝 > 𝑊𝑝𝑐 6
𝑒 7
𝐴(𝑤𝑔 ‒ 𝑤𝑔)
𝑅𝑤 = 𝑊𝑝 < 𝑊𝑝𝑐
1 𝑟𝑝(𝑟𝑝 ‒ 𝑟𝑤)
+
𝑘𝑤 2𝑟𝑤𝐷𝐻𝑒2𝑜
Perry and Chilton [24] introduced a formula (Eq.8) for calculating the mass transfer coefficient 𝑘𝑤
based on the effective diffusivity of water vapor through the gas (𝐷𝐻𝑒2𝑜), Reynolds number, and pellet
diameter (dp). Also, the effective diffusion coefficient of water vapor through the pellet pores can be
calculated in Eq 9.

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 1 8
𝑘𝑤 =
𝐷𝐻2𝑜
𝑑𝑝 〈 2.0 + 0.6 ( )
𝑅𝑒𝑝 2
𝜀𝑏
(𝑆𝑐)1/3
〉
1.2 ∗ 10 ‒ 9𝑇1.75
𝑔 9
𝐷𝐻𝑒2𝑜 = ∗ 𝜀1.42
𝑝
𝑃'

Where 𝑤𝑔𝑒 is the equilibrium concentration of water vapor between gas and pellets [25].

{
𝑇𝑝 10
1.23 ∗ 10 ‒ 6exp ( )
28.41
‒ 0.02 𝑇𝑝 < 373.15𝐾

𝑇𝑝
‒4
𝑤𝑔𝑒 = 8.57 ∗ 10 exp
51.39 ( )
‒ 0.677 373.15 < 𝑇𝑝 < 473.15𝐾

𝑇𝑝
5.2 ∗ 10 ‒ 3exp ( )
62.64
‒ 2.03 473.15 < 𝑇𝑝

𝑊𝑝𝑐 is the value of critical moisture content that is assumed to be 120 kg/m3 (which is 5.45%
considering a bulk the density of 2300 kg/m3 for green pellet) [25]. According to the equilibrium
equation of mass between pellets and gas, it is possible to calculate the changes in the gas phase’s
moisture along the bed from Eq. 11.
∂𝑊𝑔 𝑅𝑤 11
=
∂𝑧 𝑣𝑔

3.3 Flow rate

Due to different reactions and the bed’s porosity, it is impossible to obtain the Bernoulli-Euler
equations to calculate the relationship between pressure changes and gas velocity.The relationship
∂𝑃
between pressure changes ( ∂𝑧 ) and the gas flow velocity (𝑣𝑔) can be obtained by the Ergun Eq. 12
[20].
1.75(1 ‒ 𝜀𝑏) 150𝜇𝑔(1 ‒ 𝜀𝑏)2) ∂𝑃 12
2
3 𝑣𝑔 + 𝑣𝑔 2 3 = ∂𝑧
𝜙𝜀𝑏𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑝 (𝜙𝑑𝑝) 𝜀𝑏

Water evaporation/condensation will shift the gas and pellets constituents. These changes are related
to the rate of reactions, and mass balance equations are accepted as well. The amount of moisture
radius (𝑟𝑤) can be calculated using the mass balance inside the pellet phase.
𝑊𝑝 1/3 13
𝑟𝑤 = 𝑟𝑝( )
𝑊𝑝𝑐

3.4 Chemical Reaction

For magnetite oxidation, the reaction consists of three steps: transfer of oxygen from the gas bulk to
the pellet surface, pore diffusion through the hematite layer, and interfacial surface reaction with the
magnetite particles, i.e.
1 14
2Fe3O4 + O2→3Fe2O3
2

That chemical reaction rate can be calculated by Eq 14 [20]:

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 16𝜋𝑟𝑝2(𝐶𝑜2 ‒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒2)
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 2
15
1 𝑟𝑝 1 𝑟𝑝2 ‒ 𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑔
+( ) +
𝑘𝑜2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑔𝐷𝑜2

