Geeta Institute of Pharmacy, Panipat

Ist Sessional Examination 2021

D. Pharmacy Ist year

Subject: Human Anatomy & Physiology (ER20 -14T)

Time Duration: - 01:30 hrs MM: 40

Section –A
Q1. Explain the following terms. (3×5=15)
(i) Homeostasis (ii) Anatomy (iii)Physiology
(iv) Erythropoiesis (v) Histology (vi) Cytology (vii) Disease
(viii) Health (ix) Eukaryotes (x) Nucleus
SECTION –B
Note: Attempt any three. (5x3=15)
Q2. Explain muscular tissue & its types.
Q3. Composition and function of blood.
Q4.Write short note on epithelial tissue.
Q5. Write a short on white blood corpuscles (WBC’s)
Q6. Explain the mechanism of blood clotting.
SECTION-C
Q6. Note: Attempt any one. (10x1=10)
(a) Explain in detail the structure & functions of cell and cell components.
or
(b) Explain connective tissue and its various types with examples.

Explanations

Q1. Define the following terms.

➢ Homeostasis
Homeostasis is any self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability while
adjusting to conditions that are best for its survival. The property of system either open or closed, which
regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition of human body like
temperature, pH, fluid balance, blood pressure, sugar level etc.

➢ Anatomy derived from Greek words: ana means ‘up’ and tomy means ‘cutting, and hence anatomy
deals with study of structural components of body i.e. organs by means of surgical dissection.Branch of
biomedical science dealing with normal structure, shape, size and location of various parts of the body
➢ Physiology derived from Greek words physis means ‘nature’ and logos means ‘science or study’, and
hence physiology helps to understand how body works i.e. functioning of body. Science deals with the
functions of the living organism and its parts (i.e. functions of body parts and their synchronized
working to co-ordinate the actions of whole body).
 ➢ Erythropoiesis
It is the process of the formation of RBC’s. RBC’s are produced mainly in red bone marrow and
kidneys produce hormone erythropoietin that regulates erythropoiesis.
➢ Cytology
Study of cell and its components eg., cell organelles.
➢ Histology
The study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals.
➢ Disease
The World Health Organization's claim that health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.
Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and
symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions.
For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases,
including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies and autoimmune disorders.
➢ Health
According to WHO, “The word health refers to a state of complete emotional and physical well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”
This definition promoted for the first time that, in addition to physical and mental health, social welfare
is an integral component of the overall health, because health is closely linked to the social environment
and living and working conditions.
➢ Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes (means true nucleus) are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear
envelope. ... Eukaryotic cells typically contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria
and Golgi apparatus; and chloroplasts can be found in plants and algae.
➢ Nucleus
A nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's chromosomes. Pores in the nuclear
membrane allow for the passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus.

Q2. Explain muscular tissue & its types.

Ans: Muscle tissue is characterized by properties that allow movement. Muscle cells are excitable; they respond
to a stimulus. They are contractile, meaning they can shorten and generate a pulling force. When attached
between two movable objects, such as two bones, contraction of the muscles cause the bones to move. Some
muscle movement is voluntary, which means it is under conscious control. For example, a person decides to
open a book and read a chapter on anatomy. Other movements are involuntary, meaning they are not under
conscious control, such as the contraction of your pupil in bright light.

Muscle tissue is classified into three types according to structure and function: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
Muscle
Structural elements Function Location
type

Long cylindrical fiber, striated, Attached to bones and around

Skeletal many peripherally located Voluntary movement, produces heat, protects organs entry & exit sites of body (e.g.,
nuclei mouth, anus)

Short, branched, striated,

Cardiac Contracts to pump blood Heart
single central nucleus

Short, spindle-shaped, no Involuntary movement, moves food, involuntary

Walls of major organs and
Smooth evident striation, single control of respiration, moves secretions, regulates
passageways
nucleus in each fiber flow of blood in arteries by contraction

Q3. Composition and function of blood.

Ans: Blood: Composition and Function
• Blood is a red colour pigment that circulates in the body. It contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets.
It performs various functions in the body.
• Blood is a connective tissue that helps in the transportation of substances like oxygen, glucose etc, protects
against diseases and regulates the temperature of the body.
• It is red in colour due to a red pigment called hemoglobin present in its red cells.
Composition of blood
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main components:
• Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid .
• Formed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and platelets.
• The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma membrane and have a definite
structure and shape. All formed elements are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone
marrow cells.
Formed elements are:
• Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)
• Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets •
Leukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called granulocytes which consist of neutrophils,
eosinophils and basophils; and agranulocytes which consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.

Q 4.Write short note on epithelial tissue.

