T I§ I£

'

ST O RY OF LANGUAGE

C H ARL E S W O O D WA R D
-
H U TS O N

AU T H O R O F

BEG I N N I N G S O F C i v I L I Z AT IO N

C H I C AG O

A , C M CC LU R G AN D CO M P AN Y
.

i 89 7
 CO NT E N T S .

I N T R OD U CT ION

CH A P T ER

1 . W H AT L A N G U A GE Is

II . H o w L AN GU A G E W A S S T U D I ED

III . T HE P H I L O L OG I ST S
’
W O R KS H O P

(
\ V .

‘
H o w LA N G U AGE

How IT BE C A M E
B E G AN

M U LT I F O R M
.

T HE C L AS S IF I C A T IO N OF T O NGU ES

VI I I . T HE S P EE C H OF O N E S YL L AB LE

IX . A GGL U T I N A T I VE S P E E C H

X . H OLO P H R AS T I C S P E E C H .

XI . LAN G U A G E S O F T HE B AN T U T R IB E S

H AM IT IC S PE E C H

XI I I . S E MI T IC S PE E C H

T HE AR YA N T ONG U E S

LAT IN

I N FL E C T E D E N G LI SH

XV I I . FR E N C H

XV I II . I N F L E C T E D E N GL I S H A F T E R T HE C O N Q U E ST

FR E N C H G R AFT S ON T HE E N GL I S H S T O C K .
6 C ON T E N T S .

CHA PT ER

XX . U LT IM A T E E N GL I S H

XX I . S U M M AR Y

APPE N D I X
Bibliograph y of Au th o rities
T h e Languages of th e Am e r ic an s

T h e M po ngw e L angu age

T h e O ath s of S tr as b u rg

T h e E ngl is h of Ch au c er
Bo rr o wed W o rds in E nglis h

P r es en t T e ns e o f t h e Aryan V er b “to b e
H e ad M eas ur ement

I N D Ex
 I N T R O D U C T IO N .

M Y p u r po s e is to give i n e r ie s of p a pe rs and
, a s

with as little u s e as m ay be O f technic al te r m s s ome ,

ac co u nt of the r i s e O f h u m a n s p eec h fr o m s i m ple

to more co m plex fo r ms and of the co nn ectio n,

b etween the p r ogre s s of l an g u a ge and the p r og r e ss

o f the h u m an rac e .

The r e ar e m a ny people to who m n o t o nly i rr eg ~

u l ar ve r b s and the bewild eri ng my s te r ie s of the

s u bj u nctive but all di s c u ss ion O f m e r e wo r d s c a n

,

b e little el s e th an a we ar ine s s to the s pi r it O the rs .

,

howeve r ,an d the s e m e n of wit and wi s dom

, ,

fi nd as m u ch food fo r the m i n d i n m atter of thi s

ki nd as the s we et s i n ger O f A vo n wo uld h ave u s
fi nd in s to n e s and b r ook s .

W h at s ay s the ge n i al H ol me s P
“
The r e is a fas ci n ati on in the m e r e s ou nd of
a r tic u l ated b r e ath ; of co n s o n an t s th at r e s i s t wi th

the fir m n e s s o f a m aid o f hono r o r h alf or wholly ,

.

yield to th e wo oi n g lip s ; of vowel s th at flow and

m u r m u r e a c h afte r its ki n d ; the pe r e mpto r y 6
,

a nd
p the b r ittle k the vib r ati ng r the i ns i n u atin g
, , ,

5 th e fe a the r y f
,
the velvety
, the bell voiced m -

the t ranq u il b r o ad a the p e n et rati n g e th e coo ing

, ,
'

u the e m o tion a l 0 a nd th e b e a u tiful combi n atio ns

, ,
.
8 I N T R OD UC T I ON .

of altern ate ro ck and s tr e am as it we r e th at th ey

, ,

give to the r ippli n g fl o w of s p eech — the r e is a ,

fas ci natio n in the s kilfu l h andli n g o f the s e whic h ,

the g r e at poets and eve n p r o s e wr ite rs h ave not -

di s d ai ned to a cknowled ge and u s e to r eco m mend

”
thei r tho u ght .

S u r ely the r e is tr u th in the wo r d s o f the witty

A u toc rat .A re no t the colo r s th at the ar ti s t u s e s
in the m s elve s a deli ght to h im ? D o e s n o t the
s c u lpto r s h ar e the t r a ns p o r t of the anato m i s t in

fully app r ehe ndi ng the wo nd r o us ar tic u l atio n o f

the h u man fr amewo rk ? A nd s h all not th e s tud e nt
o f l a n g u age m eet with s o m e s y m p a thy fr o m the

u s e r of it whe n he s tr ive s to p oint o u t th e c u r io u s

,

ad apt atio n o f m e an s to e nd i n the s pi r itu al body

th at we c all s peech ? H ave no t the wo r d s we u se

in eve ry to n g u e colo r s and fr ag r ance s o f thei r o w n ,

to ne s and ti ssu e s th at are p e r c eptible to the i nner

s en s e eve n whe n they c a nn ot be he ar d or felt ?
,

So m u ch fo r the i n te r e s t of my s u bj ect N ow .

as to a nothe r poi n t L itt r é in h is H i s to r y of the

,

F r e nch L angua ge co ns i s ti n g r e ally o f fra g m e n t

,

ary b u t m o s t s u gge s tive e s s ay s as k s wh a t we a r e

,

to u nde r s t and by the hi s to ry of a l angu a ge an d ,

a ns we r s the
q u e s tion s o m ewh at o n thi s w is e :
Hi sto ry is the s t u dy of the l aw of ch an ge ; th at
is o f the r eg u l ar s u cce ss io n o f c au s e s and e ffect s
,

by which h u man a ffai rs u nd e r go tr ans fo r m a tio n .

O nly in the c a s e o f l a n g u a ge s i ns te a d of eve nt s

,

and i ns tit u tio ns we conce r n o u r s elve s with wo r d s

, ,

fo r ms and c o ns tructi o ns The l ang ua ge is n o t

, .
 I N T R OD UC T I ON .
9

c o nsid ered as a s tudy o f lexico n o r synt ax ; the

rules of its gr am mar are no t the di r ect O bj ect o f
o u r re s e arch ; there is no for mal ex ami n ation of

its rh eto r ic ; there is no d i s c u s s ion o f o r tho gr ap hy

a nd pro nu nci atio n : i n a wo rd the r e is no s tri ct
,

a n aly s i s of the l a n g u a ge intended A ll thi s belong s

.

to the gram m ari a n o r the r heto r ici an The hi s to .

r i a n of the l angu age h as a wholly d i ffere n t fu n ctio n

to p e rfo rm H e m u s t it is trU e know s o mewh at

.
, ,

o f b oth its g r amm ar and its r heto r ic ; b u t it is no t

h is b u s i ne ss to dwell u po n the s e The s t u dy of the
.

gr amm ar is th e s tu dy o f a livin g body ; the s t udy

o f the r h eto r i c is the s tudy of th at body in actio n
and of the d re s s which be s t befit s its s eve ral m od e s

o f a ctivity ; the s tudy of the l angu age as a whole

is th e i nve s tigatio n o f its p as t at eve ry p e r iod It .

is the s tudy of its ori gi n of the modific atio ns it

,

h as u nd ergo ne of thei r d u r ation and of th e cond i

, .

ti on s which b r o u gh t the m a bo ut It the r efo r e in

.

volve s a l arge co n s ider ati on of the r ace th at s p e ak s

"

it and of th os e ra ce s which h ave h ad any S h ar e in

,

mod i fyi n g it W e fi nd it al s o clo s ely linked with

.

the hi s to r y O f the lite ratu r e which the r ace h as

p r od u ced .

Thi s is the view th at L ittr é take s of the s c op e

the hi s tori an o f a lan gu age s ho uld keep b efore
h im ; and in th e s e word s th e r e ad e r will fi nd I ,

t r u s t cle arly se t fo r th th e gener al pl an O f my wo r k

,
.

‘ My method o f proced u r e will b e to try to as c e r

tai n wh at l angu age is and how it c am e to b e
,

Stu di ed a s a s ci en ce . I s h all the n t r e at of how

IO I N T R OD UC T I ON

it p r ob ably began and h ow it bec am e m ulti fo r m

,
.

To thi s will natu r ally s u cceed an atte mp t at a

s cie nt ific cl as s ific atio n o f to ng u e s and the n the ,

c o ns ide ratio n o f the s e cl as s e s in the ir o r de r o f

p r ogr e s s ive develop m e n t The r e wil l th u s b e
.

c h apte r s o n the s peech of o ne s yll able o n the ,

a ggl u t inative to ng u e s of the T u rani a n ra ce s o n ,

the holoph ras t ic to n g u e s o f A m e r ic a o n wh at ,

we m ay ve n tu r e to c all the a b n o r mally i nflected

to ng u e s o f the n egr o r ace s o n the l an g u age s of the
,

g r e at civiliz ing rac e s H amitic Se m itic and A ry a n

, , , .

H av in g n o w r e ached the h ighe s t develop m e n t of

i n flected s peech I s h all g ive s p eci al atte n tio n
,

to tw o s tro n gly co ntras ted i nfl ected l an g u a ge s ,

d e s ti ned to pl ace s on the s am e fam ily t r ee — to ,

L ati n the g r and fathe r o f o u r mod ern E n gli s h

, ,

and to I nflected E n gl is h its m othe r ,

A fte r the s e .

will fi tly co m e fo r o u r co ns i d e rati o n two a nalyti c

to ng u e s : F r ench the father and E ngli s h the
, , ,

d au ghte r .

I n thi s w ay the Sto r y of L a n g u a ge will le a d

,

in r eg u l ar h is to r ic al p r o g r e s s i o n u pw ar d fr o m the
c r ude s t fo r ms o f h u m an s p eech th r o u gh the m o s t ,

co m plex i nflected fo r ms to the fr ee s t r ic he s t

, , ,

and m o s t an alytic It will th u s be no t o n ly the

.

s to r y o f l an g u a ge i n ge n e ral b u t at the s a m e ti m e
,

the hi s to ry of the evol u tio n o f E ngl is h s p eech .

I h ave avoided tech nic a l te r m s W he r e the .

anth r opologi s t s ay s d o l z c/zo cep h a l o u s I h ave w r itten

'

Zo ng k ea a ea
’ ’
. So m e tech ni c alitie s s u c h as aggl u ,

tinative and I h ave h ad to u se fr e

 I N T R OD UC T I ON I I

qu ently ; b ut I h ave i n e ach i ns tan ce tri ed to

expl ai n the me aning cle arly .

Th at a book intended fo r the gene ral r e ader ,

and not for the s chol ar , s ho uld b r i s tle with foot

note s s ee ms h ar dly in accord ance with good tas te .

As however i ntere s t i n s ome p art of the gre at

, ,

field s u rveyed may le ad a r e ade r he r e and the r e

to i nve s ti gate the s u bj ect fu r the r I h ave app e nd ed
,

a li s t o f s o me of the book s r e ad or con s u lted

i n the prep ar atio n of thi s wo r k A c au tion is
.

n eed ed he r e : the s e wr i tings ar e no t to be re

gard ed as s afe au thoritie s o n all poi nts they to uch
u pon ; b u t they ar e all s u ggestive .
 T HE

ST O RY O F L AN G U AG E .

CHA PTE R I .

W H AT L AN GU AGE I S .

T HE study o f l angu age is a sci ence L angu age

.

its elf i s an art and it is the e arli est o f the arts

, .

It necess arily anted ated all hu m an history ; fo r

it is the i nstru ment o f th ou ght and without
,

tho u ght and the communic ati on of thou ght b e

tween man and man the form atio n o f society
even i n its simplest form s wo uld be impo ss ible .

B u t it is no t o nly the O ld est it is also the new

,

est o f arts
.