3.6 Induration system

In pelletizing, the three parameters of pellet’s temperature, moisture, and oxidation rate are vital. To
find the main differences between pelletizing companies in Iran, these three parameters should be
followed and the most suitable comparison should be determined to find their main differences in the
three stages of moisture reduction, cooking, and cooling of pellets. As shown in Fig. 2, changes in
pellet temperature, pellet moisture, and oxidation rate are investigated at the following three altitudes:

1. X1= Top layer

2. X2= 15 cm under the top layer
3. X3= bottom layer (15 cm under top layer)

It is noteworthy that in all pelletizing plants, except the Khuzestan plant, the height of green (raw)
and cooked pellets (hearth layer) for other plants is 35 cm and 10 cm, respectively. However, for the
Khuzestan plant, the height of the green pellets is 30 cm. Moreover, the information related to the
boundary and initial conditions of the pelletizing induration machine for the Kouzestan plant by
Sardrnejad [18], Mobarakeh steel plant by Barati [19] were extracted. Furthermore, Sangan, Gol
Gohar, and Gohar Zamin pelletizing plants’ information was received from the control room of those
companies.

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 Fig. 2. Schematic of hood, car pallet and wind box

4. Results
In this section, the mathematical model is first validated with the Barati model [19]. In this validation,
the pellet temperature at the top and bottom of the bed has been studied and the desired validity is
accurate. During the induration process, the oxidation of magnetite takes place according to magnetite
content and material characteristics. In this paper, in addition to changes in pellet temperature and
pellet moisture for all plants, the oxidation rate of magnetite to hematite in them was analyzed.
4.1 Pellet Temperature
The pelletizing bed’s temperature had not so far been measured in experimental analysis. However,
the profile of pellet temperature is an essential factor that can assure the quality of the fired pellets.
So, extracting pellet temperature using a simulation and mathematical model can help researchers or
operators in the control room whether all pellets are cooked or not. Firstly, pellet-temperature profiles
modelled in this study are compared with previous research was undertaken by Barati in the
Mobarkeh steel plant [19], theoretical and experimental analysis of induration modelling of
Mobarakeh Steel Plant was performed by Barati. As shown in Fig. 3, using the present modelling
with reasonable accuracy, the pellet temperature of the top layer (T1) and below the bed layer (T4)
can be validated.

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 Fig. 3. Comparison of pellet temperatures of top and bottom layer of the present article with Barati [19]

After model validation, Investigation, and comparison between pellet temperatures during the
pelletizing factories of Iran, the total time spent in the car is equivalent to Sangan Square, Sangan,
respectively. Fig. 4 show the pellet temperature profiles along with X1, X2, and X3 for Gohar Zamin
and Sangan plants that have been established, respectively. In the UDD zone, first, the temperature
of the lower pellets begins to heat up, and the temperature of the lower pellets in Goharzamin reached
a maximum of 180 oC and in Sangan reached 240 oC. According to Table 1, it is clear that the time
of this section in Goharzamin and Sangan pellets is 3 and 4.5 minutes, respectively. After the UDD
zone, the hot inlet gas is diverted and blown from above. Also, Fig. 4 show a temperature peak for
the lower pellets, and the upper pellets begin to heat up. After UDD and DDD zone, hot gas is blown
from above in preheating and firing zones, and the maximum pellet temperature in Goharzamin and
Sangan plants reaches 1275 and 1310 oC, respectively. In the after-firing zone, using the convection
heat transfer mechanism, the lower pellets are cooked. The conversion of magnetite to hematite of all
pellets will be completed; the pellets now enter cooling 1 & 2 zones to be cooled.

