BIOLOGY NOTES Molecule - two or more atoms of the same or different

I. General Biology A. Scientific Method elements bonded together Atom - the smallest non-
1. Observation - the action or process of examining living unit
something ex. phenomena/problem 3. All living organisms are classified into a scheme:
2. Hypothesis - a possible explanation of a specific Kingdom
phenomenon; scientific guess. Subkingdom
• Prediction – a claim about what you can expect to see Phylum
in nature if a theory or hypothesis is correct. Subphylum
Class
• Theory – a testable explanation of a broad range of
Subclass
phenomena Order
3. Experiment/Data Gathering - an attempt to Family
produce actual observations that match predicted or Genus
expected observations. Species
4. Conclusion - a statement about whether a theory or
hypothesis should be accepted, rejected, or modified based
on tests of the prediction derived from it. Kingdom Characteristics Examples
5. Publication B. Properties of Life Archaeabacteria prokaryotic unicellular halophiles,
1. All organisms share the ff. common characteristics: microorganisms that are thermophiles and
• made up of the basic unit of life-cell, which come from commonly viewed as methanogens
pre-existing cells via cell division (Cell Theory) extremophiles
• acquires energy from the environment and uses Eubacteria (true bacteria) Prokaryotic, Streptococcus sp.
energy to survive by relying on metabolic and unicellular microorganisms Lactobacilli sp.
typically having rigid cell Escherichia coli
homeostatic processes
walls and flagella for
• have the ability to respond to environmental changes movement
and have the capacity for growth, development and
Fungi Eukaryotic, spore-bearing molds
reproduction based on instruction contained in their mushrooms
organisms with absorptive
DNA nutrition (saprophytic) Aspergillus sp.
Characteristics that reproduce sexually Rhizophus sp.
Viruses Organism and asexually Saccharomyces sp.
of life
Consist of cell No Yes Protista Eukaryotic unicellular or Trypanosoma sp.
unicellular-colonial Plasmodium sp.
Metabolize No Yes organisms which form no Dinoflagellates
Respond to stimuli No Yes tissues
Yes (always Yes (usually Plantae Eukaryotic, autotrophic, Moss
Multiply photosynthetic multicellular ferns
inside a cell) independently)
organisms gymnosperms
Evolve Yes Yes
Animalia Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, Insects, jellyfish
2. All living organisms can be viewed at different levels of multicellular organisms sponges, humans
organization:
An Overview of the Six Kingdom Classification
• Biosphere - includes the whole Earth and all its living
C. Cellular Basis of Life
organisms
1. Major Compounds in Living Things
• Ecosystem - a community and its physical environment
Community - the population of all species occupying Categories Subcategories Functions
the same area
Monosaccharides Energy Source
• Population - a group of individuals belonging to the same Carbohydrates Oligosaccharides Sugar Transport
species occupying a given area at the same time Polysaccharides Structural role
• Multicellular Organism - an individual composed of Glycerides
specialized, interdependent cells arrayed in tissues, Phospholipids Energy storage
organs and often organ systems Cell membrane component
• Organ System - two or more organs interacting Lipids Water retention by plants
Waxes
Component of animal cell
chemically, physically, or both
membrane
• Organ – a structural unit in which tissues are combined Steroids
in specific amounts and patterns that allow them to Structural role
perform a common task Increase in rate of reaction,
Fibrous proteins
• Tissues - a group of cells with the same specialized Proteins oxygen transport, control of
Globular proteins
function glucose metabolism and tissue
• Cell -smallest living unit, may be unicellular/multicellular defense
Organelle - sacs or other compartments that separates Adenosine
Energy carrier
activities inside the cell triphosphate(ATP)
Proton (H+) and electron
Nucleotide
• Biomolecule - three or more chains of the same Nucleic Acid
coenzyme (NAD+
transport storage
molecules(proteins, carbohydrates, fats & nucleic acids) Transmission, translation of
& NADP+)
genetic information
DNA, RNA
 2. Cell Structure and Function E. Concepts on Metabolism
1. Cells acquire energy to build, store, break down and
Cell Component Function Organism rid themselves of substances. These activities are
Cell Wall -Protection collectively called metabolism.
Plasma -Structural support, 2. A metabolic pathway is a stepwise sequence of
control of Present in all
actions in cells.
substances in & organisms.
a. biosynthetic pathway - large molecules are
out of the cell assembled and energy is stored
Nucleus -controls activities Nucleus is generally b. degradative pathway = large molecules are broken
of the cell present in eukaryotes down into simple ones and energy is released
Nucleolus -assembly of but absent in 3. The following substances take part in metabolic
ribosomes - prokaryotes. DNA pathways:
DNA encoding of is found in all • substrates/ reactants - substances that enter a
hereditary info living organisms. specific reaction
Ribosome -protein synthesis Varies in the • enzymes - proteins that serve as catalyst (speed up the
subunits for prokarya rate of reaction)
Endoplasmic Reticulum -CHO, lipids, and eukarya Present • cofactors - substances that help catalyze reaction, carry
protein synthesis only in eukarya electrons, hydrogen or functional groups stripped from
substrates
Golgi bodies -final modification
• energy carries - mainly ATP which donate energy to other
of proteins,
sorting, synthesis molecules
These organelles are
& transport & • end products - substances produced at the end of
present in all eukarya
packaging - metabolic pathway
and absent in
intracellular prokarya. 4. Metabolic Pathways
Lysosomes
digestion -ATP a. Energy Acquiring Pathways
formation Photosynthesis is the main biosynthetic pathway by which
Mitochondrion
carbon and energy enter the web of life. It consists of 2
Photosynthetic light energy Pigments are present
pigment conversion in some groups of sets of reactions:
prokarya and eukarya • Light – dependent reactions = take place at the
Chloroplast Photosynthesis
e.g. plants, thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts; the reactions
cyanobacteria produce ATP and NDPH
starch storage
• Light – independent reactions = take place in the
Chloroplast and stroma around the membrane system, producing
Central Vacuole increase cell
Central Vacuole sugar phosphates that are used in building sucrose,
surface area,
mostly present in
storage starch and other end products of photosynthesis
plants
-cell shape, cell -present in most
Cytoskeleton
motion, internal eukaryotic cells and
organization absent in prokarya -
Complex flagellum, -movement found in groups of
cilium
eukarya and prokarya
D. Cellular and Molecular Transport