Ans: Epithelial tissues (Epithelia): An epithelium is a tissue composed of onr or more layer of cells covering
the external and internal surfaces of various body parts.
They are located on the outer surfaces of organs, including the skin. They form the linings of tracts, cavities,
and vessels. The epithelial tissues arise from all the three primary germ layers: actoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm. Epithelial tissues consist of variously shaped cells closely held together by intercellular junction like
desmosomes, tight junctions, interdigitations etc. The cells of lowermost layers always rest on a non living
basement membrane or basal lamina. Basement membrane is made up of no cell product of epithelial tissue. It
is formed of mucopolysaccharides, glycoprotein and collagen or reticular fibres. Blood vessels are absent in the
epiyhelial tissues. However, nerve endings may penetrate the epithelium. The free surface of cells may be
smooth or may have fine hair like cilia, stereocilia, and microvilli. Epithelium is subjected to continuous wear
and tear and injury.

Classification of epithelium tissue

A. Simple Epithelia: The cells are arranged in a single layer, forming one cell thick epithelium. Simple
epithelia are further divisible as follows:
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
4. Simple Ciliated Epithelium
5. Pseudo-stratified Epithelium

B. Conpound Epithelia: It is complex in structure and basically made up of two or more than two layers of
cells. The compound epithelia may be stratified and transitional.
1. Stratified Epithelium
I. Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium
II. Stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium
III. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
IV. Stratified columnar epithelium
2. Transitional Epithelium: This is a multi-layered epithelium and is 4-6 cells thick. It differs from stratified
squamous epithelium in that the cells at the surface are not squamous. The deepest cells are columnar or
cuboidal. The middle layers are made up of polyhedral or pear-shaped cells. The cells of the surface layers are
large and often shaped like an umbrella. Because of its distribution in the urinary system, it is also called
urothelium. When stretched this epithelium appears to be thinner and the cells become flattened or rounded.
Location: This epithelium is found in the renal pelvis and calyses, the ureter, the urinary bladder and part of the
urethra.
Q5. Write a short on white blood corpuscles (WBC’s)
Ans: Also called WBC and white blood cell.
Originate from the hemocytoblast stem cell made in the bone marrow. They are Colorless, have
nuclei and granules which can be made visible by staining. They are found in the blood and lymph
tissue. Leukocytes are part of the body’s immune system.

Function

➢ They help the body fight infection and other diseases.

➢ Remove dead cells and tissues.
Types

Granulocytes and agranulocytes are the two types of white blood cells or leukocytes.

Granulocytes contain granules or sacs in their cytoplasm and agranulocytes do not. Each type of
granulocyte and agranulocyte plays a slightly different role in fighting infection and disease.
The three types of granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
The two types of agranulocytes are lymphocytes(T cells and B cells) and monocytes.

Q6. Explain the mechanism of blood clotting.

Ans: Blood clotting
Blood Clotting also known as Hemostasis – arrest of bleeding.
It occurs in three steps:
1) Platelet plug: platelets stick to themselves and to collagen present in broken endothelium.
2) Vascular spasm and vasoconstriction: In larger vessels smooth muscle spontaneously constricts
when damaged. This can reduce blood loss even from injuries to major vessels.
3) Coagulation: chemical reactions that lead to a fibrin clot.
Coagulation Platelets release chemical factors such as thromboxane, PF3, ADP, serotonin, etc.
Which converts prothrombin to thrombin and thrombin finally converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
Q7. Note: Attempt any one
(a) Explain in detail the structure & functions of cell and cell organelles.
Ans: Cell The basic , living structural and functional unit of body or life, consists of a cell membrane/
plasma membrane inside which the number of organelles suspended in a watery fluid called cytosol.
Functions of Cell
• Reproduction by cell division,
• Use of enzymes and other proteins coded by DNA genes and made via messenger RNA intermediates
and ribosomes,
• Metabolism,
• Response to external and internal stimuli such as change in temperature, pH or levels of nutrients, and
• Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that is made from a phospholipid bilayer
with proteins embedded in it.
The Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane: Cells flexible outer surface that separates cells internal
environment from an external one. Constituents of cell membrane include phospholipids (25 %),
cholesterol (03%), Proteins (55 %), carbohydrates (03 %), and other lipids (04%).
A cell consists of plasma membrane inside which is number of organelles suspended in watery fluid
called cytosol (cytoplasm). Cytosol is a transparent, viscous gel like fluid containing 75-90% of water,
and the suspended or dissolved components such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, different inorganic
substances and salts etc.
a) Nucleus: Spherical, oval shaped structure, usually acts as the most prominent feature of the cell,
present in all the types of the cells. Skeletal muscle cell and few other cells have multiple numbers of
nuclei while mature RBCs are non-nucleated.
b) Mitochondria (Mito: thread, chondria: granules) The sausage shape structure in the cytoplasm,
sometime described as ‘power house’ of the cell, because they generates many ATP molecules through
an aerobic respiration.
c) Ribosomes The sites of protein synthesis. It exists in much higher amount in RNA and rRNA.
Structure & Function It consists of two subunits, one about half the size of others. The large and small
subunits made separately in the nucleolus, a spherical body located in the nucleus. Once produced, both
the subunits exit through nucleus and come in cytoplasm.
d) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Endo: inside, plasmic: cytoplasm, reticulum: network) The network
of membrane in the form of flattened sacs or tubules, extends from the nuclear envelop to which it is
connected throughout the cytoplasm, and constitutes more than half of the membrane surface in the
cytoplasm.
e) Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex or Golgi bodies Consists of stacks of closely folded flattened
membranous sacs, called as cisternae (singular- cisterna) and present in all the cells but is larger on
those areas that synthesize and export proteins
f) Lysosomes (Lyso: dissolving, somas: body) The membrane enclosed vesicles formed from the
Golgi complex, contains variety of enzymes involved in the breakdown fragments of organelles and
macromolecules (RNA, DNA, carbohydrates and proteins) into the smaller particles that are either
recycled or extruded from the cell as the waste material. Lysosomes that are located in the WBCs are
involved in breakdown or digestion of foreign materials such as microbes.
g) Peroxisomes (Peroxi: peroxide, somas: body) Shows the similar structure to lysosomes but smaller
than lysosomes, and are very abundant in liver- the site of detoxification process.
h) Proteasomes Tiny, barrel shape structure present in numerous, both in the nucleus and cytosol and
are involved in the continuous destruction of unneeded, damaged or faulty proteins
 i) Cytoskeleton The network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol. Types of the
filamentous proteins- Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments and Microtubules, in order of their
increasing diameter.
j) Centrosomes Are located near the nucleus, consists of two components, a pair of centrioles and peri-
centriolar material.