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 (a)

(b)
Fig. 4. (a) Pellet temperature profiles at three different altitudes of bed X1, X2 and X3 for Gohar
Zamin (b) Pellet temperature profiles at three different altitudes of bed X1, X2 and X3 for
Sangan
The pellet temperature contour in all stages for Gohar Zamin company is shown in Fig. 5. The pellet’s
temperature at the top and bottom of the pellet bed for the four plants (Gohar Zamin, Mobarke Steel,
Sangan, and Kuzestan) are shown in Table 1. In general, the temperature profile changes of all four
plants are similar, but there are differences in them mentioned in this section. In UDD, the heating
temperature from cooling 2 is blown from below to dry the pellets. This stage is completed in the
Gohar Zamin furnace in about 3 minutes, Sangan 4.5 minutes, and two Kuzestan and Mobarakeh
Steel plants in 5 minutes. After UDD, warm air (about 300 oC) is sucked from the top of the bed so
that the pellets from above begin to dry.

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The main reason for using UDD before the DDD stage is that the bottom pellets are dried first and
have never broken when the gas is blown from above. The duration of DDD in the plants of Gohar
Zamin, Sangan, Mobarakeh Steel, and Khuzestan is equal to 3.75, 3, 5, and 2 minutes, respectively.
The pellets have been dried in two stages, UDD and DDD, and they are now cooked and converted
magnetite to hematite in three stages: Preheating, Firing and After-firing (PFA). The maximum gas
temperature in this part, which is heated by burners, is around 1300 degrees. The cooking time of
pellets in the PFA stages four pellet plants Gohar Zamin, Sangan, Mobarakeh Steel, and Khuzestan
equals 18.75, 18, 17, and 18 minutes, respectively. This result shows that the pellets are cooked in
about 18 minutes. After the PFA stages and cooking the pellets all over the bed, the pellets enter the
cooling stage. At this stage, the cleaned environment’s temperature is blown from the bottom of the
car pallet with a fan, and finally, the pellets are cooled to a temperature of about 100 °C. The cooling
time of pellets in c is equivalent to 13.5, 16.5, 12 and 12, respectively. One of the most vital
differences in the cooling section between the four planets is that the cooling time in the Sangan plant
is equal to 16.5 minutes, making the outlet temperature of the pellets at the end of the induration an
average of about 70 oC.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 5. (a) Comparison of pellet temperature profiles of top layer for Gohar Zamin, Sangan,
Mobarakeh steel and Khuzestan plants, (b) Comparison of pellet temperature profiles of bottom
layer for Gohar Zamin, Sangan, Mobarakeh steel and Khuzestan plants

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 4.2 pellet moisture
The drying phenomenon of pellets in different depths occurs in UDD and DDD stages. The inlet
moisture content of the pellets for all four pelletizing plants is estimated at 9%. Pellet humidity
changes in UDD and DDD sections for all four pelletizing plants at three different heights have been
analyzed. In Gohar Zamin Company, the lower inlet pellets are dried for 3.75 minutes first, and the
upper pellets in the DDD section are dried for 5 minutes. The contour of pellet moisture changes in
the Gohar Zamin plant can be seen in Fig. 6. The drying time of incoming pellets in Sangan,
Mobarakeh, and Khuzestan plants in the UDD stage is equal to 5, 3, 2 minutes and in the DDD stage
is equal to 4, 5, 4 minutes. The drying of pellets in the middle of the bed needs a longer time than
other layers.

Fig 6. Comparison of pellet moisture profiles of bottom and top layer for Gohar Zamin, Sangan,
Mobarakeh steel and Khuzestan plants

4.3 Oxidation rate

During the palletization process in all plants, the oxidation of magnetite occurs based on magnetite
content and material characteristics. A general schematic of a pellet that is converted from magnetite
to hematite during the cooking process is shown in Fig. 7. Oxidation of magnetite into hematite occurs
through two types of diffusion.

 Gaseous diffusion (gas penetrates through pores)

 Solid-state diffusion (gas penetrates through the layer of hematite particles)
 The chemical reaction is the limiting factor: a primary stage with high rates and a secondary
stage with a decreased rate.