1. Passive Transport Diffusion b. Energy Releasing Pathways

• net movement of molecules or ions from an area
of higher concentration to an area of lower Nearly all metabolic reactions run on energy delivered by ATP
concentration which can be produced by aerobic respiration,
• has two types: Simple Diffusion and Facilitated fermentation and other pathways
Diffusion (with the use of protein channels) that release chemical energy from
Osmosis glucose and other organic
net movement of solvent molecules through a compounds. All 3 kinds of
semipermeable, membrane from a region of pathways begin with the same
higher water concentration to a region of lower reaction, called glycolysis which
water concentration occurs only in the cytoplasm.
2. Active Transport
• net movement of ions/molecules from an area of
lower concentration to an area of higher 1. During glycolysis, a
concentration glucose molecule is partially
• requires the use of ATP (energy) broken down and 2 pyruvate, 2
• example: Sodium-Potassium Pump NADH and 4 ATP are produced
but the net energy yield is only 2
ATP molecules because the other 2 Synapsis ✖ ✓
ATP was used at the beginning of the process. Crossing-over ✖ ✓
Tetrads align
(metaphase I); Sister
2. The second stage takes Metaphase Chromosomes align
chromatids, now
place in the mitochondria; considered
pyruvate is chromosomes, align
converted into a molecule that can (metaphase II)
enter the Kreb’s cycle; by the time occurs during
DNA replication one
the cyclic reactions are over, glucose interphase I only
has been broken down completely to Number of division two (reductional and
one
CO2 and H2O, this second stage equational)
produces 10 Two, each diploid Four, each haploid (n);
Number of
coenzyme molecules (8 NADH and 2 (2n) and genetically genetically non-identical
daughter cells
FADH2) and 2 ATP. identical to the to the mother cell and
and composition
mother cell to each other
Development of
3. The third stage (Electron Transport Chain) also Production of gametes;
multicellular adult
takes place in the mitochondria; coenzymes deliver electron reduces chromosome
Importance to the from zygote;
to a transport system; operation of the system sets up H + number by half;
animal body production of cells
concentration and electric gradients, across the membrane; introduces genetic
for growth and
H+ flows down the gradients, through channel proteins, variability
tissue repair
energy associate with the flow drives the formation of ATP Cell type Somatic cells Gametes
from ADP and unbound phosphate; oxygen withdraws
electrons and combines with H+ to form water.
2. Summary of Events in Mitosis
Stage Main Event(s)
G1: growth, metabolic activity, organelles begin to
double
Interphase S: replication of DNA; duplication of chromosomes G2:
growth (Certain mature cells do not proceed to the next
step but are arrested in Go)
Chromosomes coil and condense.
Centrioles divide and spindle apparatus appears.
Chromosomes have no apparent orientation in the
II. CELL BIOLOGY A. Types of Cell Prophase
cell.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells Nucleolus disappears and
nuclear envelope fragments.
Lack nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present
Spindle fibers from centriole attach to the centromere.
Usually circular, Chromosomes gradually migrate to the midline of the
Metaphase
ringshaped chromosome Multiple, not ring-shaped cell oriented between the two centrioles.
consists only of DNA, chromosomes consist of DNA
without associated with associated proteins and Begins with the separation of the centromere.
Spindle fibers will pull centromeres toward
proteins, and lacks have centromeres
Anaphase centrioles.
centromere Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles.
Membrane-bounded Poles of the cells also move apart.
Membrane-bounded organelles
organelles (e.g. The two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles
present
mitochondria) absent where they begin to uncoil.
Telophase ends with cytokinesis (cellular division)
Diameter typically 20 microns Telophase
Seldom exceed 2 microns and the formation of two daughter cells. Nucleolus
and more appears in each daughter cells.
