2.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
We have discussed in the previous classes on different changes that occur around us and we have classified those
changes into Physical and Chemical changes.

Physical changes:

 In a physical change, no new substance is formed.

 Physical change is easily reversible i.e original substance can be recovered.
 Physical change is a temporary change.
 A Physical change affects only physical properties i.e. shape, size, etc.
 Some examples of physical change are freezing of water, melting of wax, boiling of water, etc.

Chemical changes:

 A chemical change is always accompanied by one or more new substance(s).

 Chemical changes are irreversible i.e. original substance cannot be recovered.
 A chemical change is a permanent change.
 Chemical change both physical and chemical properties of the substance including its composition
 A few examples of chemical change are digestion of food, burning of coal, rusting, etc.

Note: the changes involved in the following activities in our daily life.

 The process of digestion.

 Burning of the crackers.
 The process of Respiration.
 Powdered lime added to water.
 Ripening of the Mango.
 Exposing iron nails to moisture in air for longer period.

In all the above processes, the nature of original substance would be changed. If new substances are formed with
properties completely unlike to those of the original substances, we say that a chemical change has taken place.

Activity1: The reaction between calcium oxide and water

 Take about 1 g of quick lime (calcium oxide) in a beaker.

 Add 10 ml of water to this.
 Touch the beaker with your finger.
 Do you notice that the beaker is hot when you touch it. The reason is that the calcium oxide (quick lime) reacts
with water and in that process heat energy is released.
 Calcium oxide dissolves in water producing colourless solution. Test the nature of solution with litmus paper.
 A red litmus paper turns blue when dipped in the above solution. This solution is a basic solution.

Chemical equation: CaO +H2O → Ca(OH)2

Activity2: : The reaction between sodium sulphate and Barium Chloride.

1.Take about 100 ml of water in a beaker and dissolve a small quantity of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
Solution colour: The resultant solution will be colourless. All sodium salts are soluble in water under normal
conditions (i.e. no saturated solutions). As sodium sulphate is a white solid, when dissolved it becomes a colourless
solution. The solution is described as colourless and not clear.

2. Take about 100ml of water in another beaker and dissolve a small quantity of barium chloride (BaCl2), observe the
colours of the solutions obtained.

Colour of solution:It is one of the most common water-soluble salts of barium.colour less.

3. Add Na2SO4 solution to BaCl2 solution.these are gives as Barium sulphate and sodium chloride.

Solution Colour is Milky white.

Chemical equation: Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → Ba SO4 + NaCl

(Colour less) (Colour less) ( White Precipitate) (Colour less).

Activity3: The reaction between zinc and HCl.

 Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask. Add about 5 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid to the zinc granules in the
conical flask.
 Gas explodes with pop sound.the evolved gas is called Hdrogen gas.

Chemical equation: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2.

Chemical Equation:

Chemical equation is a shorthand representation of a chemical change or reaction in terms of symbols and
formulae.
‣ Chemical changes are expressed in the form of chemical equations.
‣ Reactants: The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are known as reactants.
‣ Products: Substances formed due to chemical change are known as products.
‣ Reactants and products are separated by an arrow mark symbol (" ").
‣ Reactants are written on the left - hand side of the equation, connected by plus (+) sign.
‣ Products are written on the right hand side of the equation, connected by plus
(+) sign.

Examples:
(a) Zinc metal reacts with dilute Hydrochloric acid to form Zinc chloride and
Hydrogen gas.
Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2
(b) Calcium oxide reacts with water to form Calcium hydroxide.
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
If a chemical reaction occurs then mention the changes.
¤ The original substance lose their characteristic properties. Hence these may be products with different physical
states and colours.
‣ Chemical changes may be exothermic or endothermic i.e, evolve liberated or absorb heat.
‣ They may form an insoluble substance known as precipitate.
‣ Gas may be evolved.

Reactants: A reactant is a starting material in a chemical reaction that is consumed to form products. The reactant
undergoes a chemical change, forming new bonds that result in products.

A reactant is a substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction.

Products: A product is a substance that is present at the end of a chemical reaction.

Note: The reactants are all written on the left-hand side of the equation, with the products on the right-hand
side. An arrow points from the reactants to the products to indicate the direction of the reaction.

Reactants → products

calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide

Ex: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2.

Precipitation: The process of an insoluble salt forming from its aqueous ions and falling out of solution.

Ex: AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3(aq)

silver chloride is the precipitate.

Note: When a chemical reaction happens, energy is transferred to or from the surroundings.

Exothermic reaction: An Exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that involves the release of energy in the form of
heat or light.When energy is transferred to the surroundings, this is called an exothermic reaction, and the
temperature of the surroundings increases.

Reactants → Products + Energy

Examples of exothermic reactions include:

 combustion reactions
 many oxidation reactions
 most neutralisation reactions

most neutralisation reactions:It is an acid-base reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

many oxidation reactions: The reaction between magnesium metal and oxygen to form magnesium oxide
involves the oxidation of magnesium.
combustion reactions: A combustion reaction occurs when a substance reacts quickly with oxygen (O2).

