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Electronic engineering
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Electronic engineering is a sub-discipline of electrical engineering which emerged in
the early 20th century and is distinguished by the additional use of active components
such as semiconductor devices to amplify and control electric current flow. Previously
electrical engineering only used passive devices such as mechanical switches,
resistors, inductors and capacitors.

Printed circuit board

It covers fields such as: analog electronics, digital electronics, consumer

electronics, embedded systems and power electronics. It is also involved in many
related fields, for example solid-state physics, radio
engineering, telecommunications, control systems, signal processing, systems
engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering, electric power
control, robotics.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most
important professional bodies for electronics engineers in the US; the equivalent body
in the UK is the Institution of Engineering and Technology(IET). The International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) publishes electrical standards including those for
electronic engineering.
History and developmentEdit
Main article: History of electronic engineering
Main article: Electronics

Electronic engineering as a professionemerged following the identification of the

electron in 1897 and the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could
amplify and rectify small electrical signals, that inaugurated the field of
electronics.[1]Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose
Flemingand the triode by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection
of small electrical voltages such as radio signals from a radio antenna possible with a
non-mechanical device. The growth of electronics was rapid. By the early 1920s,
commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and
electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long distance
telephony and the music recording industry.
The discipline was further enhanced by the large amount of electronic systems
development during World War II in such as radar and sonar, and the subsequent
peace-time consumer revolution.
Specialist areasEdit

Electronic engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most
popular.

Electronic signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals.
Signals can be either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to
the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of
discrete values representing the information.
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of
audio signals for audio equipment and the modulation and demodulation of radio
frequency signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may
involve compression, error checking and error detection and correction.
Telecommunications engineering deals with the transmission of information across
a medium such as a co-axial cable, an optical fiber or free space.Transmissions across
free space require information to be encoded in a carrier wave in order to be
transmitted, this is known as modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques
include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication
engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two
are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as
a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power
consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a
transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by noise.
Aviation-Electronic Engineering and Aviation-Telecommunications
Engineering, are concerned with aerospace applications. Aviation-telecommunication
engineersinclude specialists who work on airborne avionics in the aircraft or ground
equipment. Specialists in this field mainly need knowledge
of computer, networking, IT and sensors. These courses are offered at such as Civil
Aviation Technology Colleges. [2][3]
Control engineering has a wide range of electronic applications from the flight and
propulsion systems of commercial airplanesto the cruise control present in many
modern cars. It also plays an important role in industrial automation. Control
engineers often use feedback when designing control systems.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical
quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature.The design of such instrumentation
requires a good understanding of electronic engineering and physics; for
example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles.
Similarly, thermocouplesuse the Peltier–Seebeck effect to measure the temperature
difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger
electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a
furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering
is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering. [4]
Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems.
This may involve the design of new computer hardware, the design of PDAs or the use
of computers to control an industrial plant. Development of embedded systems—
systems made for specific tasks (e.g., mobile phones)—is also included in this field.
This field includes the micro controller and its applications. Computer engineers may
also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is
often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate
discipline.
VLSI design engineering VLSI stands for very large scale integration. It deals with
fabrication of ICs and various electronic components. In designing an integrated
circuit, electronics engineers first construct circuit schematicsthat specify the
electrical components and describe the interconnections between them. When
completed, VLSI engineers convert the schematics into actual layouts, which map the
layers of various conductor and semiconductor materials needed to construct the
circuit.
Education and trainingEdit
Main article: Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers

Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject.

Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electronic
engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and
the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology depending upon the
university. Many UK universities also offer Master of Engineering (MEng) degrees at
the graduate level.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as
a Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering, or an Engineering Doctorate.
The master's degree is being introduced in some European and American Universities
as a first degree and the differentiation of an engineer with graduate and postgraduate
studies is often difficult. In these cases, experience is taken into account. The master's
degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor
of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the
entry point to academia.
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards
certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body.
Certification allows engineers to legally sign off on plans for projects affecting public
safety.[5] After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a
range of requirements, including work experience requirements, before being
certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in
the United States, Canada, and South Africa), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated
Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, and Zimbabwe), Chartered
Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much
of the European Union).
A degree in electronics generally includes units
covering physics, chemistry, mathematics, project management and specific topics
in electrical engineering. Initially, such topics cover most, if not all, of the subfields of
electronic engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more subfields
towards the end of the degree.
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these
help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will
work. Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is
commonplace to use computer-aided designand simulation software programs when
designing electronic systems. Although most electronic engineers will understand
basic circuit theory, the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the
work they do. For example, quantum mechanicsand solid state physics might be
relevant to an engineer working on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to engineers
working with embedded systems.
Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other items in the syllabus are
particular to electronics engineering course. Electrical engineering courses have other
specialisms such as machines, power generation and distribution. This list does not
include the extensive engineering mathematics curriculum that is a prerequisite to a
degree.[6][7]
Supporting knowledge areasEdit
The huge breadth of electronic engineering has led to the use of a large number of
specialist supporting knowledge areas.

Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss' and Stokes'

theorems, Maxwell's equations: differential and integral forms. Wave
equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various
media; reflectionand refraction; phase and group velocity; skin depth. Transmission
lines: characteristic impedance; impedance transformation; Smith chart; impedance
matching; pulse excitation. Waveguides: modes in rectangular waveguides; boundary
conditions; cut-off frequencies; dispersion relations. Antennas: Dipole
antennas; antenna arrays; radiation pattern; reciprocity theorem, antenna gain.[8][9]
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set,
and fundamental circuit matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis.
Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton's maximum power transfer,
Wye-Delta transformation.[10] Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear
constant coefficient differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits,
Solution of network equations using Laplace transform: frequency domain analysis of
RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters: driving point and transfer functions. State
equations for networks.[11]
Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier
transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, resistivity. Generation
and recombination of carriers. p-n junction diode, Zener diode, tunnel
diode, BJT, JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-i-n and avalanche photo diode,
LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuit fabrication process, oxidation,
diffusion, ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS
process.[12][13]
Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and small-signal) of diodes, BJT, JFETs, and
MOSFETs. Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability
of transistor and FET amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential,
operational, feedback and power. Analysis of amplifiers; frequency response of
amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters. Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for
oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations. Function generators and
wave-shaping circuits, Power supplies.[14]
Digital circuits: Boolean functions (NOT, AND, OR, XOR,...). Logic gates digital IC
families (DTL, TTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinational circuits: arithmetic circuits, code
converters, multiplexers and decoders. Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops,
counters and shift-registers. Sample and hold circuits, ADCs, DACs. Semiconductor
memories. Microprocessor 8086: architecture, programming, memory and I/O
interfacing.[15][16]
Signals and systems: Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-
time and discrete-time Fourier series, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier
Transform, z-transform. Sampling theorems. Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems:
definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse response, convolution, poles
and zeros frequency response, group delay, phase delay. Signal transmission through
LTI systems. Random signals and noise: probability, random variables, probability
density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density, function analogy between
vectors & functions.[17][18]
Electronic Control systemsEdit
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of
block diagrams — Mason's rule. Open loop and closed loop (negative unity feedback)
systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in
determining transfer functions of systems; transient and steady-state analysis of LTI
control systems and frequency response. Analysis of steady-state disturbance
rejection and noise sensitivity.
Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis and design: root loci, Routh–
Hurwitz stability criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators:
elements of lead and lag compensation, elements of proportional–integral–
derivative (PID) control. Discretization of continuous-time systems using zero-order
hold and ADCs for digital controller implementation. Limitations of digital controllers:
aliasing. State variable representation and solution of state equation of LTI control
systems. Linearization of Nonlinear dynamical systems with state-space realizations in
both frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts of controllability and
observability for MIMO LTI systems. State space realizations: observable and
controllable canonical form. Ackermann'sformula for state-feedback pole placement.
Design of full order and reduced order estimators. [19][20]
CommunicationsEdit
Analog communication systems: amplitudeand angle modulation and demodulation
systems, spectral analysis of these operations, superheterodyne noise conditions.
Digital communication systems: pulse-code modulation (PCM), differential pulse-code
modulation (DPCM), delta modulation (DM), digital modulation – amplitude, phase-
and frequency-shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched-filter receivers,
bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations for these
schemes, GSM, TDMA.[21][22]
Professional BodiesEdit
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the USA Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the UK Institution of Engineering and
Technology or IET. Members of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (MIET)
are recognized professionally in Europe, as Electrical and computer (technology)
engineers. The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in
electrical/electronic engineering, has over 430,000 members, and holds more than
450 IEEE sponsored or cosponsored conferences worldwide each year. SMIEEE is a
recognised professional designation in the United States.
Project engineeringEdit

For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design and
development, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of
time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing
budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of
technicians or other engineers and for this reason, project management skills are
important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong
written communication skills are therefore very important.