Lack capacity to Nucleus will contain diploid number of cells.
Great capacity to differentiate
differentiate into 3. Summary of Events in Meiosis
in structure and function with
specialized tissues in Stage Main Event(s)
multicellular bodies
multicellular organisms Interphase The same as in mitosis.
Occur only as bacteria and Make up bodies of protists, Synapsis: homologous chromosomes come side by
cyanobacteria (blue-green fungi, plants, and animals side to form a tetrad.
algae) Crossing-over: homologous chromosomes
Prophase I exchange segments at intersections called
chiasmata. What is the significance of
B. Cell Division
this?
1. Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Chromosomes # 2n n
 to a white cow so that the offsprings are rean
Chromosomes are now arranged in metaphase (mixture of red and white hairs)
Metaphase I
plate, still in homologous pairs. • Epistasis - a phenomenon in which one gene alters
the expression of another gene.
Homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite • Polygenic inheritance - an additive effect of two or
Anaphase I poles. more gene loci on a single phenotypic character as
Sister chromatids still intact. in skin color.
The spindle apparatus continues to separate the
Telophase I and homologous chromosomes until they reach the D. Human Genetics
Cytokinesis poles. Each pole now has a haploid chromosome 1. Sex-Linked Recessive Disorders/X-linked Traits:
set.
• traits or disorders associated with the sex
Spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes chromosomes e.g. red-green color blindness;
Prophase II
progress toward the metaphase II plate. hemophilia
Metaphase II Chromosomes align at the center • for females, sex-linked recessive disorders are
The centromeres of sister chromatids separate. expressed phenotypically only in the homozygous
Anaphase II Each sister chromatid now becomes individual condition; in the heterozygous condition, the female
chromosomes. merely becomes a carrier and does not
Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles. phenotypically express the traits.
Telophase II
There are now four daughter cells. Each with a • in males, the trait is expressed even in the
and Cytokinesis
haploid number of chromosomes. hemizygous condition since there is only one locus
(one X chromosomes)
III. GENETICS A. Terms Used in Genetics • Patterns for Transmission of Sex-Linked Recessive
• Gene = functional unit chemically composed of DNA. Traits/Disorders: A father with the trait will transmit
• Genosome = sum total of all the genes present in the mutant allele to all daughters but to no sons. If
an individual. the mother has the trait, she will transmit the mutant
• Allele = any member of a given pair of genes; if the allele to both sons and daughters.
alleles are identical then the condition is said to be 2. Autosomal Disorders
homozygous and the individual is a homozygote; if • Aneuploidy - failure of members of homologous pairs
the alleles are non-identical, then the condition is of chromosomes to separate during meiosis II.
said to be heterozygous and the individual is a • Polyploidy - presence of an entire extra set of
heterozygote. chromosomes; triploidy = 3n; tetraploidy = 4n
• Genotype = genetic composition of an individual
• Phenotype = external appearance of an individual
• Monohybrid Cross = involves a single pair of 3. Sex Chromosomal Disorders
contrasting genes
GENOTYPE SYNDROME PHENOTYPE
• Dihybrid Cross = involves 2 pairs of contrasting
genes XO Turner female
• Polyhybrid Cross = involves three or more pairs of Metafemale/
XXX female
contrasting genes. Superfemale
Parental Generation (P) = parents of a cross XXY Klinefelter male
Filial Generation (F) = offsprings of a cross; F1 XYY “Criminal” normal male
= first filial generation (children);
YYY not viable
F2 = second filial generation (grandchildren)
Deviations from Mendelian Ratios:
- Incomplete dominance -Co-dominance
B. Mendelian Laws/ Principles:
- Dominant lethal -Recessive lethal
1. Law of Segregation
- Overdominance - Maternal inheritance
• factors for a trait segregate during gametic formation
• during gamete formation, members of any given pair of
IV.BIOCHEMISTRY
genes separate so that any sex cell transmits only one