In the induration system, the range for oxidation of magnetite is up to 300 oC, and this reaction is
started in preheating zone and finished in the after-firing zone. The oxidation rates for the magnetite
pellets for four pelletizing plants at the top and bottom layers are shown in Fig. 8. The profiles have
been predicted for the magnetite pellets exposed to DDD, preheating, firing and after-firing zones.
AF stages. The change magnetite into hematite is the essential main reaction during preheating and
firing zones. Firstly, oxidation takes place on the surface of the particles and cracks. Then, the
oxidation reaction will progress towards the pellet core with increasing temperature in the firing zone.
Comparison of oxidation rates for different plants showed that the upper pellets converted to hematite

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faster. On the other hand, the magnetite oxidation for the lower layers of the pellet, about 11%, is less
than the upper layers. Also, the rate of magnetic oxidation in Goharzamin and Sangan plants is more
suitable than other plants.

Fig. 7. Oxidation of magnetite pellets

Fig. 8. Comparison of oxidation rate profiles of bottom and top layer for Gohar Zamin, Sangan,
Mobarakeh steel and Khuzestan plants

5. Conclusions

In this article, a community study on straight grate pelletizing plants in Iran has been conducted and
the oxidation reaction process for several pelletizing plants was simulated. The model expanded in
this research illustrates that the induration process is sensitive to several pelletizing plants in
operational conditions. The modelling tool is based on a rigorous first principles-based model of the
induration process. It incorporates essential Physico-chemical phenomena such as oxidation ration,
gas-solid heat transfer between gas and pellets, drying and condensation of moisture in UDD and
DDD, the flow of gases through a porous bed and kinetics of various reactions that occur during
induration.
In this model, the reaction of magnetite and moisture taking place throughout the induration process
have been incorporated. As a result, profiles in pellet temperature, pellet moisture, oxidation rate have
been obtained for several pelletizing plants in Iran and a comparison was made between them. The
oxidation rate starts in preheating zone and ends in the firing zone.

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Nomenclature

A Surface area of pellets per m3 (1/𝑚) 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑚 rate of Limestone decomposition (

𝑘𝑔𝑠.𝑚3)
Cg Heat capacity of gas (J kg-1 K-1) 𝑇𝑔 Gas temperature (𝐾)
Cp -1
Heat capacity of pellets (J kg K ) -1 𝑇𝑝 Pellet temperature (𝐾)
Co2 Concentration of oxygen (𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠 ‒ 3 ‒ 1 𝑒𝑝 Pellet porosity
)
e 𝑒𝑏
C o2 Equilibrium concentration of oxygen ( Void fraction of pellet bed
‒3 ‒1
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠 )
DH2o Diffusivity of component 𝐻2𝑜 (𝑚2𝑠 ‒ 1 𝜇𝑔 Gas viscosity (𝑘𝑔𝑚.𝑠)
)
DH2oe Effective diffusivity of component 𝐻2𝑜 Δ𝐻𝑤 Enthalpy of reaction of pellet
(𝑚2𝑠 ‒ 1)
dp Pellet diameter (𝑚) Δ𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑔 Enthalpy of magnetite iron (𝐽𝑘𝑔 ‒ 1)
𝑓𝑔 ‒
Gas flowrate ( 𝑘𝑔𝑚 .𝑠 ) 2 ‒ 1 𝜌𝑔 Density of Gas (𝑘𝑔 𝑚 ‒ 3)
h ‒
Heat transfer coefficient (𝐽𝑚 .𝑠 . 2 ‒ 1 𝜌𝑏 Bulk density of pellet bed 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 ‒ 3)
𝐾 ‒ 1)
𝑘𝑚 Chemical reaction rate of limestone
)𝑠 ‒ 1 (𝑚
P (𝑃𝑎)Pressure
𝑟𝑤 (𝑚)Radius of moisture
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑔 (𝑚)Radius of limestone

Conflict of Interest Statement

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

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