Combustion is commonly called burning, and the substance that burns is usually referred to as fuel.

Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O

CH4(methane) + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Respiration an Exothermic Reaction: Respiration is the process by which humans take in oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide. The chemical equation of this process can be represented as follows:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Endothermic Reaction: Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants absorb heat energy
from the surroundings to form products. These reactions lower the temperature of their surrounding area, thereby
creating a cooling effect. Physical processes can be endothermic as well – Ice cubes absorb heat energy from their
surroundings and melt to form liquid water (no chemical bonds are broken or formed).

Reactants+ Energy → Products

When energy is taken in from the surroundings, this is called an endothermic reaction and the temperature of the
surroundings decreases.

Examples of endothermic reactions include:

 thermal decomposition reactions

 the reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate

thermal decomposition reactions

thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition

temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance chemically decomposes. The reaction is
usually endothermic as heat is required to break chemical bonds in the compound undergoing decomposition.

CaCO3 → CaO + CO

2Pb(NO3)2 ----> 2PbO + O2 +4NO2

Note:Photosynthesis reaction is an endothermic reaction.

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 +6O2

the reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate: In the presence of water, citric acid [C6H8O7] and
sodium bicarbonate [NaHCO3] (aka baking soda) react to form sodium citrate [Na3C6H5O7], water, and carbon
dioxide [CO2].
Balancing Chemical Equations
Why should chemical equation be balanced?

 A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of different elements on the reactant side (left side) are same
as those on product side (right side) is called a balanced reaction.

e.g.: Propane burns with Oxygen to form Carbon dioxide and water.
C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

‣ According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the products formed in chemical
reaction must be equal to the mass of reactants consumed. All the chemical equations must balance,
because atoms are neither created nor destroyed, in chemical reactions.

Formula unit is one unit of atom or ion or molecule corresponding to a given formula.

Ex. a) Formula unit of sodium chloride (NaCl) is one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion.

b) Formula unit of magnesium bromide (MgBr2 ) is one Mg+2 ion and two Br- ions.

Steps to write Balanced Chemical Equations:

Ex: Let us consider chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water

Step 1: Write the equation with the correct formula for each reactant and product.

Primary Equation: Chemical equation which has only molecular formulae of the substance and not got balanced is
called “Primary Equation”. Write primary equation.

H2 + O2  H2O

Step 2: Identify the suitable coefficient:

“Whole number written before formula for balancing chemical equation is called coefficient”

Coefficient indicates number of formula units required to balance the equation.

During balancing a chemical equation, only coefficients should be changed but not the formulae.

To balance this equation coefficient 2 is written before H2O and H2

2H2 + O2  2H2O

Step 3: Coefficients should be the smallest possible whole numbers.

If necessary divide all the coefficients with same number to get the smallest number possible.

In the above equation, coefficients of reactants and products are the smallest whole numbers. Therefore it does not require
any division.

2H2 + O2  2H2O

Step 4: Verify the equation for balancing of atoms on both sides of the equation.
In the equation 4 atoms of hydrogen and 2 atoms of oxygen are same on both sides of arrow mark.

2H2 + O2 2H2O

Hence chemical equation is balanced.

Explain how to balance the following chemical equation.

C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
A: ‣ Unbalanced chemical equation is C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
‣ Compare No. of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Element No. of atoms

‣ There are three Carbon atoms on LHS and one Carbon atom on RHS. To balance 'C' atoms add
a co-efficient of 3 to CO2 on RHS.
C3H8 + O2 3 CO2 + H2O
‣ There are eight Hydrogen atoms on LHS and two Hydrogen atoms on RHS. To balance 'H'
atoms add a co-efficient of 4 to H2O in RHS.
C3H8 + O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
‣ There are two Oxygen atoms on LHS and ten Oxygen atoms on RHS. To balance 'O' atoms add
a co-efficient of 5 to O2 on LHS.
C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
‣ Now the number of atoms of different elements are same on both sides, hence equation is
balanced.
∴ Balanced equation is C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
Balance the following chemical equations.