member of the pair, this parallels separation of
BIOCHEMICAL BASES OF LIFE
homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
A. CARBOHYDRATE(L.“carbos”charcoal, “hydros” water)
2. Law of Independent Assortment = during formation of
gametes members of any given pair of genes are • Most abundant organic molecule in nature
distributed independently of one another. • Monomer is monosaccharide, polymer is
polysaccharide Common ratio is Cn(H2O)n “hydrate
C. Common Patterns of Inheritance of carbon”
• Codominance - the effects of contrasting genes are • Functions include energy sources and structural
both expressed; ex. Blood type “AB” elements
• Incomplete dominance - the offspring is a blending • Macromolecules are linked together by a process
between the 2 parents as when a red bull is mated called dehydration synthesis/ condensation (removal
 of water) and are broken down to their component • Functions include transport, storage, and insulation.
monosaccharides through hydrolysis. 3 types: oils (saturated and unsaturated), waxes,
• They are classified as phospholipids
monosaccharides, disaccharides, • Oil is liquid at room temperature, while wax is solid.
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides Phospholipids usually assume two forms in an aqueous
according to the number of simple sugars they environment: micelle and phospholipids bilayer.
contain. • Oil is usually plant-derived, while fat is animalderived.
- monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose,
mannose)
D. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose)
• Watson- Crick Model : o Nucleotides (monomer) are
- oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide units, found
connected to each other by phosphodiester bonds. o
in ER, GB)
Nucleotide is made up of three components:
- polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin,
nitrogenous base, sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) and
pectin, gum, peptidoglycan)
phosphate group.
o The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine,
B. PROTEINS
cytosine, thymine, uracil. o Base Pairs are
connected by Hydrogen Bonds o # Adenine (A) = #
• Monomer is amino acid, polymer is polypeptide
thymine (T) o # Guanine (G) = # cytosine (C)
• There are currently 20 naturally-occurring amino acids
• It is involved in heredity, protein synthesis, and as energy
• Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds
carriers.
• To denature a protein, it means breaking of peptide bonds
• There are two types: DNA and RNA.
• There are four levels of protein structure: Primary ,
Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary) Proteins have the
following functions: DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Function Examples Bases A, G, C, T A, G, C, U
Enzymes (amylase, cellulose, Strand Double-stranded Single-stranded
1. Catalysis
papase/ papain) Helix Helical Non-helical
Collagen (connective tissue matrix) mRNA, tRNA, rRNA,
Examples B-DNA, A-DNA, Z-DNA
Fibroin (silk), spider web hnRNA, snRNA
2. Structure V. ECOLOGY A. Ecological Relationships
Keratin (hair, horns, feathers,
hooves)
An organism is usually associated with another organism.
Rarely do we find organisms not interacting with another
Actin and tubulin (involved in cell
3. Movement movements in Amoeba and sperm
one. Biotic ecological relationships shape the community to
cells; found in flagella and cilia) which they belong and promote energy flow through the
food chain/web.
Skin keratin (first line of protection)
An Overview of Ecological Relationships
Fibrinogen and thrombin (blood clot)
Relationship Organism Organism Example
4. Defense Antibodies (secreted by lymphocytes 1 2
in response to infection)
Mycchorizae,
Spines of sea urchin termite and
Mutualism
Hormones (insulin & glucagon, + + cellulose-
5. Regulation (Symbiosis) degrading
growth hormone)
microorganism
Hemoglobin (oxygen and waste
material transport) Endoparasitism
(intestinal
6. Transport Myoglobin (transport of oxygen to Parasitism + - worms),
muscles) ectoparasitism
Glucose transporters (lice, ticks)
Zein (corn), gliadin (wheat), Predation + - Eagles and rats
7. Storage plastids, ovalbumin (egg white), Commensalism + 0 Epiphytes and