(b) Explain connective tissue and its various types with examples.
Ans:
This is the most widespread and abundant type of tissue in the human body. Its function is primarily to support,
anchor and connect various parts of the body. Connective tissues are formed by the mesoderm of the embryo.
Although connective tissue exists in a number of forms, all types have three basic structural elements -- cells,
fibres and intercellular substance (ground substance).
Ground Substance (Matrix): It is mainly a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins. These has been identified as
various forms of mucopolysaccharides. The most common mucopolysaccharide ground substance is hyaluronic
acid.
Connective Tissue Cells: The most common cell types are fibroblasts, which produce fibres and other
intercellular materials. Adipose cells store fat. Plasma cells synthesize antibodies. Mast cells produce heparin
(anticoagulant), histamine (autocoid, dilates blood vessels in allegic reactions) and serotonin (vasoconstrictor).
Macrophages inget cell debris, bacteria and foreign matter.
Connective Tissue Fibres: The most common types of fibres are: collagen fibres (white fibres) , elastic
fibres(yellow fibres) and reticular fibres. Collagen fibres are for strength and made up of collagen protein.
While the elastic fibres are for elasticity of the tissue and made up of elastin protein. Reticular fibres are
inelastic and made up of reticulin protein. They always form network. Both the cells and the fibres are
embedded in the intercellular substance. The consistency of this substance is highly variable from gelatin-like to
a much more rigid material.
Classification of Connective Tissue
I. Connective Tissue Proper -- encompasses all organs and body cavities connecting one part with another
and, equally important, separating one group of cells from another. This is a very large and diverse group of
tissues and includes adipose tissue (fat), areolar (loose) tissue, and dense regular tissue.
I. Connective tissue proper
a) Areolar (Loose) Connective Tissue: The fibres of areolar connective tissue are arranged in no particular
pattern but run in all directions and form a loose network in the intercellular material. Collagen (collagenous)
fibres are predominant. It is used to attach the skin to the underlying tissue. It also fills the spaces between
various organs and thus holds them in place as well as cushions and protects them. It also surrounds and
supports the blood vessels
b) Adipose Connective Tissue : It is fat storing connective tissue. The cells of adipose (fat) tissue called
adipocytes or fat cells are characterized by a large internal fat droplet, which distends the cell so that the
cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer and the nucleus is displaced to the edge of the cell. dipose tissue is chiefly a
food reserve. Adipose tissue, also forms shock absorbing cushion around and protects certain organs (eye balls
& kidney) and regions of the body.
C) Dense (Fibrous) Regular Connective Tissue: Dense connective tissue is characterized by an abundance of
parallel bundles of fibres fibres with fewer cells, as compared to the loose connective tissue. It is divided into
two types: White fibrous connective tissue and yellow elastic connective tissue.
II. Specialized Connective Tissues -- this group includes cartilage, bone, and blood. Cartilage and bone form
the skeletal framework of the body while blood is the vascular (transport) tissue of animals.