It is th e newest o f arts b ec ause we see i t d aily

,

i n process of d evelop ment be fo re us i n the mou th s

o f littl e c hi ldren in e ach s ucceeding gener ati on ;
the newest bec ause we s ee new words ad mi tte d
,

i nto i t continu ally a s well as ch anges goi ng on

,

i n th e p ronu nciati on O f the O ld word s fr om

ti m e to time ; the newe s t b ec ause we recogn ize
,

thro u gh historic record s the c h anges i n co nstr u c

tion no less th an i n vo c ab ul a ry whic h it u nd ergoes
fro m age to age .
I4 T II E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

It is a rich be au tifu l and ex q u i s ite a r t c a p a ble

, , , ,

in the wo r k s o f m as ter s p i r it s o f as s u m i n g fo r m s
,

th at powe r fu lly i nfl u e nce the whole hi s to r y o f

a r ace ,
—c ap able too o n the lip s o f elo q u e n t
, ,

s pe ake rs o r g ifted a cto r s o r s weet voiced wo me n -

, , ,

of infi nite C h ar m .

W he n we co m e to analyz e its e s s e n ti al n at u r e ,

we h ave eve ry r ight to de s c rib e it as a s p i r itu al

o r gani s m fo r we c an thi nk in it witho u t u tte r i n g a
,

s o u n d o r p u tt in g it in a nyway i nto co n c r ete s h ap e .

Yet it c an and gene rally m u s t be m ate r i ali zed ,

i n co ns o nan ce with the n eed s o f m an as a s oci al

an i m al ; and o n e o f the re s u lt s of civiliz ati o n is

th at it h as b een tau ght to r e ac h othe r s en s e s th an

th at o f he ar ing The g r e at majo r ity o f m anki nd
.

s till r ece ive its i mp r e s s th r o u gh thi s s en s e al o n e ,

j u s t as they c a n give it fo r m and s u b s t ance o n ly

th r o u gh the voice The co mp ar atively s m all
.

n umbe r of tho s e who c an r e ad are r e ached by

l an gu age th r o u gh both e ar and eye ; wh ile th e
s till s malle r n u m ber of the bli nd who h ave bee n

tau ght to r e ad r eceive it th r ou gh the m edi u m o f

the s e ns e o f to u ch .

Pr i mar ily the n and in its m o s t u s u al fo r m

,
,

l ang u age is the u tte r ance o f tho u ght in c o nv e n

t io nally a cc epted s o u nd s J u s t as m u s i c m ay b e
.

d e s c r ib ed as the m arr i age of s o u nd with fee l i n g ,

so may l ang u a ge in its ge n e ra l u se be c alled

, ,

M W
E ach sp o k e n
'

therefo r e emph atic ally

t o ngue is , ,

the exp r e ssio n of the whol e n at u r e of the r ace

 WH A T L AN G UA GE I S . I S

whic h s p e ak s it so far as th at n atu r e m anifests it

,

s elf in m e n t al , mo ral a nd e motio n al activity fo r

, ,

l angu age u s u ally link s its elf with m us i c and th u s ,

aid s i n exp r e ss i n g the emotio n s al s o .

L a ngu age h as its hi s to r ic s i gnific ance in the fact

th at at eve r y s tage of its gr owth it r eflects faith fu lly ,

an d o ne m ight almo s t s ay u nco ns cio u s ly t h e s t a e

g
'

, , ,

o f p s yc hic d evelop ment r e ached by the r ace th at

thi nk s i n it and u tter s its thou ght th r ou gh it I ts .

contr ib u tio n to the t r u th of hi s to ry then is bo und , ,

to b e of im m e ns e v al ue .

T h u s t h e whole infl e ctio nal s y s tem o f the O ld er

'

A ry an l an g u a ges fr om which s p ran g th e to ng u e s

,

of the civili zed r ac e s o f E u rop e co mplex and ,

ingenio u s in s t r u ctu r e as i t s ee ms w as an al mo s t ,

unco n s cio u s d evelop m ent devi s ed s lowly and p oi nt

,

b y p o i n t tho u gh i n s ti n ctive ly to meet i mmedi ate

, ,

ne ed s of m utu a l co mprehe ns i o n b etwee n man and

m an o f th e s ame t ri b e Th u s too fr o m a c areful
.
, ,

s tudy o f the like n e s se s and the di ffe r e n ce s betwee n

o ne a nd a nothe r of the t r ib al d i alect s philologi s t s ,

h ave b ee n able to asce r tai n the p r eci s e s tage of

c iviliz ati o n r e ac hed by the Aryans b efo r e they
b eg an to s ep ar ate i nto t r i be s th at dive r ged in
l ang u age as they wa nd e r ed ap ar t .

W hether holding togethe r in o ne tribe o r m igrat

in g and b r e aki n g i nto di ffe r e nt tr ibe s W ith gr owi ng
d i ffe r e nc e i n d i ale ct the lo nger they rem ai ned fr ee
,

fr o m th e fette r s o f lite rary fo r m the m o r e s ur e w as

,

the p r oce ss of develop me nt in l angu age to conti n u e

its n atu r al co u r s e .
16 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

B ut th at mo r e
dv a nced civiliz atio n whi c h
a

gathe rs me n i n to citie s and c r e ate s a lite ratu r e

o f a ny ki nd b e it only g n o m ic and j u r i s tic a nd
,

h anded dow n only by ch an ted s o n g alway s p r e ,

ve nts the m at u r e g r owth s lowly atta in ed in the

s e mi — civ ilized s tage Th u s it w as th at to o e ar ly
.

a civiliz atio n checked the g r owth o f m o s t of the

T u rani an l ang u age s s o th at they n eve r r e a c hed the

,

s t a ge of i n flect io n A n i n flected to n g u e l ike th at

.
,

o f o u r A r y an fo r efathe rs m u s t a nted a te civiliz a , tion .

A l ang u a ge c e as e s to grow whe n it h as c as ed

its elf with a S hell S u c h w as the hi s to r y of the
.

Chi n e s e to n gu e It is tr u e th at i t w o u ld b e d i ffic u lt
.

to p rove th at any one C hi n e s e to ng u e eve r exi s ted ,

s o nu m e r o u s are the d ialect s in whic h th e s o — c alled

Ch in e s e l ang u a ge is at th e p r e s e nt d ay s p o ke n over
th at v as t e m pi r e r uled by th e T a tar dy nas ty e s tab
l is h e d in K am b al u The s e di alects o r thei r o r i gi n al
.
,

m othe r — whic h the lite rar y di al ect may b e t aken

,

to r ep r e s e nt s topp ed at the m o no s yll a bi c s t a ge

,

of gr owth the race h avin g p r ec ocio u s ly fo r med a

,

civil iz atio n in its C hildhoo d .

S u ch w as al s o the hi s tory o f the gr e at H am itic

a nd Se mitic to n g u e s Befo r e civiliz atio n they h ad
.

d eveloped beyo nd the m o n o syll abic s ta ge ; b u t ,

h avi ng at the m ome n t of civili z atio n r e ach ed the

a ggl u ti n ative s t a ge with a m e r e begi n ni n g o f
, in fl e c
tio nal fo r ms they s to p ped at th at poi nt a nd n ever
,

r e ached tr u e i nflectio n .

In the s e c as e s the civiliz ation s th e m s elve s bec a me

s te r eotyped i n ch aracte r bec au s e l an g ua ge the , ,
 WH A T L AN G UA GE I S .
17

i nstru ment o f tho u ght b ec ame inc ap able of p ro

,

gress and henc e i nc ap able of helpi ng the r ace to

re ac h hi gher form s o f civi liz atio n The r aces s tood .

s till
. A ctive as bee s o r ants i n p re establish ed -

h abits the p eopl e b ec a me mentally mere mu mmi es

, ,

u n able to ori gi n ate n ew id e as or new p rocesses of

thou ght Thei r fo r m of civiliz ation bec am e to them
.

a fetich .

The slow d evelop ment of o u r A ry an ancestors

w as therefore in the end a gre a t bl es s ing
, , They .

rem ained for m a ny a ges at the st age of hunter ,

h erd s m an o r s m all h u s b an dm an ; and d uring th at

,

long p erio d O f slow d evelopme nt the l angu age of

e ach br anch o f the gre at Ary an family b ec ame a
hi ghly i nfl ected tongu e .

At this p oi nt the q u e s tion ari s es W h y h ave not ,

other b r anc hes o f the h u m an r ace th at h ave like ,

wise rem ained lon g withou t th e higher civiliz atio n

of C iti es and a lite ratu r e d evelop ed i nflected
,

l angu ages th e red r ace s o f A me r ic a fo r instance

, , ,

and the b l ack r ace s o f A fric a ? The only co nc eiv

a ble answer to thi s is th at to r e ach the higher forms

of d evel op ment there must be an i nherent p ower

i n the r ace i rre s p ective o f m ere s ta ge of d evelop
,

ment , a power s u p erior eve n to e n vironment .

W hat h as been said s o far h as been i n illustration

of the lessons th at the s tudy o f l angu age can give
i n regard to u nw ritten hi s to r y its aid i n the study ,

o f ethno lo gy L e t u s p ass n o w to other p oints

. .

The study o f language as a s ci ence h as p roved ~

th at i n certai n i mp ortant re sp ects a l angu age is

2
I 8 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

possessed of an o r g anic life o f its own S O long as .

its life l asts it is s u bj ect to con s tan t c h ange both i n

,

gr amm atic al s tr u ct u r e and in voc abul ary tho u gh ,

to infinitely s lowe r C h an ge when c ry s t alli zed by

civiliz ation th a n in its s ta te o f u ns table equili bri u m
as i t e x i s ts am o n g w an d e r in g tr ib e s I t h as a p er .

e t u al tend ency to v ar i a ti o n an d to the form atio n

p
of di alects The s e ci r c u m s ta nce s m ay at any tim e
. ,

d evelop and r ai s e to th e d ign i ty O f new l an g uage s .

Mo s t write rs h ave agr eed in s tatin g the stages i n

th e develop me n t of l angu age fro m lower to hi gher
form s to b e :
I .Mono syll abic whe r e e ach sou nd stand s ap art
,

by itself and rel ati o ns of wo r d with wo r d are ex

,

pre ss ed by po s itio n and tone ;

2 .A ggl u tin ative whe r e s i m ple s o u nd s co mb i ned
, ,

by mere j uxt ap o s itio n and u tte r ance to gether form ,

a co mpou nd ide a ;

3 H olop hr as tic whe r e the a ggl u ti n ative p l a n is

.
,

c arried to the len gth o f p u tti n g to gether i n one

u tter ance all the id e as it is i ntended to exp ress ;
4 I nfl e c tio nal whe r e the r el atio n s o f words to
.
,

o ne anothe r ar e dete r m in ed by s ome ch ange i n th e

fo r m o f the word s ;
5 A n alytic w he r e the s ynthetic m ethod s h av
.
, ,

ing done thei r full wo r k and a r e actio n ag ainst th a t

,

sy s tem s etti ng in the r el a tio ns o f wo r d s to o ne an

,

other are exp r e ss ed by s m all p ar ticl es th at s e r ve

as s tepp ing stone s fo r tho u ght
-

The third st age is c alled by di ffe r e nt p hilolo gi s ts

'

inter ca l atz w , incorpo r a ting an d

poly sy ntfietz c ; b ut
’

,
 WII A T L AN G UA GE IS . 19

H u mboldt
’
term bolop/z rastz o is the be s t o f all
’

s , , .

I t is d erived fro m two G reek word s th at me an

telli ng the w hole .

O f the s e v ario u s st age s the infl e ctio nal is th e ,

cli m ax of synthesis Then by the cl as hi ng of .

,

diver s e i n flected tongu e s and by p ho netic Ch ange

and dec ay l an gu age p ass e s from the highly s n
, y
theti c form s of i nfl ected s p eech to e as y and s i mple
a n alytic fo r m s The m ode r n speech — E nglish
.
, ,

F rench and Persi an fo r i nstance — in e ach c as e

, , ,

the re s u ltant o f m any fo r ces and o f long histori c

actio n r e actio n
, and i n ter actio n co me s i n m any
, ,

p arts to r esembl e clo s ely the e arly mo n o syll abi c

typ e B u t the resembl an ce is after al l like th at
.
, ,

which the aged Ch r i s ti an ch astened by m any ,

tri al s b e ar s i n simplicity and hu mility o f faith to

, , ,

the little child For th e app arent s i mpli city of

.

these modern forms h as re ally re s ulted fr om a

c o mplexity th at h as s u bmitted to lo ng u se and
el abo rate p oli s h Th u s coy w as o nce the Latin .

gazetum ; d a te w as o nce the Greek ddkml o n

’

and
’

r o und w as o nce the L atin r o tzind u m The a n alytic .

mod ern tongu es i nd eed p r eserve remn ants O f all , ,

the stage s throu gh which the l an gu age h as p assed .