casein (milk) trees
Plants in a pot;
C. LIPIDS (L. “lipos” fat) Competition +/ - +/ - fish in the
• Unlike other biological polymers, lipids are not defined aquarium
by specific, repeating monomeric units. Rather, they
are defined by their water-repelling property. B. Distribution Patterns
• They contain 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. Individuals occupying a particular area often compete for
• They also contain non-polar hydrocarbon groups resources. As such they exhibit unique distribution patterns
(-CH3, -CH2) to maximize available resources.
Type Pattern Processes
 trees are Population Density – no. of individuals in a given area. It
common; is affected by Birth Rate and Death Rate that in turn are
faunal affected by two factors:
diversity is low -Density Dependent Factors – age, gender
Dominated by -Density Independent Factors – natural calamities
Winter
Alaska, timber trees; The r/K Selection Theory
Taiga longer than Fertile
Canada animals are An “r-selected species” predominates in fluctuating and
6 months
usually large
unstable environments while a “K-selected species”
Soil predominate in stable ones
covered
North Lowest biotic
Tundra Cold and dry by
Pole diversity
permafr
ost
An individual has an Neutral interactions A lot of grasses
equal probability of between individuals and Wetter than and
Random deserts but
occurring anywhere in local environment herbaceous
North Thin in
the area Prairies with plants;
America occasional nutrients
Individuals are Antagonistic interactions animals are
uniformly spaced droughts droughttolerant
between individuals or
Regular throughout the local depletion of
environment resources Deciduous
Japan, Receive
Red-wood Usually trees
Individuals live in areas China, winter
Attraction between forests fertile dominate’
of high local Siberia precipitation
individuals or attraction of coniferous
Clumped abundance, which are
individuals to a common
separated by areas of
resource 2. Aquatic Biomes
low abundance
Physical Chemical
Biome Biology Threats
C. Biomes Factors Factors
Ecological relationships are best understood in the context 80% of Salinity is
Plankton at
of Biomes. Biomes are large-scale ecosystem primarily light 34g / kg of
the base of
The deep absorbed water;
distinguished by their dominant vegetation and are usually the food Muroami
sea in the first oxygen
associated with a particular climate. chain;
10m; water highest in the
1. Terrestrial Biomes bioluminescent
movement surface
Name Location Climate Soil Biodiversity Sufficient
light; warm A variety of Cyanide
waters; Fairly stable
100 North Fair Coral corals, coral fishing;
Low in salinity;
and amounts of reefs water fishes and pollution
Tropical organic Most diverse welloxygenated
South of rain movements algae siltation
rainforests matter ecosystem delivers O2
the throughout
content
Equator the year Variable
Oxygen thin; Breeding
temp. Tidal de-
Mangrove salinity grounds,
movements forestati
Fair Animals and Forests highly high primary
move on
amount plants diverse fluctuating production
Tropical 10 to 25
0 0
Seasonal organisms
of in wettest
dry forests latitude climate Light Low salinity; Support
organic areas
matter limited oxygen 2000 fish
by inversely species and
Tropical Seasonal Animals often Pollution
particulate correlated with benthic
Savanna drought, Rocky associated Rivers ;
Africa solids; temp. invertebrate
aka Safari intense soil with plant siltation
temp
lightning cover
tracks air
Plant cover the temp.
absent in
Light
300 N and many places;
absorption Variable
Deserts S Hot Lithosol animals in Surfacta
depends salinity;
latitudes association nt
on oxygen Very
with rocks and Lakes depositio
chemistry; dependent productive
boulders n-
temp on biological
Mediter- Dominated by siltation
Evergreen Thin in depends on activity
ranean, Cool evergreen the season;
forest California nutrients
trees
D. POPULATION ECOLOGY
- a branch that deals with the dynamics of species
populations and how they interact with their environment.
Central to this is how species maximize their reproductive VI. Botany A. Plant Cells 1. Comparison between
strategies to survive their changing environments. Plant Cell & Animal Cell