1.NH3 + Cl2 N2H4 + NH4Cl

A: i) 4 NH3 + Cl2 N2H4 + 2 NH4Cl
2. NH3 + Cl2 NCl3 + HCl
NH3 + 3 Cl2 NCl3 + 3 HCl

3.KMnO4 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2O + O2

Balance the above chemical equation.
A: 4 KMnO4 + 6 H2SO4 2 K2SO4 + 4 MnSO4 + 6 H2O + 5 O2
4.Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 + C CaSiO3 + P + CO
Balance the above equation.
A: Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 SiO2 + 5 C 3 CaSiO3 + 2 P + 5 CO
5.Balance the chemical equation
Zn(NO3)2 ZnO + NO2 + O2
A: 2 Zn(NO3)2 2 ZnO + 4 NO2 + O2
6.Cr2O3 + NaOH + O2 Na2CrO4 + H2O
Balace the above chemical equation.
A: 2 Cr2O3 + 8 NaOH + 3 O2 4 Na2CrO4 + 4 H2O
7.FeCl3 + H2O Fe (OH)3 + HCl
Balance the above chemical equation.
A: FeCl3 + 3 H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3 HCl
8.NH3 + Cl2 NH4Cl + N2 Balance the equation.
A: 8 NH3 + 3 Cl2 6 NH4Cl + N

9.Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.

i) Calcium hydroxide + Carbondioxide Calcium carbonate + Water
ii) Zinc + Sodium hydroxide Sodium Zincate + Hydrogen
iii) Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
iv) Sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid Sodium sulphate + Water
A: i) Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
ii) Zn + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2
iii) Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
iv) 2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Explain how to balance the following chemical equation.

H2 + O2 H2O
A: ‣ Unbalanced equation H2 + O2 H 2O
‣ Compare No. of atoms of each elements on both sides of the equation.

‣ There are two Oxygen atoms on LHS and one Oxygen atom on RHS.
‣ To balance 'O' add a co-efficient of 2 to H2O on RHS.
H2 + O2 2 H2O
‣ To Balance 'H' add a co-efficient of 2 to H2 on LHS.
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
‣ Now the number of atoms of different elements are same on both sides, hence equation is
balanced.
∴ Balanced equation is 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
Important Chemical Formulas:

S. Chemical Name Formula S. Chemical Name formula

N N
1. Calcium Oxide CaO 31 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
2. Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 32 Carbon di Oxide CO2
3. CalciumCarbonate(limest CaCO3 33 Sulphur di Oxide SO2
one)
4. Magnesium Oxide MgO 34 Sulphur tri Oxide SO3
5. Cupper Sulphate(Blue) CuSO4 35 Carbon monoxide CO
6. Zinc Sulphate(White) ZnSO4 36 Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
7. Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 37 Aluminium Bromide AlBr3
8. Ferrous Sulphate(green) FeSO4 38 Aluminium Chloride AlCl2
9. Aluminium Sulphate Al2(SO4)3 39 Potassium Chloride KCl
10. Barium Sulphate BaSO4 40 Potassium Nitrate KNO3
11. Sodium Sulphate Na2SO4 41 Silver Nitrate AgNO3
12. Lead Sulphate PbSO4 42 Sodium Chloride(Table NaCl
salt)
13. Water H2O 43 Copper Nitrate Cu(NO)3
14. Ammonia NH3 44. Hydrogen sulphide H 2S
15. Glucose C6H12O6 45 Nitric Acid HNO3
16 Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 46 Hydro chloric Acid HCl
17 Lead Nitrate Pb(NO3)2 47 Potassium Cyanide KCN
18 Lead Oxide PbO 48 Hydrogen Cyanide HCN
19. Lead Chloride PbCl2 49 Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl
20. Copper Chloride CuCl2 50 Methane(Natural gas) CH4
21 Copper Oxide CuO 51 Plaster of paris CaSO4 ½ H2O
22 Zinc Chloride ZnCl2 52 Gypsum CaSO4 H2O
24 Zinc Oxide ZnO 53 Ethanal C2H5OH
25. Sodium Na2CO3 54 Sodium Aluminate NaAlO2
Carbonate(Washing
Soda)
26. Sodium Hydrogen NaHCO3 55. Sulphuric Acid H2SO4
carbonate
27. Sodium hydroxide NaOH 56. Magnesium chloride Mg Cl2
28. Potassium Hydroxide KOH 57. Sodium Nitrate NaNO3
29. Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
30 Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)3
Predicting States of matter in a Chemical Reaction:
Identifying Liquid, Solid, gas Or aqueous:

I.Solids(S):

1.all the metals are Solids except mercury(Hg).mercury is a liquid at room temperature.

A Metal A A
S S Metal Elements S Metal Elements
N Elements N N
3 Li Lithium 21 Sc Scandium 28 Ni Nickel
4 Be Beryllium 22 Ti Titanium 29 Cu Copper
11 Na Sodium 82 Pb Lead 30 Zn Zinc
12 Mg Magnesium 24 Cr Chromium 47 Ag Silver
13 Al Aluminium 25 Mn Manganese 56 Ba Barium
19 K Potassium 26 Fe Iron 79 Au Gold
20 Ca Calcium 27 Co Cobalt 80 Hg Mercury
2.The salts are solids. Salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation (base) and an anion (acid). Salt
is an ionic compound that has a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH– and is obtained along
with water in the neutralization reaction between acids and bases.

Eg:- NaCl, CuCl2 etc.