To the p hilologi s t every s entence cont ai n s bene ath

the s u r face fo ss il re m ai n s th at p oi nt to many a dif
fe re nt a
ge .

So far o u r attentio n h as been fixed o n the

spoke n l an gu age Bu t a l angu age th at is m erely .

spoke n may be d escribed as bein g i n co n tin u al

fl ux The ti m e m ust come for giving it p erm a
.
20 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

mence ; withan d
al l the highe r ra ce s th at ti m e d id

co m e The race s who s e i nbo r n ge n i u s help ed by

. ,

favo rable e nvi r o n me nt led them upw ar d fr o m the

,

low s tage o f s imple co nte ntme n t with s u r viv al went ,

o n imp r ovi ng thei r s p eech as they m atu r ed thei r

civiliz atio n They le ar ned to m ate r i alize i t and

.

give it pe r pet u ity by i nve nti n g sy m b ol s fo r i t and ,

p u tti n g the s e s y m bol s where they wo u ld s tay for

other ge n e ratio n s to s e e them They e n g r aved .

the m o n r ock or m ar ble o r b r ick ; they p ai nted

the m on p apy r u s o r p ar chme nt ; they pri nted them
o n p aper ; and at l a s t in the s e l a te r a ge s they h av e

t ake n to i ndenting — n o t the s y m bol s any lo n ge r ,

b u t the ve r y s o u nd s them s elve s o n a m etalli c

r oll so as to be c ap able of r ep r od ucti o n a ge s
he nc e .

Thi s wr itte n s peech w as fi r s t o f all a s e r i e s o f

, ,

pict u r e s r ec alli n g to the m i nd the thi n gs s p oke n

,

of The n fo r q u i ckne ss and c onve ni e nc e i t b e

.
, ,

c ame a co nventio nal r ep r e s entation of th e o r igi nal

p ictu r e s To thi s m ethod s u cceed ed p u r e s i g ns o r
.
,

s y m bol s S ig ns of word s s ig ns of s yll able s s i gn s

.
, ,

to exp r e ss the s o u nd s of syll able s s i g ns to expre s s,

the s ou nd s of letter s s ign s to m ar k a o n c e exi s ti n g

,

lette r, s uch is the o r d e r of d evelop m ent in w r itte n

s peech The m ethod o f givi n g it to the eye and

.

the s u b s tance u s ed in th at p r oce ss we r e eve n m o r e

Vario u s th an its fo r m I n h a r d s to n e i t w a s in
.

c ise d ; in s oft s to ne it w a s often c u t in rel ie f

; in
wood it w as c ar ved ; in b r ick it w as s t am p ed i nto
the s oft cl ay ; on le ave s o r le athe r o r p ar chme n t it
 WH A T L AN G UA GE IS .
21

w as p ai nted with an i nked bru s h or w r itten with

p en o r q uill .

The directi o n in which the wr iting h as b een do ne

h as al s o v ar ied gre atly So m e r ace s h ave w ritten
.

fro m left to r ight and then fr o m r i ght to left .

O ther s h ave w r i tte n alway s in o ne d irection eithe r ,

co n s tantly fro m left to r ight o r co n s tantly fr o m

ri ght to left O ther s h ave wr itten in col u m n s
.
,

fro m to p to botto m .

F o rtu n ately fo r the r ace s th at we r e to d evelop

the highe s t typ e s of l angu age they did not ac ,
l

qui r e the u se of written s peech u ntil they h ad

fr eely develop ed l a ng u age in independ e n ce of the
r ace s who h ad i nvented the e ar lie r civiliz ation s .

For l aw s h ave gove r ned the p rogre s s of d evel

,

o p me nt in l angu age which m ad e it i m p o s s ible for

,

the e a rlier civiliz atio n s to c arry the l an g u age s

s p oken by the r ac e s d evelop ing them beyo nd a

ce r tai n s tage of growth The s ame l aws g ave a .

more powerfu l i mp u l s e to the ra ce s th at m atu r ed

l ate r ; s h aped e ach ch angi ng g rad atio n toward the
hi gh e s t refine m ent the widest comprehen s ion a nd
, ,

th e nic e s t ad aptation of wo r d p h ras e and co n , ,

s t r u ctio n ; an d m ade their s p eech ap t fo r s u btle

d i s cern ment and co n s ecutive re as o ni n g The s e .

l aws will b e fo u nd on c arefu l s tudy to be as fixed

, , ,

as d efinite and as well u nd er s tood as the l aws of

,

any other s c ience .

Yet we m u s t b ewa re of m aki ng l an gu age alo ne a

te s t o f r ac e and s eeki n g to r eco ns tr uct p r ehi s tori c
age s by no other witne ss th an th a t o f l angu age .
 22 T II E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

The re ar e i ns tanc e s in which the ded u ctio ns phil

ologi s ts mi ght d r aw wo u ld ce r tai n ly m i s l e ad .

I n the c as e o f the W e dd as O f C eylo n a rac e of ,

exceed ingly low typ e who S p e ak a d eb as ed fo r m

o f S ans k r it it is m o r e th an likely th at the evidence
,

of l an g u age is n o t to b e r eli ed o n Fo r we h ave .

ab u n d an ce O f te s ti m ony to S how th at s u bj ect ra c e s

in ma ny l an d s h ave in p r oce s s o f ti m e le ar n ed to
u s e the l an gu age of thei r m as te r s .

I n I r el and a nd Scotl an d E rs e and G a eli c h ave

give n pl ace to E n gli s h I n s o u the r n E u r op e the
.

Keltic di al ects di ed o u t in the p r e s e n c e of ove r

m as te rin g L at in .

The Gyp sy s p e ak s — be s i de s h is own R o many ,

which in h is native I ndi a he may h ave le ar n ed

fr o m A r y an m a s te r s the tong u e o f eve r y l an d in
wh ich he w and e r s The j e w h as l ikewi s e le ar ned
.

to u s e the s peech of eve ry l and in which h e d w ell s ,

and it is b u t s eldo m th at he c a n eve n r e ad the

H eb r ew o f h is fathe rs .

The Neg r o in E ngli s h s ettle m e nts s p e ak s a b r oke n

E ngli s h ; in F r e nch colo nie s like L o u i s i a na an d
,

M ar tini q u e and even in l and s like H ayti th at h ave

,

ce as ed to be in any othe r r e s pect th an l ang u age

F r e n ch he s p e ak s a b r oke n F r e nch ; in Mexic o and
,

the othe r colo n ie s o f Sp ai n h e s p e ak s a b r oken

,

Sp anis h ; in B r az il a b r oke n Po r t u g u e s e ; a mong

,

the Bo e rs o f So u th A fr ic a a b r oke n D u tc h ; u nd er
,

the tutel age o f A r abi an t rad e rs and the m i s s io na

r ie s of I s l am a b r oken Ara bic
, .

B u t in all the s e c as e s eve n we r e the phy s ic l

, a
 WH A T L AN G UA GE IS . 23

evid ence not p alp ably co ntr adictory to the i nfer

ence we might feel o u rselve s e ntitled to dr aw fro m
l angu age record ed hi s tory i n terp oses to p revent
,

mistake as to r a ce .

Yet even i n the s e c as e s the ch anges m ade i n

, ,

the l angu age le ar ned by the r ace to whom it was

ori gin ally forei gn ar e all of s u ch a s ort th at the
l aws of l angu age ar e c ap abl e of tr aci ng them and
a cco u nting for th e m o n p r i ncipl e s O f ethnic voc al

iz atio n The d anger of error is re ally confined to

.

r aces and l ang u a ge s very r e m ote i n time and d esti

tu te of a liter atu r e o f any ki n d .

W e should never fo r get — and yet it h as b een

forgotten by l e arn ed theo r i s ts — th at when we s p e ak
O f the l an gu age O f ge s t u r e s the l an gu age of the
,

e motio ns and the l an gu age of cries and ej ac ul a

,

tio ns we are o nly sp e aki n g figu r atively Not o ne

, .

O f the s e mod es of c om m u nic a ti ng with o ur fellow

me n o r with th e ani m al s ab o u t us is i n strictness

f

l angu age .

L angu age is p ri mar ily the voc al expres s i on of

thou ght ; s eco nd ar ily it is it s wr itten expres s ion
, .

I t is essenti ally a h u m an fu nction All men sp e ak :

.

every r ace fo u nd o n th e glob e h as a l angu age of

i ts own But no h u m a n b ein g is born with speech ;
.

he is b orn o nly with the fac u lty for s p e aki ng and ,

m ust le arn to d o s o fr o m tho s e a ro u nd hi m .

The child of E n gli s h p ar ents growing up ,

amongst C hin am e n will a c q ui r e th e Chinese l an

,

gu age S p eech then is not i n nate b ut acquired ;

. , , ,

it i s a soci al acqu irement The c hild th at grows

.
24 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE
.

up a mo ng wild be as ts will n o t le arn to s p e a k any

l an guage tho u gh d o u btle ss there will b e s o m e
,

m ea n s O f communic a tion other th a n l a ngu a ge b e

tween him and the ani mal s that h ave fostered hi m .

Be s ide s the m any lege n d s th at wi tness to thi s ,

well fo unded p rob ably in fact we h ave d irect a nd

,

m od er n evidence of the t r uth o f this state ment ,

which will be add uced in a nother p l ace .

 CH APT E R II .

H O W LANGU AGE WAS ST U DI ED .

T HE study o f l angu a ge i s a s cienc e It is a .

scienc e of ob s e rv atio n and i nd uctio n I t is a

.

sc ience b ased u po n the c areful c omp arison o f all

the k nown l an gu ages of m anki nd .

Certai n genera l l aws being as cert ai n e d by this

c omp ar iso n l angu ages are cl as s ified i nto families
,

c ontai ni ng group s o f reco gnized kinship .

The c arefu l s tudy of e a c h l an gu age reve als its

stage of d evelop m ent ; and fro m a compari s o n of
e ac h st a ge in the whole s eries we re ac h by i n d u c

tio n the law o f d evelop ment and are able to d e

scribe the history o f the growth o f l angu age .

B ut th e v as t di fferences amon g the m any

to ngu e s sp oke n by the h u m an fam ily l ong pre
ve nted s tudents o f l angu a ge from fi n ding a s ta rtin g
p oi nt for i ntelli gent pro g r ess It w as nece ssary to
.

h ave s u ch a star ting p oi n t i n o rd er to g athe r m ate

-

ri al c ap able o f bein g p u t together as a nucle us

fo r cl ass ific ation .

At l as t however the n e e d ed starti ng p oi nt w as

, ,
-

fo u nd T he study by E u rop e an s chol ars o f San

.

s k rit the ancie nt l a ngu a ge o f the H ind oo s

,
first ,
26 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

a wakened thei r mind s to a r eco g ni tio n of th e kin

s hip o f ce r t ai n to n g u e s o f A s i a with th e l a n g u a ge s

s poken by the chi ef r ac e s of E u r op e an h is to r y ,

both ancie nt and m ode r n The s e ra c e s o n th e .

,

witn e ss o f l an g u age as to thei r o r igi n al i d entity ,

s chol ar s we r e fi n a lly able to g r o u p to gethe r as

I ndo E u r op e a n o r A ry a n
-

,
The n am e A ry a n
.
,

mo r e co n ve n i e nt in s eve r al r e s pects th an th e othe r ,

w as ass i g n ed to the p r i m itive ra ce a nd l an g u a ge ,

b ec a u s e A ry a w as the an ci e n t Per s i a n n ame of the

old Pe rs i a n l and Thi s w as b elieved to h ave bee n
.

the o r iginal fo s te r l a nd for all the A ry an r a ce s ,

fr o m tho s e who fo u n d thei r w ay u lti m ately as far

s o u th as the i s l and of C eylo n to tho s e who r e ac hed

in th e n o r th the O r kney s and th e i s l e of E r i n .