• Biotic Potential: refers to the maximum rate of

increase per individual under ideal conditions.
• Carrying Capacity: refers to the maximum number of
individuals in a population that can be sustained indefinitely
by a given environment.
• Biological Magnification: refers to the increasing
concentration of a non-degradable or slowly degradable
substance in body tissues as it is passed along the food
chain.
• Survivorship: survival of a given group of species from 2. Plant Cell Structures
the time of the birth until the time the last one dies. - bound by a cell wall consist mainly of cellulose - a
pectic middle lamella lies between the primary cell
walls of adjacent plant cells
r-selected K-selected - the outer boundary of the protoplasm (cytoplasm and
nucleus) is a sandwich-like, flexible plasma membrane.
Traits Reproduce quickly
Longer generation - special organelles in plants:
with short
times a. Chloroplasts
generation times
o Specialized subunit that conduct photosynthesis
Smaller organisms Longer organisms where the chlorophyll is found
High level of parental o Inside a chloroplast is a matrix called the stroma.
Low level of
investment parents Enzymes are found in the stroma as well as
parental investment
take care of their grana—stacks of coin-shaped discs, called
offspring are
young and tend to thylakoids.
dispersed over a
keep them close until • where photosynthesis takes place.
wide area
maturity • contain their own DNA.
Population High mortality Low mortality before • rely on proteins from the nucleus, and are
before maturity maturity considered semi-autonomous organelles.
b. Vacuoles
Tend to favour large Tend to favour fever
number of offspring offspring who can o 90% of the volume of the cell may be taken up by
to ensure survival compete successfully single large vacuole or several vacuoles. o Bound by a
until the next for limited resources membrane, tonoplast o Contains cell sap – composed
change in in a stable of dissolved
environment environment substances and may include pigments.
bacteria, weeds, humans, elephants, B. Plant Characteristics
Examples Mode of nourishment Autotrophic
insects, rodents whales
Extent of growth Indeterminate
E. Energy Flow Cell wall Cellulose; rigid; inert
Energy Flows in the Ecosystem: Nervous system Absent
Application of the Laws of Thermodynamics Mobility Mostly immobile
- Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can Primary food reserve Starch; unsaturated oils
be transformed from one form to another.
Waste products Photosynthesis; CO2 from metabolism
- Energy transfer is 100% efficient