Acid + Base → Salt + water

Example for Common salt-forming cations includes:

 Ammonium NH+4 Copper Cu2+

 Magnesium Mg2+ Potassium K+

Iron Fe2+and Fe3+ Sodium Na+

Calcium Ca2+

Salts are formed by a chemical reaction between:

 A base and an acid, e.g., NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

 A metal and an acid, e.g., Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
 A metal and a non-metal, e.g., Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
 A base and an acid anhydride, e.g., 2 NaOH + Cl2O → 2 NaClO + H2O
 An acid and a base anhydride, e.g., 2 HNO3 + Na2O → 2 NaNO3 + H2O
Note:In the salt metathesis reaction where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions
recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example:

Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3

Making salts
The salts made in neutralisation reactions can be either soluble or insoluble. The method of preparing
and purifying the salt depends on whether or not it is soluble in water.

Naming salts

A salt is any compound formed by the neutralization of an acid by a base.

The name of a salt has two parts. The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate.
The second part comes from the acid.

 You can always work out the name of the salt by looking at the reactants:
 nitric acid always produces salts that end in nitrate and contain the nitrate ion, NO3-
 hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain the chloride ion, Cl-
 sulfuric acid always produces salts that end in sulfate and contain the sulfate ion, SO42-
 For example, if potassium oxide reacts with sulfuric acid, the products will be potassium sulfate
and water.
 The table shows some more examples:

Metal Acid Salt

Sodium hydroxide reacts with Hydrochloric acid to make Sodium chloride

Copper oxide reacts with Hydrochloric acid to make Copper chloride

Sodium hydroxide reacts with Sulfuric acid to make Sodium sulfate

Zinc oxide reacts with Sulfuric acid to make Zinc sulfate

Note that ammonia forms ammonium salts when it reacts with acids. For instance, ammonia reacts
with hydrochloric acid to make ammonium chloride.

Making insoluble salts

To make an insoluble salt, two soluble salts need to react together in a precipitation reaction.

The table shows soluble and insoluble salts:

Soluble Insoluble

All nitrates None

All common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts None

Most common sulfates Calcium sulfate and barium sulfate

Most common chlorides Silver chloride

Sodium, potassium and ammonium Most common carbonates

We can see from the table that silver chloride is an insoluble salt. It can be made by reacting a soluble
silver salt with a soluble chloride salt.

Silver nitrate and sodium chloride are both soluble. When their solutions are mixed together, soluble
sodium nitrate and insoluble silver chloride are made:

silver nitrate + sodium chloride → sodium nitrate + silver chloride

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

The silver chloride appears as tiny particles suspended in the reaction mixture - this is the precipitate.
The precipitate can be filtered, washed with water on the filter paper, and then dried in an oven.

Examples for Water soluble salts Examples for Water insoluble salts
Na2CO3 (Sodium Carbonate) AgCl (Silver Chloride)
ZnSO4 (Zinc Sulphate) CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate)
ZnCl2 (Sodium Chloride) CaSO4 (Calcium Sulphate)
NaCl (Sodium Chloride BaSO4 ( Barium Sulphate)
CuSO4 (Copper Sulphate)
KBr (Potassium bromide)

3.some Other Solids:Usually Metal Oxides

Metallic oxides: A chemical compound formed by metal and oxygen.

Examples:

Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide

2Mg + 2O2→ 2MgO

Other examples of metallic oxides – Na2O, Al2O3, FeO, CuO, V2O5, Cao, PbO, ZnO.

II.Liquids: Liquids are a form of matter that has a definite volume but no defined shape. Liquids can
flow and assume the shape of their container.

Ex: Water ,Mercury (an element) ,Bromine (an element).

H2O,Hg(Metal),Br2 (nonmetal),C2H5OH(Ethanol).

Note: When the temperature(Become Liquid 25°C-40°C) is slightly warmer, there are a few other
elements found as liquids at normal pressure:

 Francium, Cesium, Gallium, Rubidium

 These four elements all melt at temperatures slightly higher than room temperature.

III. Gasses: In the periodic table shows us that there are 11 elements in the table that exist in the
gaseous state at room temperature. These elements are Hydrogen, Helium, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Fluorine, Chlorine, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Radon.

H2,N2,O2,F2,Cl2,CH4(Methane), Noble gases helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), radon (Rn) are gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
Note: Usually Non metals Oxides are gases.But all non metals are not gases.

Ex:SO2(Sulphur Di Oxide), SO3 (Sulphur Tri Oxide),CO2,NO2 (Nitrogen di oxide),N2O(Nitrus Oxide)

Aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called an aqueous solution. Eg,
salt in water, sugar in water and copper sulfate in water.
An aqueous solution is any solution in which water (H2O) is the solvent. In a chemical equation, the
symbol (aq) follows a species name to indicate that it is in aqueous solution. For example, dissolving salt
in water has the chemical reaction:

NaCl(s)→ Na +(aq) + Cl -(aq) (NaCl is a dissolved in water .it is a aqueous solution)

HCl(s) → H +(aq) + Cl -(aq) (HCl is a dissolved in water .it is a aqueous solution)

NaOH(s)→ Na +(aq) + OH-(aq) (NaOH is a dissolved in water .it is a aqueous solution)

Zn(S)+CuCl2(aq) →ZnCl2 (aq)+Cu(s)

Note: A typical precipitation reaction occurs when an aqueous solution of barium chloride is mixed with
one containing sodium sulfate. The complete chemical equation can be written to describe what
happens, and such an equation is useful in making chemical calculations.

ions are called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction. precipitation
of BaSO4BaSO4 the net ionic equation.