Thi s s tu dy and the e ar lie s t ge n e raliz atio n it

,

helped the m to m ake tau ght p hilolo gi s ts the t r u e

,

m ethod of i nve s tigatio n .

L eib nitz p e r h ap s th e m o s t o r igi n al thi nker o f

,

h is tim e h ad al r e ady c a u s ed s chol ars to r ej ect the

,

old notio n th at H eb r ew w as the m oth er to ng u e o f

the h u m an ra ce and to give u p th e fr u itle s s tas k o f
,

t ryi n g to d e r ive fr o m it all k n own l an g u age s .

I n r e s p o ns e to h is a pp e al s m i ss i o n ar i e s and
,

t ravelle r s began to collect voc ab u l ar ie s and to

s t u dy the s t r u ctu r e o f l a ng u a ge s a mo n g inn u
me r
able r ace s O f b ar b a r ian s H e r v a s a J e s u it m i s s i o n
.
,

ary , in th e ye ar 1 8 00 p u bli s hed in the Sp a ni s h

tong u e a c atalo gu e o f l ang u age s c o n tai nin g s peci ,

m e ns of m o r e th an th r ee h u n d r ed Thi s w as fo l .

lowed by the Mith r id ate s O f A del u n g an e mi ,

 I I O W L AN G UA G E WAS ST UD I E D . 27

n ent G erm a n philolo gi s t who c alled h is book so in,

m e m o ry of the g r e at King o f Pontu s fam o us in

'

h is d ay fo r the n u mbe r of l an g u a ge s he c ould

s p e ak .I n thi s wo r k g atheri n g fr o m the c a ta
,

lo gu e of H e r vas and fro m the collection s m ad e

by the R u ss i an govern m e nt Adel u ng b r o u ght to ,

gethe r a v as t s tore o f li ngu i s tic fa cts as m ate r i al

for i nd u ctive r e as oni n g .

B u t the r e w as and there co u ld be no fixed p r in

c ip l e for s ci e n tific cl ass ific ation u n til the di s cove ry

of the r el atio n s h ip o f S ans k r it to L ati n G r eek and , ,

the to ngu e s o f Kelt G e r m an and Sl av led to the

, ,

gro up i n g to gethe r o f the A ry an to ng u e s .

Thi s v al u ab le gene raliz atio n w as the wo rk i n the ,

fi rs t pl ac e of E ngli s h me n i n the E as t
,
S ir W illi a m ,

J one s C o leb r ooke and other m e mbe r s o f the

, ,

A s i a tic Soci ety fo u nded in C alc u tta in I 7 8 4

,
.

Thei r l abo r s we r e s p eedily cor r obor ated by the

i nd u s try and ac u m e n of G e r m an s tu de nts in the
li b ra r ie s of E u r op e e s peci ally F r ede r ick Schlegel
,

a nd J acob G r imm The D ani s h s chol ar a nd

.

t r avelle r R as k w as a worthy co mp ee r of s uch

, ,

men .
To thei r r ank s were s oon add ed the G e r
m ans Bopp Po tt Las s en and R o s en and the
, , , , ,

Fre nc h s av an t E u g en e B u rno u f W illi am von

,
.

H u mboldt b r o ad e n ed thei r ge ne r aliz atio ns and

fo u nded a p hilo s op hy of l an gu age H is wo r k .

w a s a bly s upple m ented by the re s e ar che s and

gene ralizi n g geni u s o f Stei nth al and Schleiche r
i n G er m any ; th eir co u ntrym an M ax M ulle r i n , ,

E ngl and ; G arnett D o nald s on Lath am F ar r ar

, , , ,
28 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

a nd S ayce al s o i n E n gl a nd ; and i n F ran ce

,
,

L ittr é R en a n and Pictet

,
W hile there are m any
,
.

a ble linguist s i n thi s co u ntry — a G reek sc hol ar ,

l ike G ild er s leeve a Semitic s cho l ar li ke Toy a , ,

clo s e stude n t o f A me r ic an to n g u es l ike Bri nton ,

the r e h ave not as yet been m any wri ters o f note

o n the science of l an gu age The n ames o f M arch .
,

M ar s h and W hitn ey a l m o s t exh aust the list

,
.

I n thi s task of gro u pi n g the l a ngu ages according

to their degree of ki ns hip it h as been fo u nd th at ,

the principle of likene ss i n g r am m atic al stru ctu re

is a far s afer guid e th an th a t of si mil arity i n voc ab
u l ar y . It will not do to m i s ta ke id entity o f so u nd ,

even when accomp ani ed by s o me s i mil arity in

me aning for id entity in o r i gi n
, .

Fo r in s tance in the E ngli s h wo rd cra ze/fi s h o r

,

cr ayfi s /z for both s pelli ng s are reco gnized — w e

mi ght seem to h ave a fi s h fo u nd freq u ently i n the
c raws o f bi r ds B ut we h app en to know th at the
.

word c ame i nto th e l an gu age fro m the Fre n ch

and th at the c r e atu re i s n ot a fi s h but ,

a cru s t ace an .

M any am u s ing m i s take s h ave bee n m ad e in thi s

w ay .
I ndeed it is a fr e q u e nt s o u rce of the bl und e rs
,

of s choolboys The w r ite r h ad a C l ass once re ad

.
,

ing Ce s ar who t r a ns l ated m z l z tes coh or ta nd z th e

' ' '

,
,

s oldier s h ad to b e d r aw n up i n co horts ” thei r ,

look and s o u nd , a nd by the s eeming good sen s e

of thei r ve rs io n .

Yet the r e ar e s o m e l an g u ages so b are of gr am

 H O W L AN G UA GE WAS ST UD I E D .
29

matic al s t r ucture th at their cl ass ific atio n i nto fami

l i e s is exceedingly d i fficult I n s u c h c as e s g r e at
.

h elp is h ad fro m tho s e like ne s ses in m e r e voc ab

ul ar y whic h ind eed fi rs t g ave the clew eve n in
, ,

the c as e of th e i nflected to n gue s .

The C hi ef and the mo s t p er s i s tent of the s e co n

ne c t ing link s is to b e fou nd in the n u m e ral s ; fo r

i n s tanc e the G erm an s acks and the L ati n sex are

,

m an ife s tly ide nti c a l Th at the r el ati o n i n thi s

.

m a tter b etwee n ki nd r ed l an g u age s m ay be cle arly

evid e nt I i nvite y o u to look i nto the table here
,

give n in a n u m b er of A r y an tongue s of the nu m

, ,

e r al s 2 , 3, a nd 7 :

B u ick

M aes o G o ti uo
'

G er ma n
L ith u a nia

Sp a nis h
P o r tugu es e
AngZo S ax o n -

The s e are all recogni z able as s prun g

the same o r igin al Ar y an word s e s peci ally when
,
30 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

b r o ught to the te s t o f G r im m s l aw for th e i nte r

’

ch ange o f co ns o nants .

B u t no w let u s t ake a few no n A r y an l an

-

g u age s and s e e how the s e wo r d s look and s o u n d

,

in the m
’
A r a in; ith n th a al th sab

T u r kz s /z ik i c
ii h ye d i
'

H u nga r ia n ket h aro m h et

ni n ah natz
j p a a nes e san -

E skimo h ipah

p ingish tal e mamal

(Alask a n) or

mal h o u te r o nik

It will r e adily b e p e r ceived th at the s e l as t ar e

wholly u nl ike the co r r e s po ndi n g A ry an nu m e ral s .

A like co mp ar i s o n of p r o n o u ns a nd o f the ,

n am e s O f tho s e fam ili ar r el atio n s a n d obj ect s th a t

belo n g to the ve r y be gi nn i n gs o f organized s o ciety ,

r ev e al s the s am e kin s hip o r n o n ki n s hip a m o n g -

l a ng u age s .

B ut it h as h appened th at l an g u age s s p r u n g fr o m
the s ame s o u r ce wo uld s o metim e s develop di ffe r
e n t na m e s fo r the o r igi n al ide a a nd th u s O b s c u r e

the hi s to r i c ide ntity Th u s while G r eek G e r m an

.
, , ,

and E n gli s h a g r eed in keep in g n e ar ly th e s am e

wo r d fo r the gi r l child T /z zig a ter T oc/z ter and
'

, , ,

D a ugh ter L at in lo s t the wo r d a nd h a d to u se

,

Fz l z a the fe m i ni ne of Fz l z u s it s wo r d fo r S o n
' ' ' '

, , .

O n the othe r h and wh il e L ati n kep t a wo r d fo r

,

'

fathe r s b r othe r P a tr uus and anothe r fo r mo the r s

, ,
’

b r othe r A v u nr u l us E ngl i s h h as kep t o nly the

, ,

a m big u o u s wo r d Uncl e , .
 H O W L AN G UA GE WAS ST UD I E D .
3 I

The su rest te s t o f affi ni ty i n l an gu age li e s no t ,

the n i n word s of any ki n d ; i n the c ase o f s o me

,

trib e s w ande r i n g far fro m the o r igi n al ho me and

co mi n g u nde r s tro ng alien i nfl uence s the gr e ater,

p art of the p ri m al voc ab u l ary is w h olly lo s t and ,

is repl aced by th at O f other r ace s But with the

.

w ay of thi nki n g ch ar acteristi c of the tribe th e ,

str u ctu r al fo r m of its l angu age the re s u lt is

,

wholly d i fferent I f it h as ever po ss essed a ton gu e

.

h i ghly eno u gh d evelop ed to h ave c as e nu mber , ,

and ten s e , tho s e form s th at exp re s s the rel ations

of words to o ne another or to the whole s e ntence ,

— the s e will be s ure to c rop o ut even thro u gh a

wholly new voc ab ul ary They will clin g so clo s ely
.

to th e spoke n l a ngu age a s to m ake it s how s ome

tr ace s o f its e arly mode of fo r matio n and s o re
ve al its tru e pl ace i n the gen e alogic al table o f
i nfl ected tongu e s .

I t w as H or n e To oke who first m ad e th e a cute

gue ss th at the endings of no u n s, adj ective s and ,

verb s in the i nflected l a ngu ages are fr agme nts of

word s th at onc e h ad an i nd ep ende n t life of their
own The st u d ents o f S anskrit we r e able to co n
.

firm thi s splendid gue ss Indeed the p ec uli ar

.
,

geni u s o f the H indoo s fo r gra mm a ti c al stu dy h ad

p re s erved i n their liter atu re a co mplete analy s is
of the structure o f S an s k r it ; and s o it c ame abo ut
th at the histo ry o f th at eld est o f the Ary an s i s ter
hood o f tong u es bec ame a reco gnized g u id e for
tr acing o u t th e u nwritte n histo r y o f the othe r
d au ghters o f the ho u s e The n atu re of infl ection
.
32 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

w as at the s am e time cle ar ly and t r i u mp h antly

el u cid ated .

Thi s fr u itfu l di s cove ry howeve r in s pite of th e

, ,

p r ophetic i ns ight of H o m e To oke into th e t r u e

n at u r e o f fl e x io n s w as m ade o n ly after lo n g and
,

c ar e fu l i nve s ti gatio n E ven Schlegel and G r i m m

.

we r e in i gno rance o f wh at l ate r p hilol ogi s ts s u c

c ee d e d in de m o n s t r a ti n g as to the o r i gi n o f in fl e c

tio ns It took the co n ti n u o u s wo r k of s c o r e s of

.

s chol ar s to b r i ng the n ew s ci e n ce i n to bro ad

d aylight .