C. Plant Basic Anatomy

1. Types of Plant Cells

• Parenchyma- least specialized; serves for general
metabolic synthetic and storage functions; retain the
ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types
under certain conditions.
• Collenchyma- occur in strands or cylinders; pectin
alternates with cellulose; for strength.
• Sclerenchyma- which signifies secondary walls;
unable to elongate at maturity; consist of fibers and
sclereid types; for support and protection.
 2. Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are characterized and classified according
to their structure and function. The organs that they
form will be organized into patterns within a plant
which will aid in further classifying the plant.
a. Meristematic Tissues - primarily concerned with
protoplasmic synthesis and cell division.
i. Apical Meristem
o located at or near the tips of roots and shoots o
responsible for vertical growth(primary growth) o
produce three types of primary meristems:
protoderm, ground meristems, and
procambium which will produce the cells that will
form the primary tissues.
ii. Lateral Meristem
o occupies a lateral position, parallel to roots and
stems
o account for secondary growth(horizontal growth),
i.e. girth, diameter, width
o vascular cambium (cambium)
- Responsible for the production of cells and tissues
that increase the thickness, girth, of the plant
that runs the length of the roots and stems of
most perennial plants and many herbaceous
annuals.
o cork cambium
- Thin cylinder that runs the length of roots and stems
that are only found in woody plants
iii. Intercalary Meristem
• Derived from apical meristem
• May be intercalated between tissues that are
more or less mature
b. Permanent Tissue Systems:
• Dermal Tissue System- an external layer of tightly
packed cells for protection; includes the epidermis
(formed during primary growth) and periderm
(formed during secondary growth).
• Epidermis - outermost layer of cells on all plant
organs (roots, stems, leaves)
• Periderm - made of semi-rectangular and boxlike
cork cells; dead at maturity and secretes suberin, a
fatty substance that make cork cells waterproof thus
aid in protecting tissues beneath the bark.
• Ground Tissue System- fundamental tissue that
functions for organic synthesis, storage and support;
includes parenchyma, collenchymas, sclerenchyma
and endodermis.
• Vascular Tissue System- conducting tissue of
plants; includes xylem and phloem.
• Xylem – carries water and dissolved substances
• Phloem – carries dissolved food substances
throughout the plant.
D. Plant Physiology 1. Plant Metabolism
a. Photosynthesis
- process by which light energy is captured, converted and
stored in simple sugar molecule.
Equation:
6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 -
occurs in two successive processes: the light reactions and
the carbon-fixing reactions.
The Light Reactions
- Involve light striking the chlorophyll
molecules embedded in the thylakoids of
chloroplasts
- Results in conversion of light energy to
chemical energy
- Water molecules split into H+ and e- and O2
is released and ATP are created
The Carbon-Fixing Reactions (Dark
Reactions)
- Light does not play a direct role
- Take place outside the grana in the stroma
of the chloroplast
- Most common type in plants is the Calvin
Cycle.
- The ATP and NADPH molecules from the
light reactions provide the energy and
resources for the reactions
-
Mechanisms of Converting CO2 to Sugar a. The
Calvin Cycle (3-Carbon Pathway)
• With the assistance of the enzyme
rubisco (RuBP carboxylase),
• The sugars produced can either add to
an increase in the sugar content
(carbohydrate content) of the plant or
they can be used in pathways that lead
to the production of lipids and amino
acids.
b. 4-Carbon Pathway (C4 Plants)
• This process is enzyme mediated and
occurs in the mesophyll cells of the leaf
• The C4 cycle furnishes carbon dioxide to
the Calvin cycle in a more roundabout
way than the C3 pathway
• greatly reduces photorespiration in C4
plants
c. CAM-Photosynthesis (Crassulecean Acid
Metabolism)
• accumulate malic acid in their
chlorenchyma tissues at night, which is
converted back to carbon dioxide during
the day
• generally close their stomata during the
day in order to reduce water loss
b. Respiration:
Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2
Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Takes in CO2 Release CO2
2. Releases O2 Binds O2
 3. Synthesizes sugar & other Degrades sugar & other organic
organic compounds compounds
4. Results in increase in dry weig h Results in decrease in dry weight
5. Occurs only in the presence of
chlorophyll Occurs in all living cells
7. Stores energy Releases energy
8. Occurs in the presence of light Occurs throughout life

c. Nitrogen Fixation
The roots of legumes have nodular swelling that house
nitrogen fixing bacteria, which have co evolved with
the plants in mutualistic symbiotic relationship.
- Equation:
N+8e +8H+ +16ATP nitrogenase 2NH +H +16ADP+16P
Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration

2. Sexual Reproduction Overview

3. Plant Hormones
Where
Hormones Produced or Functions
Found in Plant
Stimulate stem
elongation, root
embryo or seed,
growth, dev. Of
Auxin (IAA) apical meristems, fruit, apical
young leaves dominance &
differentiation
Synthesized in Cell div. &
roots & growth root &
Cytokinin (Zeatin)
transported to diff. germination
other organs flowering
Promote seed &
Apical bud bud germination,
Gibberellins meristem, young stem elongation,
leaves, embryo flowering fruit
development
Inhibits growth,
closes stomata,
Leaves, stems &
Abscissic acid counteracts
green fruit
breaking of
dormancy
Tissues of
Promotes fruit
ripening fruits,
ripening, opposes
Ethylene nodes of stem,
some auxin
senescent leaves
effects
and flowers

4. Plant Movements

Plants move in response to several environmental stimuli such

as: light, gravity and mechanical disturbances. These
movements fall into two groups: tropisms and nastic
movements.
a. Tropism
- plant movement that is determined by the direction of an
environmental stimulus. Movement toward an environmental
stimulus is called a positive tropism, and movement away from
a stimulus is called a negative tropism.
-e.g. Phototropism (light), Thigmotropism(touch),
Gravitropism (gravity) & Chemotropism(chemicals)

b. Nastic Movement
- plant movement in response to environmental stimuli that
are independent of the direction of the stimuli.
-e.g. Thigmonastic and Nyctinastic