2AgNO3(aq)+CaCl2(aq)⟶2AgCl(s)+Ca(NO3)2(aq)

Na2SO4(aq)+NH4I2(aq)⟶2NaI(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)

Note: The three common silver halide precipitates: AgI, AgBr and AgCl (left to right). The silver halides
precipitate out of solution, but often form suspensions before settling.
1.Displacement: Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element
displaces a less reactive element from its compound. Both metals and non-metals take part in
displacement reactions.

Example : Reaction of iron nails with copper sulphate solution.

Fe+ 2(s) + CuSO4 (aq)⟶Cu+2 (s)+ FeSO4(aq)

Examples are halogens. The activity series of halogen is F > Cl > Br > I.

Note the point:

An important thing to remember with single displacement reaction is that elements that form cations
can only displace cations and elements that form anions can only displace anions.
Classification of single displacement reaction:

 Anion replacement reaction

 Cation replacement reaction

(A)Cation replacement reaction: In this reaction, one cation replaces another one from its solution. A
cation is a positively charged ion or metal. All metal displacement reactions are cation replacement
reactions.

 Also metals like Zn, Al, Pb, Fe, etc., displace Cu from copper salt solution. The chemical reaction
can be written as:
Iron displaces lead from the aqueous solution of lead nitrate.

Similarly, metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series displace hydrogen from dilute
acids.
For example :The metals such as potassium, sodium, lithium, etc. react more vigorously with dilute
acids forming metal salts and hydrogen gases.

 Metals such as aluminium, zinc, magnesium, iron, etc., react safely with dilute acids.

For example,

The reaction Zn with dil. H2SO4 is often used in the laboratory for the preparation of hydrogen
gas.

Note:If a less reactive metal is added to a salt solution of more reactive metal, nothing will happen.

(B) Anion Replacement Reactions

In this reaction, one anion replaces another one from its solution. An anion is a negatively charged ion
or non-metal. For example, more reactive halogen replaces less reactive halogen from its solution.

 Chlorine displaces bromine from an aqueous solution of sodium bromide.

 Bromine displaces iodine from potassium iodide solution.

2.Double Displacement:
Double displacement reactions may be defined as the chemical reactions in which one component each
of both the reacting molecules is exchanged to form the products. During this reaction, the cations and
anions of two different compounds switch places, forming two entirely different compounds.
Note: Sold taken as aqueous form in displacement.Water soluble salts written as aqueous.
The general equation which represents a double displacement reaction can be written as:

i.Double displacement reactions generally take place in aqueous solutions in which the ions
precipitate and there is an exchange of ions.
For example, on mixing a solution of barium chloride with sodium sulphate, a white precipitate of
barium sulphate is immediately formed. These reactions are ionic in nature. The reactants changes into
ions when dissolved in water and there is an exchange of ions in solution. This results in the formation of
product molecule.

ii.Double displacement reactions can be further classified as neutralization, precipitation and

gas formation reactions.
Neutralization reactions are a specific kind of double displacement reaction. An acid-base reaction
occurs, when an acid reacts with equal quantity of base. The acid base reaction results in the formation
of salt (neutral in nature) and water.

iii.Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical
reaction. This process usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions in the solution
exceeds the solubility product.
iv.A double displacement reaction should also occur if an insoluble gas is formed. Gases such as HCl and
NH3 are soluble in water, but some other gases, such as H2S, are not soluble in water.

a. Neutralization Reactions

o On mixing an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid with an aqueous solution of sodium

hydroxide, sodium chloride and water are formed.

b. Precipitation Reactions

o On mixing aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride, a white curdy
precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
o On mixing an aqueous solution of barium chloride with that of copper sulphate, a white
precipitate of barium sulphate is formed.
o On mixing an aqueous solution of lead nitrate with sodium sulphate, a white precipitate
of lead sulphate is formed.
o On passing hydrogen sulphide gas through copper sulphate solution, a black precipitate
of copper sulphide is formed.
o On adding a solution of lead nitrate to sodium iodide solution, a yellow precipitate of
lead iodide is formed.
o Cobalt(II) chloride reacts with sodium carbonate to form pink/red coloured precipitate
of cobalt(II) carbonate and sodium chloride.
o On adding aluminium sulphate solution to calcium chloride solution, a precipitate of
calcium sulphate is formed.
o Lead acetate solution is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid to form lead chloride and
acetic acid solution.

c.Gas Formation Reactions

o Many sulfide salts will react with acids to form gaseous hydrogen sulphide.
 o Insoluble gases are often formed by the breakdown of unstable double displacement
reaction products. For example, marble chips (CaCO3) react with dilute hydrochloric acid
to form calcium chloride and carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is unstable and readily
decomposes to form carbon dioxide and water.