W he n at l as t the di s covery w as m ad e of th e t r u e
n atu r e of i n flectio ns i t proved as I h ave s aid
, , ,

wo nd e rfu lly fr u itfu l It th r ew a fl ood O f li ght into

.

the i nfl ected l an gu age s and en a bled s c hol ar s to

,

t ake the m to p i ece s as it we r e and wo r k b ack

, ,

to the e ar li e r fo r ms l ayi n g thei r h an d s u p o n the

,

p ri m al r oots which i t is to b e s u ppo s ed th e fi rs t

A ryans i nven ted . It e nabled schol ar s to se e ex
ac tly how the i n fl ected l a ng u age s afte r r e aching ,

r ichly co m plex fo r m s th at s eem to the m od ern

eye and e ar s tr an gely artifici al cr u m bled down into ,

loo s ely c r ys tall ized m ass e s to e m erge fi nally by

the che m i s try o f i n he r ent life as the an alyti c
to n g u e s o f the mod e r n wo rld I t led them a l s o .

s te ad ily o n to the di s covery of the p r oce s s e s by

which l an g u age p ass e s s u cce s s ively th r o u gh the

d i ffe r e nt s tage s of develop m ent : th e evol u tio n
fr om the m o no s yll abic to the aggl u ti native typ e
,

fro m th e aggl u ti n a tive to the

holo ph ras tic is r egar ded as a c u r iou s v ar i an t o f
 H O W L AN G UA GE WA S ST UD I E D .
33

the agglu ti n ative ,

-
an d from the infl e ctio nal to
the an alytic .

Nor w as the d iscovery of the tru e n ature of in

fl e ctio n the key to li n gui s ti c s ecrets only By lay .

ing b are th e old A ry an root s it e n abled schol ars ,

to s e e wh at i de as we r e co mm on to all the A ryan s

before any of the child r en of the ancient home
began their gre at serie s o f m i gr ation s .

W e are th u s able to g au ge the ex act dime n

s io ns att ained by th at e ar ly civiliz ation of o u r
forefathers . R e cent s tudy of the myth s the ,

s u p er s titions the whole b ody of legend ary lore

,

s c a ttered am ong the A r y an s however wid ely d is ,

tri buted thei r n atio ns t r ib e s and cl ans h as add ed

, , ,

fr e s h gains to the co ns tan tly incre asi n g store o f

m ateri al for reco n s tr u cti ng m ent ally th e li fe of
th e o ri gi n al r ac e i n the O ld A ryan home Clo s e .

s cruti ny h as b een appli ed to the S a n s krit Ved as ,

the R am ay an a and the M ah abh ar ata ; to the

,

Ze nd Avesta o f the an ci e n t B actri ans ; to the

-

H ell eni c Ili ad O dys s ey and W orks and D ay s ;

, ,

to the L ati n lege n d s p r e s erved i n Livy s p ro s e '

’ ’
and i n O vi d s and Vergi l s poetry ; to the Te u to n ic

G udru n N ibelu nge n li ed and E dd as of the No r s e

, ,

m en ; to the Kelti c M abi no gio n ; to the co untle ss

tr aditio n s fairy tal e s be as t fables and nu rs e ry
, , ,

r hymes th at belong to Ary ans e ast and we s t , ,

north and so uth ; and m any myths h ave been

fo und to be o nly v ari ants o f s om e simp ler o ri gi nal
form told to their children by A ry an mothers on
34 T II E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

the b ank s o f the O x u s th r ee thou san d ye ar s b e

fo r e the bi r th o f C h ri s t .

I ndeed o n comp ar i s o n wi th the folk lore O f

,
-

othe r race s it h as bee n fo u n d th at m any myth s

,

are co mm o n to the g r e at body of m a nki nd ,

a fact th at is expl ic a ble app ar ently o nly in one

, ,

of tw o w ay s : eithe r m an in co nta ct with n at u r e

,

r eceive s imp r e s s io ns whic h give r i s e to the s ame

s e t of s to r ie s u nive r s ally ; o r t h e lowe r ra ce s c ap a

,

ble o f o r i gi nating civiliz atio n h ave co m m u nic ated

to the highe r race s i n he r iti ng thei r civiliz atio n by
co nq u e s t all o r al mo s t all o f the s e widely s p r e ad
myth s The fo r m e r alte r n ative is adopted by
N ad aill ac and A nd r ew L an g The r e ar e how .
,

eve r s t r o n g r e as o ns fo r p r efe r r i n g th e l atte r

, .

The r e are s o me facts th at s ee m to poi n t d efi ni tely

tow ar d the r eceptio n by the hi ghe r o f the notio ns
as to co s m ogo ny held by the l owe r r a ce s The r e .

ce rt ai nly is evi de nce o f a s u b m e r ged m ytholo gy ,

a nd o f co mp r o m i s e i n the r e s u lt a nt faith in eve ry ,

l and to which hi s to ry pe n etrate s W he n i n s o u th .

e r n E u r ope we fi nd the ol d S at u r n i a n god s dis

pl aced by th e Jovi an and in n o r the r n E u r op e the

,

V ana god s d is pl aced by tho s e of th e A s i li ne we ,

are fo r ced to r ecog nize the s u p e r p o s it io n of an

A ry a n race u po n a H amitic o r a T u ra n i a n th a t
po ss e s s ed the l and fi r s t and in s pite of co nq u e s t
, , ,

r e m ai n ed impo r t ant eno u gh to i mp r e s s upo n H e l

len e Itali an o r Te u to n a p ar t o f its reli gi o u s

, ,

be h e f
S uch h ave been s ome o f the re s u lts o f the d is
 H O W L AN G UA GE WAS ST UD I E D .
35

c o v e ry o f th e tr u e natu r e of i nflectio n I mm e ns ely

.

in adv a n ce o f a ny other s cience it op e ned the w ay

,

to exp an d ed view s n o t only o f l ang u age , b ut al s o

o f r ace s and o f m an s pl ac e in n atu r e It m ad e
’
.

po s s ibl e a m o r e c o m p r ehe ns ive and a m o r e a cc u

r ate ethnology a nd an th r opology .

U s i ng the m etho d s o f the expe r i me ntal s cie n ce s ,

“ ”
the s tude nts O f l a ng u age we r e r ew ar ded by fi nd s
fa r b eyo nd thei r wilde s t i m agi ni n g s L ike eve r y
.

other s t u dy o f n atu r e it h as p r oved r ich in re

,

w ar d s in the s h ap e o f s urp r i s e s ; a nd it h as illu s

t r ate d ab u nd a ntly the p r oce s s e s r eve aled by th e
”
s ci e n ce O f biolo gy , s u ch
, to u s e the langu a ge
“
o f F r ed e r i c W F a r rar as the s tr u ggle fo r exi s t
.
,

e nce the i m p ortanc e O f i n te r m edi ate type s th e

, ,

p erp etu atio n o f accid e ntal dive r ge n ce s the powe r,

ful e ffect of i nfi nite s im a l ch a nge s lo ng co nti n u ed ,

a bove all ,
the be au ti ful law of an alogy th e law ,

whic h s how s th at there is p e r p etu al u nity in p e r

p e t ual v ar iety
.
 CH A PT E R III .

W O R K SH O P
’
T HE P H I LO L O GI ST S .

LET u s now dr aw a little clo s er to the workshop

of th e schol ar and ex am i n e h is m anner of com
,

p aring and an alyzi n g the s e l ang u a ge s th at he tell s

u s are s pru ng from a co m mo n s tock .

W hen we take tw o to n g u e s th at are as ne ar i n

hi s to ric fell ow s hip as ar e E n gli s h and French and ,

comp are them it is i n gene r al e as y to d isce r n the

,

fact of kin ship fr o m the m e r e s o u nd or the s p ell

i ng of word s So u nd the R in knif e as the e ar ly
.
,

E ngli s h did and you recog n ize th e French ca n if

,

as the s ame wo r d Po ul e yo u reco gnize as the

.

wo r d fr om which p o ultry is formed P rononcer .

,

imiter a va ncer co mment er co mp ter if not reco g

, , , ,

niz ab le by the E n gli s h e ar ar e cert ainly,

pl ai n
enou gh to the E n gli s h eye Ind eed there ar e .
,

i n the two l angu a ge s m any thou sand s o f wo r d s

almost identic al in eithe r fo r m o r sou nd .

The same thing is tr u e whe n we c ome to co m

p are E ngli s h and G e r m an both being o f Teu to nic
,

descent The old n u r s e ry r hy m e

.
,

“B re ad and Bu tte r and C h e es e

Ar e very go o d E ngl is h an d v e r
y go o d Fr ies e ,
 T HE P H I L OL O GI S T S
’
WOR KS H OP 37

appli es ve ry ne ar ly as well to G e r m an as it doe s to

the speec h O f Fr ie se land B r oa B utter and Katee .
’
, ,

ar e quite ne ar eno u gh to the E n gli s h words to b e

re ad ily u nderstoo d by one who h as never studied

G erm an Apf el and app le Ku k and co w H en ne
.
, ,

a nd h en, Gene and ox , K atee and ea t, R a tte and r at,

Ga r ten andgar den , H a us and h o use, Fel a

’
andfi e ld ,

and bro t/z er , M u tter and mat n

’
B r ua er er , are o nly

a few i n s ta nc es amo ng m any thous and s of wo r d s

ne arly the s ame i n the two l an gu age s .

Yet as yo u h ave been c autio ned befo r e yo u will

, ,

s ee th at when we h ave p ass ed a little w ay beyond

l a ngu age s pl aced so ne ar o ne a nother in time and
sp a ce we s h all find likene s s in voc ab ul ary to b e
,

b ut a p oo r and O ften a m ost d el usive guide N ot .

u n fr eq ue ntly d o we find i n th e s ame l angu age

wo r ds identi c al in form and so u nd b ut O f to tally ,

d i fferent o r i gin a nd henc e of co urs e di fferent i n

,

m e a ni ng Th u s i n F renc h we have so ur is a
.
,

”
m o u s e and so u r is a s mile
,
the fo r m er com
, ,

i ng fro m the Lati n s orex the l atter fro m the L atin ,

s u r r is us I n E ngli s h we h ave ar e/z me a nin g w ag

. ,

gi s h and a re/z m e ani n g a c urve in m as o nry

,
”
, ,

the fo r m er co mi ng fr o m Te u toni c origins and

me a ning o r igin ally “ wi cked the la tter comi n g ,

“
thro u gh the Frenc h from Lati n ar eas a b ow ,
.

There are very m any su ch i n modern tongue s and ,

p u n s ters fi nd the m very conveni e nt .

E ven id entity in word s then is cle ar ly no argu , ,

m ent i n favor o f id enti ty O f origi n A nd when .

t h ere is me r e s i mil arity and th a t betwee n word in

s
,
38 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

l angu age s far r emoved fr om o ne another in tim e

a nd s p ace we s ho u ld bew a re of d rawi n g any i n fe r
,

e n ce fr o m th e m e r e coi n cide nc e Th us the r e is .

,

a s t r iki n g like n e s s betwee n the I n di a n n a m e of the

Poto m ac R iver and the G r eek wo r d fo r r ive r ,

p o ta zn os
.
Yet it is c e r t ai n th a t they are i n no

w ay r el ated fo r the I n d i an ety m ology of Po to m ac

,

is well k now n .

The ge n u ine keys whic h u n lock th e s ee m i n gly

co mplic ated w ar d s of dive r s e an d yet r el ated
to n gu e s ar e s i mil arity i n g ramm atic al s t r u ctu r e
a nd as a co ns e q u ence o f thi s fu n d am e n tal
identi ty of r oots .

L e t u s fi r s t try to c atch wh at is me a nt by s i m i
lar ity in g ramm atic al s t r uctu r e The O ld e r A r ya n
.

tong u e s are r ich in i n flected fo r ms The l ate r .

h ave to a gre at exte nt exch an ged th e s e fo r m s fo r

co nnecti n g wo r d s by which the r el ati on s a m o n g
the m ai n ide as are exp r e s s ed Yet few as are the .
,

t rac e s of i n fl ectio n s till r e m ai nin g in E n gli s h and

in the R o man ce l an gu a ges s u ch a s are l e ft are al l
,

fo r m ed a fte r th e s ame method as the i n fl ected

fo r ms in L ati n G r eek and S ans k r it ; an d they c an
, ,

all be t raced b ack to the s a m e s o u r ce .

B ut the r e are two ki nd s o f i nflectio n and they ,

m u s t b e c ar efu lly di s ti n g u i s hed the o ne fr o m th e

othe r .