The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the types of work they
do. Electronics engineers may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a
fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or in a research laboratory. During
their working life, electronics engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range
of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other
engineers.

Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics engineers.

Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in
the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining
proficiency. And these are mostly used in the field of consumer electronics
products.[23]
See alsoEdit

• Electronics portal

• Electrical engineering technology

• Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
• Index of electrical engineering articles
• Information engineering
• List of electrical engineers
• Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

ReferencesEdit
1. ^ "October 1897: The Discovery of the Electron". Retrieved 19 September 2018.
2. ^ "‫"مهندسی الکترونیک و مخابرات هواپیمایی‬. catc.ac.ir. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
3. ^ "Raahnamaye-jaame-94-6-Mordad[catc.info]". s3.picofile.com. Retrieved 31
January 2021.
4. ^ Bartelt, Terry. Industrial Automated Systems: Instrumentation and Motion Control.
Cengage Learning, 2010.
5. ^ "Are there any professional examinations available in the electronics and
telecommunications engineering field? Where do I get the listings of these examinations,
and how do I apply for them? Who is eligible to write such examinations?". Retrieved 28
May 2018.
6. ^ Rakesh K. Garg/Ashish Dixit/Pavan Yadav Basic Electronics, p. 1, Firewall Media,
2008 ISBN 978-81-318-0302-8
7. ^ Sachin S. Sharma Power Electronics, p. ix, Firewall Media, 2008 ISBN 978-81-318-
0350-9
8. ^ Edward J. Rothwell/Michael J. Cloud Electromagnetics, CRC Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0-
8493-1397-4
9. ^ Joseph Edminister Schaum's Outlines Electromagnetics, McGraw Hill Professional,
1995 ISBN 978-0-07-021234-3
10. ^ J. O. Bird Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology, pp. 372–443, Newness,
2007 ISBN 978-0-7506-8139-1
11. ^ Alan K. Walton Network Analysis and Practice, Cambridge University Press,
1987 ISBN 978-0-521-31903-4
12. ^ David K. Ferry/Jonathan P. Bird Electronic Materials and Devices, Academic Press,
2001 ISBN 978-0-12-254161-2
13. ^ Jimmie J. Cathey Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Electronic Devices and
Circuits, McGraw Hill, 2002 ISBN 978-0-07-136270-2
14. ^ Wai-Kai Chen Analog Circuits and Devices, CRC Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0-8493-1736-1
15. ^ Ronald C. Emery Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, CRC Press, 1985 ISBN 978-0-
8247-7397-7
16. ^ Anant Agarwal/Jeffrey H. Lang Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits,
Morgan Kaufmann, 2005 ISBN 978-1-55860-735-4
17. ^ Michael J. Roberts Signals and Systems, p. 1, McGraw–Hill Professional,
2003 ISBN 978-0-07-249942-1
 18. ^ Hwei Piao Hsu Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Signals and Systems, p. 1,
McGraw–Hill Professional, 1995 ISBN 978-0-07-030641-7
19. ^ Gerald Luecke, Analog and Digital Circuits for Electronic Control System Applications,
Newnes, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7506-7810-0.
20. ^ Joseph J. DiStefano, Allen R. Stubberud, and Ivan J. Williams, Schaum's Outline
of Theory and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems, McGraw-Hill Professional,
1995. ISBN 978-0-07-017052-0.
21. ^ Shanmugam, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Wiley-India,
2006. ISBN 978-81-265-0914-0.
22. ^ Hwei Pia Hsu, Schaum's Outline of Analog and Digital Communications, McGraw–Hill
Professional, 2003. ISBN 978-0-07-140228-6.
23. ^ Homer L. Davidson, Troubleshooting and Repairing Consumer Electronics, p. 1,
McGraw–Hill Professional, 2004. ISBN 978-0-07-142181-2.

External linksEdit
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Last edited on 6 June 2022, at 00:02

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