3.Decomposition reaction:

Decomposition is a type of chemical reaction. It is defined as the reaction in which a single compound
splits into two or more simple substances under suitable conditions. It is just the opposite of the
combination reaction.

In a combination reaction, a substance is formed as a result of chemical combination, while in a

decomposition reaction, the substance breaks into new substances.

for example: The digestion of food in our body is accompanied by a number of decomposition reactions.
The major constituents of our food such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, etc.,decompose to form a
number of simpler substances. These substances further react, releasing large amounts of energy,
which keeps our body working.

The general equation that describes a decomposition reaction is:

Types of Decomposition Reactions

Decomposition reactions can be classified into three types:
1.Thermal decomposition reaction
2.Electrolytic decomposition reaction
3.Photo decomposition reaction
1.Thermal decomposition reaction: Thermal decomposition is a chemical reaction where a single
substance breaks into two or more simple substances when heated. The reaction is
usually endothermic because heat is required to break the bonds present in the substance.
a. Decomposition of calcium carbonate: Calcium carbonate (lime stone) decomposes into calcium oxide (quick
lime) and carbon dioxide when heated. Quick lime is the major constituent of cement.

b. decomposition of potassium chlorate: When heated strongly, potassium chlorate decomposes into
potassium chloride and oxygen. This reaction is used for the preparation of oxygen.
2. Electrolytic decomposition reaction (Electrolysis):Electrolytic decomposition may result when
electric current is passed through an aqueous solution of a compound. A good example is the
electrolysis of water.
a.Electrolysis of water: Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen
due to the passage of electric current through it.

b.Decomposition of sodium chloride:On passing electricity through molten sodium chloride, it

decomposes into sodium and chlorine.

Decomposition of ferric hydroxide:Ferric hydroxide undergoes decomposition in the presence of heat,

giving ferric oxide and water molecules.

Decomposition of hydrated oxalic acid:

Hydrated oxalic acid (H2C2O4.2H2O) decomposes into oxalic acid and water when heated.

3.Photo decomposition reaction(Photolysis): Photo decomposition is a chemical reaction in which a

substance is broken down into simple substances by exposure to light (photons).
a. Decomposition of silver chloride: decomposition of silver chloride into silver and chlorine.

b.Silver bromide also decomposes in the same way.

c.Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: In the presence of light, hydrogen peroxide decomposes into
water and oxygen

Aqueous Solution Examples: Cola, saltwater, rain, acid solutions, base solutions, and salt solutions
are examples of aqueous solutions.
not aqueous solutions: include any liquid that does not contain water. Vegetable oil, toluene, acetone,
carbon tetrachloride, and solutions made using these solvents are not aqueous solutions.
Making Chemical Equations more informative
Chemical equations can be made more informative by expressing physical state, heat evolved, pressure
etc.

Physical State : The physical states of the substances must be mentioned along with their physical
formulae.

Ex: (a) Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) → 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s)

(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

(c) Zn(s) + H2SO4 (l) →ZnSO4 (l) + H2 (g) (s-solid, l-liquid, g-gas, aq(aqueous)- substance is present
as a solution in water)

Heat changes : Heat is liberated in a exothermic reactions and heat is absorbed in endothermic
reactions.

Ex. (a) C(s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + Q (Exothermic)

(b) N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2NO (g) - Q (Endothermic); ‘Q’ is heat energy which is shown with (+) sign on
product side for exothermic reactions and minus (-) sign on product side for endothermic reactions.

Gas evolved if any : If a gas is evolved in a reaction, it is denoted by an upward arrow (↑ ).

Ex .(a) Zn(s) + H2SO4(l) → ZnSO4(l)+ H2(g) ↑ + Q

(b) C(s) + O2 (g) ↑ → CO2(g) ↑ + Q

Precipitate formed if any : If a precipitate is formed in the reaction it is denoted by downward arrow (↓).

Ex. (a) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)  AgCl (s) ↓ + NaNO3 (aq)

(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq)  BaSO4 (s ) ↓+ 2NaCl (aq)

Temperature, pressure or catalyst etc is usually written over or below the arrow in the equation.