O ne Of
the s e is the m ethod O f exp re ss i n g a
ch ange i n m e anin g by a C h an ge o f vowel withi n
the wo r d as fo r ex ampl e too t/z teetk bleed bled
, , , , ,

kno w k ne w
, fi l l f u l l ; f ell f a l l I n the fi rs t
, , .
 T HE P H I L OL O GI S T ’S W OR K SH OP .
39

in s tance we h ave ch an ge i n nu mb er ; in the second

and third c h ange i n time ; i n the fo u r th ch an ge
, ,

fro m verb to adj ective ; i n the fi fth ch ange fr om ,

tr an s i tive ve r b to i ntr an s itive ,

This fo r m of i nfl ection the S emitic l angu ages

h ave i n co m mo n with the Ary an It is i nd eed o ne .

of the c h ar acteri s ti c fe at u re s O f the Se mitic tong u es ,

su c h as H ebrew A rabic A ram aic and As s yr i an

, , , ,

the i ntern al infl ection bei ng c arr i ed to a gre at ex

tre m e I n them th e tr iliter al roots th at con s titute
.

the verb al b ackb o ne O f the l angu age are con

so n a nts whil e to the vowel so u n ds are given the
,

fu n ctions o f th e n ervo u s centr e s .

W e h ave in E ngli s h as i n Ge r m an m any , ,

ex a mple s of thi s i nterio r i n fl ection T ake a few .

m o r e i n a dditio n to tho s e alre ady give n i n o r der

, ,

th a t yo u m ay fai r ly recog nize i t as an e s tabli s hed

for m of i n flection : s ing s a ng s ung ; s w im s w a m
, , , ,

swu m d r ink, dr a nk, dr u nk ; r ide, r o de, r id den

fly , fl ew , flo w n f oot f eet ; ma n
, , men mo u se,
mice .

I n G er m an it is still m ore fre q u ent Not only .

i s th ere a long li s t of ve r b s i n which the ch ange o f

time is m ar ked by the ch ange o f vowel ; b ut there
ar e a l s o l a rge cl as se s of wo r d s th at r egul ar ly
modify the vowel o n beco mi n g pl u ral o r o n t ak ing ,

the di mi nu tive fo r m or o n exp re ss ing th at dep e n d

,

e nt rel ati on of the v erb which we c all the s ub

j u nctive mood o r on p ass i n g fr om the first to the
,
.

seco nd and third p e r son i n the i ndic ative p re s ent

,
.

L e t th e s e ex ample s b e s u ffici ent to i ndic ate w h at

40 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

me ant : r inge, w erfe, w a rf,

is r a ng , ger ung en ;
d w d w d en B l a t t, B l d tter x
gew o rf en ; w er e a r , g
e or
,

H d P l u me, B l iimck en
'

B a um E d u m e ; H a n d ,
a n e ;
,

F Fr ciu l ein ; w a r , w d r e ; ka tte, k d t te ; f a ng e,

'

r a u,

l es e, lies es t, lies t ; nek me , n im ms t ,

‘
f ang s t, ang t f
-

n immt .

The othe r ki nd of i n flectio n and mu ch the m o r e ,

i mp o rta nt ki nd in the A ry an l an gu age s is the ,

ch ange in s h ade o f m e ani n g o r in r el atio n to

,

othe r wo r d s i n the s e n te n ce exp r e s s ed by d i ffe r ,

e nt s u ffixe s o r p r efixe s o r both F o r ve r b s thi s ,

.

C h ange in fo r m m ar k s a ch an ge o f m e a n i n g in
t im e m od e of actio n and p e r s o n acti n g o r acted
, ,

u po n Fo r n o u ns a nd adj ective s it m ar k s a
.

ch an ge in thei r r el ati o ns to the othe r wo r d s in the

s e n te n ce The s e o u tlyi n g modifie r s h ave bee n
.

as ce r t ai n ed by th e s tu d e nts of l an g u a ge to be
the c r u s hed r e mai ns of wo r d s th at we r e o nce
s o un ded with fu ll u tte r a nce .

O f the s e fra gmentar y r oot s th at h ave lo s t thei r

i nteg r ity an d h ave co m e th u s to exe r ci s e a me r ely
r el at io n al fu ncti o n it is the s u ffixe s th at ar e m u ch
,

the m o r e n u m e r o u s and i m p o r tant in the Ary an

to ng u e s W e s h all co m e b y and —
. by to l an g u a ge s -

in which the p r efixe s pl ay the m o s t i m p o r ta nt

p ar t To the p r og re s s ive r ace s thi s s eem s a s ort
.

of left h anded i n fl ectio n ; yet it is u n q u e s tion

-

ably an adv an ce u po n m e r e aggl u ti n atio n .

To r et ur n to the s u bj ect of i n fl ecti o n by s u f

fixe s U ntil s t u d e nts O f l angu age p r oved by c ar e
.

fu l analy s i s th at the s e e nding s we r e o n ce livi n g

 THE P H I L OL O GI S T S
’
WOR K S H OP .

41

word s they were c onceived to b e p u r ely c o nv e n

,

tio n al — delibe r ate co nt r iv ance s o f the fathe r s of

,

the r ac e fo r the p u r po s e of hooki n g w o r d s o n to

o ne anothe r in di ffe r e n t w ay s exp r e ss ive of di ffe r
e nt r el atio n s Th at they we r e o n the co ntr ary
.
, ,

p ar ts of co mp o u nd wo r d s b uilt on the aggl u ti na

tive typ e and th at their g rad u al m e r ger i nto
,

s ym bolic fu n ction s w as a w holly u ncon s cio us

d evelop ment o n the p ar t o f the r ace th at u s ed
the m ar e no w well —as ce r tained fact s
, .

A s h as b ee n O fte n s ai d by tho s e fa mili ar with

b oth the i n fl ected l ang u age s and the s i mple r
typ e s wh ethe r m o no syll abic o r aggl u ti native
, ,

“
the s e lingu i s tic s y mb ol s i nc r edibly facilitate the
op e r atio ns of tho u ght helpi n g the thi nke r j u s t
,

as a lgeb r aic s y m bol s help the m athe m atici an j u s t ,

as bill s of exch an ge help the m e r ch an t .

The i nte r io r s y s tem of i n flectio n h as bee n d e

scrib ed as givi ng to the vowel s th e v a l u e th at the
n e r vo u s c entr e s h ave in the an ato my of ve r te
b rate s The s y s tem o f extern al i nflecti on m ay
.

s i m il ar ly be like n ed to the m u s cle s th at s u r ro u n d

the bo ny l eve r s and give them m otio n and d ir e c

ti o n Pe r h ap s the a n alogy may be c ar ried fu r the r
.

and a ppli ed to the di ffe r ent C h ar acte r a nd de s ti ny

o f the S emiti c r ace s who fell natu r ally i nto the

,

u se of the o ne kind O f i nfl ecti o n and of the ,

A ry a n r ace s who p refer r ed the othe r ki nd

,
.

To ill u s t rate the n atu r e of thi s ki nd of in fl e c

ti o n pec u li a r i n the m ai n to the A ry an tongu e s
,
,

let u s take the c as e — end ings o f the L ati n wo r d fo r

42 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

l ea d er , which l ate r g ave r i s e to the title d uke ,

.

The r o ot d u c exp r e s s e s the id e a of l ea d ing and ,

we fi nd the p e rs o n al lea der m ar ked in the n ami n g

c as e by d u cs s p elled in L a tin d ux I n the c as e
,
.

th at de note s di r ect actio n r eceived the fo r m is ,

d u ce m the c h avi n g a lw ay s b e it r e m e m b e r ed
, , ,

the s o u n d of k I n the c as e o f i nd i r ect acti o n

. ,

the fo r m is d u ci In the c as e th at exp r e s s e s wi th

.

d raw al fr o m o r actio n p r oceed ing fr o m i t is d uce , .

I n the c as e o f o r igi n fr o m o r ow n e rs h ip of it is ,

d u cis . B u t whe n m o r e le ade rs th a n o n e are u n d e r

co ns ide ratio n the e ndi ng s c h an ge ag a i n the n o m i
, ,

n ative c as e for the pl u ral beco m i n g d u ces ; the

acc u s ative the s am e ; the d ative d u c iOus ; the ab

, ,

l ative the s am e ; a nd the ge n itive d a eu m The

, , .

voc ative the c as e of add r e s s is in thi s d ecle ns io n

, ,

the s am e in fo r m with the nomi native in both

n u m be rs .

O b s e r ve the li m ita tion in thi s d ecle ns io n

, ,

which fo r ce s o n o ur atte ntio n the fact th at in all

the i n flected l ang u age s the e ndi n gs of n o u n s v ar y
s o g r e atly as to h ave m ad e it n ece ss ar y fo r the

gramm ar i an to di s tr ib u te n o u ns i n to v ar io u s
“
cl as s e s c a lled d ecle ns io ns e a ch b ei ng m ad e u p
,

of n ou ns th at u s e the s ame i n flectio n The s am e .

s y s te m o f e nd in g s w as applied to p r ono u n s a d e c
j ,

t iv e s, an d ve r b s ; a nd in the ve r b s the v ario u s

o r d e r s of i nfle c tio n we r e c alled by the g ra m m a
“
r i an who cl as s ified the m co nj u gatio ns .

Now let u s s e e how thi s device of i nfl ectio n

wo r ked p ractic ally It left the s p e ake r p e r fectly
.
 T HE P H I L OL O GI S T ’S W OR KS H OP .
43

free , i n theory at le as t to arr ange hi s words as he ,

ple ased and the r e fo r e gre atly e n h anced his power

,

o f e mp h asis and the facili ty with which h e co uld

p ut the m into eup honio u s co m bin ati on s For .
,

wherever p u t d ux wo u ld always b e the s u bj ect

,

of the s ente n ce wherever he sat w as the

,

he ad of the t a ble D ucem wo u ld alway s be the

.

d irect obj ect of the verb if no t u s ed as the ,

obj ect o f s o m e p r epo s itio n D ucis and d ucu m .

wo uld alw ay s h ave the function o f limitation o n

somethi n g ei the r expre s s ed o r u n de r stoo d D uci
, .

wo uld alw ay s expre ss th e d ative rel ation whether ,

to adj ective or ve r b and d u ce the abl ative rel ation

, ,

whether to adj ective ve r b o r preposition It is , , .

evident then th at whe r eve r i n the sentence the s e

,

were pl aced the r e w o u ld be n o di ffic ulty i n u nder

,

st anding their rel ation s to the other wo rd s i n the

sen tence Thi s howeve r w as n o t th e c as e with
.
, ,

all the forms as d uces mi ght b e either s ubject o r

,

obj ec t and d ucibus m ight b e s u s ta i ning either a

,

d ative or an abl ative r el atio n .

I n so me of th e other decle ns io n s this ambiguity

w as extend ed to o ther c as e s so th at th ere were a ,

n u mber o f nou n fo r m s th at h ad not thi s ide al

p erfecti on i n th e definite exp r e s s io n of rel ati ons ,

th o u gh s o metimes they co u ld be give n it by the

form o f the adj ective j oi n ed to e ac h o f them .

To keep the s e am bi guo u s form s from ob s cu r ing

th e s ens e i t w as nece s s ar y to r e s tr ict their r ange
,

o f p o s itio n i n the se n tence I n thi s w ay even in the.

,

inflected l angu ages p o s itio n pl ays an i mp ortant p art .

44 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

B ut i nfl ectio n w as s ti ll s t r ong e n o u gh and exten

s ive e n o u gh to give g r e a t fr eed o m i n the arra n ge

m ent o f wo r d s a nd to allow tho u ght to be

,

exp r e ss ed w ith g r e at te r s e n e s s and co n ci s ene ss .

I n E n gli s h we h ave few t ra ce s left of thi s ki n d

o f i n flectio n The p r o no u ns it is tr u e are all
.
, ,

i nflected ; and with all n o u ns we m ay u s e the

po ss e s s ive e ndi n g in s tho u gh the u s e o f thi s
’

fo r m is far le s s fr e q u ent th an s ee m s likely at fi r s t

tho u ght The r e is al s o the d o r ed fo r exp r e s s i n g
.

the ch ange of the ve r b fr o m p r e s e n t to p as t ti m e ;

a nd the r e is the s fo r m ar ki n g the fo r m O f the ve r b

fo r the thi r d pe rs o n s i n g u l a r The s e a re al m o s t

.

the o nly E ngli s h inflectio ns o f the exte r n al ki nd .

B u t ve ry m any E n gl is h word s — a n i mm en s e
p r opo r tio n O f the m co ntai n in a fo s s il co nditio n
i nflectio ns th at we r e c u rr e n t p owe r s fu ll O f life ,

and vi go r in the l a ng uage s fr o m which E n gli s h

,

got the m .

T ake to piece s for ex am ple the E n gli s h wo r d

, ,

inaccess ibil imth e m e a ni ng of whi ch is cle ar e n o u gh

to any r e ad e r e s p eci ally whe n p ut i nto a s e n te n ce
,

like thi s : No o ne c ar ed to live o n th at is l an d o n ,

acco u n t of its i n acce s s ibility

W he n take n to pi ece s it is fo u n d to h ave fo r it s

,

co r e the s y ll able cess on wh ich ve r y p r op e r ly the

,

acce nt fall s ; and thi s s yll able h as a cl u s te r o f

m odifie rs ar o u nd it Cess co m e s fr o m th e L ati n
.

cess i , the p e r fect te ns e o f ced er e “ to m ove ” ’

, .

A ccess is the e u p ho nic fo r m o f a d ces s m ove to , .

I n the L ati n syll able o f neg atio n in compo u n d

,
 THE P H I L OL O GI S T ’S W OR K S H OP .
45

wo rd s m ake s ina ccess me an n o t move to

, The .

”
bil is fr o m the L ati n b a bil is able which follow s
’

, ,

some roots in the fo r m a bil othe r s in the fo r m ,

ibil othe r s i n the form a bl e and othe rs yet a g ain

, ,

in the fo r m ible E x am ple s of the s e v ar i ants are

.

a mia bil ity flex ibil ity ka bita bl e f a ll ibl e

, , The ty is, .

t h e F r ench te r mi n ation te fr o m the Lati n e ndi n g

’

tas th e m ar k of an ab s tr act n o u n
, H e n ce th e .

whol e wo r d m e ans “ not h avi n g th e condition of

b ei n g able to b e m oved to a co nceptio n which
,

is e as ily g ras p ed w hen p r e s ented by the o ne wo r d ,

inacces s ibil ity w ith the savi ng of m u ch time a nd

,

c un flo c ufi o n .

B ut the s e affixe s and all o f thei r cl ass ar e almo s t

,

as m uc h e n titl ed to b e con s i d e r ed i n s ta nce s of

a ggl uti n ation a s of i n flectio n C ar efu lly a nalyzed
.
,

the y o ffe r good ex ample s of how co nti nu ally the

a ggl u tin ative a nd the in fl e c t in g typ e s we r e i nte r

wove n i n the pr actic al working of the A ry an

l angu ages .
 C H A PT E R IV .

U N E ART H IN G T H E R O O T S .

I go n e s omewh at far afield in the attempt

H AV E

to make as cle ar as po s s ible the s i m il ar ity in g ram

m atic al s t r u ct u r e p o s s e ss ed by th e l an g u a ge s o f the
A ry a n family .

B ut be s ide s thi s like n e s s in u lti m ate s t r uctu r e

, ,

the r e is a fu nd am e ntal identity of r oots The .

r oot s the p r i m al r oots — are r e ally fe w i n nu m

b e r m u c h fewe r th a n the u ni nfo r m ed wo u ld im
,

a gi n e the m to b e .

The r e are s ome roots eve n am on g tho s e di r ectly ,

take n fr o m the Lati n ance s to r o f E n gli s h fo r in ,

s t an c e th at h ave an i mm e ns e v ar i ety O f d e r iv a
,

t iv e s To ill u s tr ate thi s fact W hitn ey take s the

.
,

L ati n ve r b po no with its fo r m fo r the p e r fect

,

te ns e p osa i a nd r u ns o u t a li s t far fr o m c o m
, , ,

p l e t e o f E ngl is h wo r d s d e r ived fr o m i t
, H e cite s .

pos e p o s er p os itio n p os t p o s tu r e pos itive app o s it e,

, , , , , ,

app os i t io n co m o n ent co m os u r e co m oser co m os i

p , p p , p , ,

tio ns co mpos ing , comp ost cbmp o u nd co mpo nnd d e

, , , ,

po nent dep os ed dep os itio ns dep os ito ry d ep os its d ep o t

, , , , , ,

exp o nen t exp ose exp o s ed ex os ition ex os u r e im os

, p p ,
p , , ,

ing imp os ts imp o s tor , imp o s ition, imp o und d is

, , ,
 UN E AR T H I N G T iI E R O O T S .
47
‘
p osabl e d isp os ed, indispo sed , d ispos es , disp o s it io n ,
,

opp o nent, o p ose, o

p pp os ite, opp o s itio n, interp o s itio n ,
p ropo s ed p r op os itio n, p r op o unded,
,
p
r e ose, p u rp os e ,

s u p os e s s uppo s it io n s upp os ititio us

p , , .

The roots th at are commo n to almo s t all th e

br anc he s of the Ar y an family are tho s e o n which
are fo r med the nu meral s the p ro no u ns the ve r b s , ,

of mo s t necess ary u se the word s d escriptive of ,

the body and of rel ationships the n am e s O f ,

d o me s tic ani m al s and tho s e of the com mone s t

,

metal s .

I t is i n the S an s krit the elde s t d au ghte r O f the ,

A ry an family o f to n gu e s th at these roots ar e gen ,

”
e rally fo u nd Thus ma n to think is believed
.
, , ,

to h ave given in S ansk r it ma n u man e mp h ati "

, ,

”
c ally th e thi nke r I n Lati n the s ame root gave
.

“ ”
bo th li o mine m m an with its adjective form
, ,

“ m nlike ” and mem ini ”

k u man u m a ,
reme m ber , , .

“ ”
S i mil arly a r to b e s tro ng
, , g ave i n G reek ,

“ virtu e “
strength ; A res the
'
a rete
’

,
or m an s , ,

“ ” “ ”
god o f m arti al vi gor and a r istos
’

be s t th at , , ,

“ “
is p rim arily
,
stron ge s t ,
A gai n fro m ta n to .
,

” “
s tretch we h ave i n S anskrit ta nu
,
thin ; i n ,

"
G reek teina and ta n uo both me a ning to stretch , ,

with m any comp ou nd s o f ta n all h aving the s en s e ,

“ “ r ”
of s tretc hed i n Lati n tendo °
s t etch and ,

tener ,
tend er o r i gin ally s t retch ed thin
,
.

All the ultim ate roots are mono syll a bic Bu t it .

m u s t not b e i n ferred fro m this fact th at the mo no

s yll ables of o u r modern s p eec h were nece ss arily

o r eve n p rob ably among th e p ri mitive roots W e .

48 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

h ave a gre at nu mber of mo n o syll able s th at re s e arch

h as p r oved to be o f p o ly sy llab ic o r igin .

Such for i ns tance are

, , ,

p r ea c/z , from Latin p r edicl d r e,

r ies t, fro m G re e k p r es bz te r os ,
p
bla me, fro m G r e ek bl aspké mein,
l
a l ms , fro m G r e ek el eemo s z ne ,
’

debt fro m Latin debitu m, th e sup ine

’

dekdbeo .

R ar e ,howeve r as it is to find mod e r n m o n o

,

syll able s th a t h ave n o t at o ne ti m e b een c o m

po u nd s p hilologi s ts h ave t raced wo r d s app ar e ntly
,

the m o s t i ntract able whe n s u bj ected to the s i m ple r

fo r ms of a naly s i s b ack to p r i m itive r o ots o f o ne
,

s yll able u tte rly

,
d e nu ded of any g r amm atic al
fu nctio n and in no s en s e p ar ts o f s p eech but ,

r e ady to be m ad e s o by co mbi n atio n col l oc atio n , ,

and i n to n atio n .

Fo r in o u r e age r s c r u tiny into the s ecret s of in

,

fl e c t io n we m us t no t fo r get the fa ct th at in eve r y

,

s t age o f its g r owth l an g u age h as u s ed th e help 0

po s itio n and acc e nt W he n eve r i t is t r u e infl e c

.
, ,

tion h as l ar gely acco mpli s hed its p u r po s e of m ar k

ing r el atio ns between o ne wo r d a nd a n othe r the ,

pl ace o f a wo rd in the s e nte n ce h as b eco m e a

m atte r of little i mpo r t ance The dete r m i natio n of.

r el atio ns by fo r m m ake s it needle ss to d ete r m i ne

them by pl ace .

Yet as in p oi nt of fact i nflectio n n eve r did b e

, ,

co m e a p e rfect i n s tr u ment the m achi nery of p o s i ,

 U N E AR T H I N G T H E R O O T S .

49

tio n h as alw ays p r oved u s efu l The s ame thi ng

.

must h ave alw ay s b een tr ue of accent also E ven .

i n a mo no s yll abi c l angu age like the Chinese it ,

pl ays an i mmen s e p ar t in the fo r m of tone or

tu n e the to ne i n which a wo r d is sou nded as well
, ,

as its po s itio n in the s e n tence i n dic atin g th esp e

,

c ial sense i n whic h i t is to be t aken .

The o rigi n al r oots fou nd by p hilologi s ts are of

the si mplest p ho n etic s tr u ctu r e and no d oubt must
,

h ave p ass ed thro u gh the s tage of aggl utin ation be

fore they began to d evelop the m ore fruitful forms
o f i nflec tion the s e b ei n g the r e s ult of attr ition and
,

p ho neti c ch ange and dec ay thro u gh the p r inciple

O f u nco n s cio u s economy of e ffo r t in u tter an c e .

B ut the A ry an s s ee m to h ave h ad a geni us for

p assi ng r apidly i nto the m o r e complex stage of
l angu age . W hen they did so they d eveloped ,

both form s of i n fl ectio n th at by termin atio ns as

,

well as th at by vowel ch an ge The Semitic r aces

-

.
,

o n th e other h and whe n they p as s ed beyond th e

,

aggl utin ative s t age cl u n g to the i n tern al m ethod

,

o f i nfl ectio n and emph as ized it by b as in g up on it

th e wh ol e stru ctu re O f thei r l angu ages .

I t is tru e th at the m ai n c au s e o f the good for

tu ne o f the A ryans in r e a chi n g s o hi gh a s tage of
lingu i s tic d evelopme nt lay in th e fact th at they
were slow i n e s ta bli s hin g a co m p a ct civi liz ation
with its acco mp anying liter ature a nd th at they ,

th us esc aped th at cry s t alliz atio n which th e condi

tio ns o f s uch a civiliz atio n i nv ar i ab ly bring abou t
i n a l angu age .
 H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

B ut some credit is d u e to the i n n ate geni u s of a

r ace fo r thi s re s ult as fo r all el s e th at fal ls to its
,

lot The A ry ans we r e d e stine d by their ori gi

.
/

nal r ace ch ar acter i r re s pective of envi r o nment to

-

, ,

fo r m s ubtle fl exible p r eci s e and thoro u ghly c a

, , ,

p ah le tongu e s F r o m the fi r s t they were fo u nd

.

worthy of their high d e s ti ny as the u ltim ate mas

ters of other r ace s and o f th e fo r ces of n ature .

W e see then th at the s pe ec h O f the pri mitive

, ,

Aryans like th at of all othe r r aces w as however

, , ,

briefly in the begi nning m ono s yll abi c

'

.
,

Yet i t is very evident th at i n the c ase of the ,

Ary an s i f not i n th at of any of the o ther r aces

, ,

there w as an e arly advance to wo r d s of two syll a

bles Thi s c ame abo u t fro m two tendenci es no t
.
,

re ally infl ec tio nal at all The s e tendenci es are s till .

notice able in m any yo u ng children j u s t l e arni ng to

emit voc al s o und s O n e is the tend ency to rh y th .

mic repetition famili ar to u s i n word s like ma mma

, ,

bubba , s issy , ba mba m , moo moo , p a s /zp as lt .