2AgCl (s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)

sunlig ht

Interpreting a balanced chemical equation:

¤ A chemical equation gives information about the reactants and products through their symbols and
formulae.
¤ It gives the ratio of molecules of reactants and products.
¤ As molecular masses are expressed in "unified masses (U)'', the relative masses of reactants and
products are known from the equation.
¤ If the masses are expressed in grams then the equation also gives the molar ratios of reactants and
products.
¤ If gases are involved, we can equate their masses to their volumes and calculate the volumes or those
gases liberated at given condition of temperature and pressure using molar mass and molar volume
relationship.
¤ Using molar mass and Avagadro's number we can calculate the number of molecules and atoms of
different substances from the equation. It gives information about relative masses of reactants and
products. From the equation we get
a) Mass - mass relationship
b) Mass - volume relationship
c) Volume - volume relationship
d) Mass - volume - number of molecules relationship etc.
Mole:
A mole is the amount of a chemical substance that contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 (Avogadro's
constant) atoms, molecules, ions or electrons .
mole = molecular weight / mass

(a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of water (H2O).

Sol:Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u, oxygen = 16 u So the molecular mass of water, which contains two
atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen is = 2 × 1+ 1 ×16 = 18 u

(b) Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3.

Sol:The molecular mass of HNO3

=the atomic mass of H + the atomic mass of N+ 3 × the atomic mass of O

= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u

Mole Concept

Take an example of the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water:

2H2+ O→ 2H2O.

The above reaction indicates that

(i) two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water, or

(ii) 4 u of hydrogen molecules combine with 32 u of oxygen molecules to form 36 u of water molecules.
Ex: Consider the following chemical equation

C(s) +O2(g)  CO2 (g)

 In this equation reactants are C, O2 and product is CO2; ratio of moles of C, O2 and CO2 is 1:1:1
 Atomic mass of C-12U, O2-32 (2x16=32) U; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) U.
 Molar mass of C-12g, O2-32 (2x16=32) g; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) g
 Here to burn 12g of carbon 32g of oxygen is required and it gives 44g of carbon dioxide.
 32g of oxygen gas and 44g of carbon dioxide gas occupy 22.4litre volume at STP
 12g of carbon 32g of oxygen and 44g of carbon dioxide have same number of molecules or atoms
that is equal to Avogadro’s number (6.023x1023)
 Limiting reagent: In a reaction, the reactant available less in amount is called limiting reagent.It
limits the amount of product formed.

Problems
1. Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + Fe
(s) (s) (s) (s)
(Atomic masses of Al = 27 U, Fe = 56 U, and O = 16 U)
Then calculate the amount of Aluminium required to get 336 kg of iron by the above
reaction.
Sol: 2 Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe
(s) (s) (s) (s)
(2 × 27)U + (2 × 56 + 3 × 16)U (2 × 27 + 3 × 16)U + (2 × 56)U
54U + 160U 102U + 112U
54g + 160g 102g + 112g
As per the balanced equation
Aluminium Iron
54 g 112 g
Xg (336 × 1000)g

= (3 × 1000) × 54
= 162000 g (or) 162 kg
To get 336 kg of Iron we have to use 162 kg of Aluminium
2. Calculate the volume of Oxygen required for complete burning of 36 grams of Carbon.
(Atomic weight of O = 16U, C = 12U)
Sol: C + O2 CO2
(s) (g) (g)
Step-1: Convert 36 grams of Carbon into moles.

= 3 moles.
Step-2: From the equation, it is clear that one mole of Carbon requires one mole of Oxygen to yield one
mole of Carbondioxide.

Step-3: Calculation of required volume of Oxygen.

At STP, 1 mole occupies 22.4 litres.
At STP, 3 moles occupies 22.4 × 3 = 67.2 litres.
At STP, 3 moles of Oxygen occupies 67.2 litres.

3. Calculate the volume, mass and number of molecules of Hydrogen liberated when 92 g of Sodium
reacts with excess of water at STP. (atomic masses of Na = 23U, O = 16U and H =
1U)
Sol: 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 is balanced equation.
(s) (l) (aq) (g)
(2 × 23)U + 2(2 × 1 + 1 × 16)U 2(23 + 16 + 1)U + (2 × 1)U
46U + 36U 80U + 2U
46g + 36g 80g + 2g
As per the balanced equation
46 g of Na gives 2g of Hydrogen.
92 g of Na gives ....? g of Hydrogen

2g of Hydrogen occupies 22.4 litres at STP

4g of Hydrogen occupies 44.8 litres at STP
2g of Hydrogen i.e., 1 mole of H2 contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules.
4g of Hydrogen contain ....?

= 2 × 6.02 × 1023
= 12.04 × 1023
= 1.204 × 1024 molecules.
4. Calculate the volume of Oxygen (O2) needed for the combustion of 100 ml Acetylene. It is an
unsatured hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C2H2. What would be the volume of
Carbondioxide produced in this reaction ?
Sol: Step-1: 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 2 H2O + 4 CO2 (balanced equation)
(g) (g) (l) (g)
Step-2: 2 vol (ml) of Acetylene + 5 vol (ml) of Oxygen 2 vol (ml) of H2O + 4 vol (ml) of CO2
Step-3: 2 ml of C2H2 requires 5 ml of O2 for combustion.
1 ml of C2H2 requires 2.5 ml of O2 for combustion
100 ml C2H2 required 2.5 × 100 = 250 ml of O2 for combustions
Step - 4: 2 ml of C2H2 produces 4 ml of CO2
1 ml of C2H2 produces 2 ml of CO2
100 ml of C2H2 produces 2 × 100 = 200 ml of CO2

Concept related questions

1. Give some examples to chemical changes occurring in our daily life.
A: ¤ Burning of fuels
‣ Rusting of Iron
‣ Digestion of food in our body
‣ Coal is burnt
‣ Crackers are burnt
‣ Ripening of fruits
‣ Milk is converted into curd
‣ Fermentation of grapes.

2. What are the important characteristics of chemical reactions?

A: The important characteristic of chemical reactions are
‣ Change in state
‣ Evolution of a gas
‣ Formation of a precipitate
‣ Change in colour
‣ Change in temperature
3.Observe the following equations and answer the questions given below.
a) Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2 ↑
b) AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl ↓ + NaNO3
i) Mention the products in equation 'a'.
ii) Which is the precipitate in equation 'b'.
A: i) ZnCl2, H2
ii) AgCl
4.. Why the white washing gives shiny finish to the walls?
A: Slaked lime is prepared by adding water to quick lime.
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
‣ A solution of slaked lime is used to white wash the walls.
‣ Calcium hydroxide reacts with the Carbondioxide in air to form thin layer of Calcium carbonate on the
walls. It gives a shiny finish to the walls.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

5. Which law state that total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction must be equal to total
mass of the reactants consumed?
A: Law of conservation of mass.

6. In an experiment mixing of sodium sulphate solution to Barium Chloride solution, which precipitate
is formed, and write chemical equation for it?

A: Barium Sulphate precipitate is formed.

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 ↓+ 2 NaCl

7. Addition of Dry CaO to the water, what type of thermo chemical reaction takes place?
A: Exothermic reaction.

8. Which product formed in an experiment by mixing Dry CaO with water which can changes Red
litmus to blue litmus?
A: Calcium Hydroxide.
9. Write a chemical reaction, when dil. HCl is added to Zinc granuels?
A: Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2↑

10. Write balanced chemical equation for burning of propane in air.

A: C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

11. Fe2O3 + 2 Al Al2O3 + 2 Fe

Identify the reactants in the above reaction.
A: Fe2O3 and Al.

12. Which additional information can be shown by a chemical equation?

A: 1. Physical State
2. Heat Changes
3. Gas evolved
4. Precipitate formed

What is indicated by Δ in the above reaction?

A: Δ represents heating.
14. N2 + O2 + Q 2 NO
Identify above reaction is either endothermic or exothermic reaction.

A: Exothermic reaction.

15. Which sign can be used for evolution of gas in a chemical reaction?
A: ↑

16. N2 + O2 + Q 2 NO
Identify above reaction is either endothermic or exothermic reaction.

A: Exothermic reaction.
17. Which sign can be used for evolution of gas in a chemical reaction?
A: ↑

18. Name the precipitate formed in the following reaction.

AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
(aq) (aq) (s) (aq)
A: AgCl ↓

19. Write the physical state of reactants and products in the following reaction.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
A: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
(g) (l) (s) (g)

20. How much volume can occupy by 1gm of Hydrogen at S.T.P.?

A: 11.2 Litres
21. How many molecules present in 1 mole of Hydrogen at S.T.P.?
A: 6.023 × 1023 molecules.

22. What temperature and pressure can represent S.T.P.?

A: 0C (or) 273 K and 760 mm (or) of Hg (or) 1 bar pressure.

23. How much volume is occupied by 1 mole of gas at S.T.P?

A: 22.4 litres

24. How much volume in ml. can be occupied by 0.5 moles of O2 at S.T.P.?
A: 11,200 ml

25. Balance the following equations.

(i) BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + HCl
(ii) Cu2S + O2 Cu2O + SO2
A: (i) BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2 HCl
(ii) 2 Cu2S + 3 O2 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2

26. Complete and balance the following equations

(i) C3H8 + O2 .......... + .........
(ii) Na + H2O ......... + .........
A: (i) C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
(ii) 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2
27. Balance the following chemical equations including the physical states.
i) CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
ii) Fe2O3 + Al Fe + Al2O3
A: i) CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
(s) (aq) (aq) (l) (g)
ii) Fe2O3 + 2 Al 2 Fe + Al2O3
(s) (s) (s) (s)

28. Balance the following chemical equations by mentioning their physical states.
i) CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2
ii) Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2
iii) NaCl + H2O NaOH + Cl2 + H2
iv) Na + H2O NaOH + H2
A: i) 6 CO2 + 6 H2O (l) C6H12O6 + 6 O2
(g) (l) (s) (g)

ii) Fe2O3 + 3CO 2 Fe + 3 CO2

(s) (g) (l) (g)

iii) 2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + Cl2 + H2

(aq) (l) (aq) (g) (g)

iv) 2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2

(s) (l) (aq) (g)