Thi s n atu ral d elight in r ep etitio n of

the s ame
s o u nd s w as u tilized l ater on to exp re ss repetition , ,

of the s am e act I t g ave r i s e to th at gr amm atic al

.

artifice fo r m ar ki n g the p as t te n s e c alled re d up l i

”
c ation . The G r eek ve r b u s e s th e red upli c ated
pe r fect as a reg ul ar p ar t o f its form ation The .

L atin ve rb pre s e r ve s s o m e tr aces o f its former .

exi s tence i n fo r m s like cecid i from cado pependi

,
’

,
’

fro m pendo pep er i fr o m pa r io tetend i from te ndo

’ ’ ’

, , ,

and momor d i from mé r deo

’

The other tende ncy to which referenc e h as b een

 U N E AR I HT N G T H E R OO T S
51

m ad e is th e p r onene ss am o n g child r e n tic s and r u s

— th e a n alogu e s o f a primitive p eople to d r awl

the vowel s o as pr actic ally to repe at it and thu s ,

co nvert a wo r d of o ne syll able i nto o ne o f two .

The r e ad e r m u s t s u rely h ave k now n child ren to

who m this w as so n atu ral th at i t w as di ffic ult to
b re ak the m of the tr ick childre n who wo u ld s ay ,

al l , bo oa r d , ck a a ir , s k o oe,—
wa - -

f -
oor a a n,
-

f lo -

le an i n g he avily o n the l as t s yll able .

I s it not likely th at thi s tend ency exi s ted al s o

am o n g s ome of th e e ar ly A ry an s ? W o uld no t thi s
acco u n t fo r the m any wo r d s am o n g the G e r m a ns

th at s till keep the do u ble vowel both vowel s h avi ng ,

bee n fo r m e r ly p rono u nced as well as w r itten thou gh ,

n o w no longe r s ep ara tely s o u nd ed ? M eer See , ,

S taa t L oos and B o ot are Ins ta nce s o f wh at is me ant

, ,
.

I n ce r ta i n E ngli s h d i al ects s till in u s e the s e ,

p rolo nged vowel s ar e s ou nded tho u gh n o longe r ,

’
i nv ar i ably w r itten L e t a ve r s e o f Te n nys o n s
.

“ No r the r n F arme r ”
(O ld Style ) ill us trate thi s
s i n g u l ar s u rviv al o f a t rait i n the childhood O f
l angu age

W h e er ’
as ta b ean s aw lo ng and me a l iggin e re al o a n P
s ab e an an
’
w h o y, do cto r
’ ’
N o o r se th o o r t no w t o a no o rs e :

ago an

S ays th at I mo ant
’
mo o r yaale b ut I b eant fo o l
'

a naw : a
”
my y g br e ak my rul e
’
aal e, fo r I b e ant o o in to
'

G it I na a-
.

Tr aced up thu s by the two guiding m ark s of

,

sim il arity i n gr amm atic al structu r e and identi ty of

roots to a co mmon origin i n l angu age the H indoos
, , ,
 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA G E
52
.

A fgh an s Pe r s ians M ede s A r m e ni ans Sl av s Teu

, , , , ,

to ns Kelts G r eek s and R o m ans we r e p r oved by

, , , ,

the s tu de nts o f l an g u age to h ave s p r u n g fr o m the

s ame o r ig inal r ace Thi s w as the fi rs t g r e at s tep in
.

the s tudy o f l ang u age O ne b r o ad gene raliz atio n .

h ad b ee n m ad e O ne i mp ort an t cl as s ifi ca ti on w as
.

e s tabli s hed .

It is t r u e as h as b ee n s aid b efo r e th at in hi s to r ic
, ,

p e r iod s whe n race s are acti n g and r e acting o n o ne

anothe r co m mu nity o f l a ng u age is by n o m e an s
,

n ece s s ar ily a p r oof o f com m u n ity of ra ce I n the .

B r iti s h I s le s E ngli s h is s p oke n by d e s ce nd ants o f

,

E u s k ar i ans Kelts R o m a ns A n gle s J u te s F r ie s i ans

, , , , , ,

D a ne s No r m an s Fle m i n g s A q u it an i ans Sp an i s h
, , , ,

Jews R o many folk D utch H anove r i ans H u gue

, , , ,

n o t F r e nch
-

a nd I do u bt not G r eek an d Ph aani

, , ,

c ia n t rade rs — the Gr eek s fr o m M ar s eille s and the

,

Ph oenici ans fr o m Cadiz I n thi s co u n t r y it is .

s poke n by d e s cend ants O f all n atio nal iti e s th at

come as i mmi g rant s d aily in add itio n to the d e ,

sc e nd ant s of the w hite r e d a nd bl ack race s th at , , ,

fr o m A l as k a to Key W e s t h ave b ee n here fo r ,

ge n e ratio ns .

B u t race is p e r s i s te n t th r ou gh lo ng h i s to r ic
p e r iod s and c an b e traced u p to th e d awn o f h is
to ry I n th at p r ehi s to r ic p e r iod whithe r the cl e w
.

o f lan gu a ge le ad s u s the c a u s e s th at p r od u ced the ,

ove rl appi n g of race by r ac e and the c o ns e q u e n t

ob s cu r i ng of l angu age were not op er ative W he n . .

a race begi n s a c ar ee r of c o n u e s t it e s t a bli s h e s a

q ,

civiliz atio n o r beco m e s heir to o ne al r e ady existi ng ,

 U N E AR T H / N G T H E R O O T S .

53

and civiliz atio n in au gu r ate s hi s tory and history

,

keep s u s fr o m bl u ndering ab o u t r ace thro u gh

the app arent witne ss O f l angu age .

W hen the s tu de nts of l angu a ge h ad mas tered

th e rel ations to o ne anothe r in the hi ghe s t group
o f l an gu age s it w as a co m p ar atively e as y t ask to
,

gro up and C l ass ify the tong u es th at h ad re ached

the lower s tage s of i n flec tio n . B elow these ag ai n
, ,

they fo u nd no gr e at d i fficulty in pl a cing the ton gue s

of the aggl uti native typ e tho u gh still more divers e
,

th an the i nflected L as t of all they w ere able with

.
,

gre at p ai n s to recon s tr u ct fr om wh at may b e lik

,

ened to fossil re m ai n s s o m e of the tongu es of the

,

p ast — tongu e s th at h ave w holly p eri s hed fr o m

,

amo ng men . The s e al s o they w ere able to give a

pl ace i n their s y s tem .

A s to th e mono syll abic di alect s O f C hi n a they ,

h ave long been p ar tly know n to s chol ars ; and it

w as a si mple m a tte r to give the m their lo gic al
p l ace as rep resentin g the c hild hoo d o f l angu age .
 C H A PT E R V

H OW L AN GU A G E BE GAN .

H O W E VE R m an may h ave o r i gi nated however ,

“
r e m ote m ay h ave bee n h is fi rs t app e aran c e o n
”
any s t age the r e m us t u ndo u btedly h ave bee n a
,

ti m e whe n th at highe r fo r m of h u man ity th r o u gh ,

who s e e ffo r ts civiliz atio n h as bee n evol v ed m ade ,

a n e w epoch fo r the race a nd li fted it to a lo fti er

pl an e th an th at occ upied by the b r u te s .

I n m any o utlyi n g p ar t s o f the e ar th ar e s till to

be fo u nd in the pe r s o ns o f thei r d e s ce nd ants the
, ,

pe r fec t analo g u e s of tho s e s av age race s th at b e

lo n ged to the p e r iod we c all p r ehi s to r i c They .

we r e i nc ap able o p Qgre s s tho usan d s u p o n tho u

s an d s o f ye ar s a o ; they ar e in
fi
p

g c ap ab l é df p n re ss
'

to d ay W he n the c iv iliz atio n O f th e h ighe r race s

S
' ' '

r e a che s the m they v ani s h

, .

Yet eve n the s e u np r og r e s s ive race s which h ave ,

bee n i nc ap able of m aki n g hi s to ry and h ave b een

fo r the m o s t p ar t as the be as t s th a t pe r i s h h ave ,
”
,

p r ob ably fr o m thei r e ar lie s t d awn as c o ns cio u s

h u man r ace s m ade p ictu r e s fo r the e ar by ar tic u
,

l ati n g s o u nd s of conti n u o u s m e ani n g and w e r e in , ,

th e wo r d s of H o m e r “ ar tic u l ate s p e aki n g m e n

,
-

.
”

Ind eed it m u s t h ave been s o fo r in no o the r w ay

, ,
 H O W L AN G UA GE B E GAN .
55

th an by s oci al combi natio n co uld the s e c r e at u r e s

witho u t n at u ral d efe n ce s s u s tai n life ag ai n s t the
other forc e s of natu re ; and e ffective s oci al co mbi
n ation wo u ld fo r the m h ave been i mp o s s ibl e with
o u t the power O f comm u nic ati ng tho u ghts and
o rg anizi n g pl ans .

J u s t how they invented thi s m arvellou s ar t of

s p eech , the e y to thei r s u cce s s ful s u rviv al it ,

WOLTld b e s heer w as te of time to atte mp t to divi n e .

Thi s p r oblem h as alw ay s bee n a nu t too h ar d for

the s h r e w de s t p hilologi s t o r biologi s t to c rack .

B efo r e clo s ing thi s p ar t of my s u bj ect I s h all,

p r e s ent i n o utli ne one o f the l ate s t atte mpt s to

id e the c h as m b etween k o mo cl a ma ns and
br g
k o mo l oguens ; b ut I c a n not think it wholly
s a ti s factory .

rude s t and lowe s t tr ib e s of the h u m an r ace p o s s e ss

—
HITS art the fi r s t p r oof and the m o s t t r e me ndo u s
,

p roof of the m aj e s ty of the hu m an b rain It is . ,

eno u gh to n ote th at the voi ce which G o d h ad fitted

fo r s o n g and s p eech w as e ar ly able to comp ass
both and th ro u gh th e m to co rr el ate p he no m e na of
,
‘

the exte r n al wo r ld to expres s i nw ar d emotio ns by

,

the fi gu r ative us e of the objects of pe r ceptio n and ,

to u tte r th at v ar i ety o f rhythmic s o u n d s which

s eem s to b e the p u tting o f win gs to s p eech .

I t would be a m i s t ake to s u ppo s e th at s p eech

co uld ever ar i s e witho ut the s ti m u l u s and the help
of the ass oci ative p r inciple and the electric i mp u l s e
o f s ymp athy E ven in th at s i n gul ar s to ry which
.
56 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

H erodotu s he ard fr o m the E gypti an prie s ts the ,

expe r i ment w as m ade u po n two child r e n i n s te ad ,

o f u p o n o ne s olitary child .

The s to ry r u n s th u s
P samm e tic h us, to fi nd o ut w h ic h was th e oldest hu man
r ace ,
“to o k tw o c h il d re n o f t h e c o mmo n so r t and
, gav e
th em ove r to a he r ds man to b ring up at h is fol d s,
t ctl y s ri

c h arging h im to le t no o ne utte r a w o rd in the ir p r e sen ce ,

bu t to k e e p th e m in a se qu e ste r e d co ttage and fro m ,

time to time to intro d uce go ats to th e ir apart me nt se e ,

t h at t h e y go t t h e ir fill o f m ilk and in all o t h e r r e sp ec ts

,

l o ok afte r th e m H is obj ect h e re in w as to kn o w afte r

.
,

t h e in distinc t babbl ings o f infan cy w e re o ve r w h at w o r d ,

t h e y w o u l d fi rst ar tic ul ate .

“I t ha e n e d as h e antic i ated T h e h e rd s man

pp p .

o beye d h is o rd e rs fo r two years and at th e e nd o f ,

th at time o n h is o ne day O p e ning th e do o r O f th e ir

,

ro o m and go ing in th e c h il d r e n bo th ran u p t o h im

,

w ith o utstre tc h e d ar ms an d d istinc tly said B éko s

, .

“ Wh e n th is fi rst h a en ed th e h e rd s man took n o

pp ,

no tice b ut after ward s w h e n h e obs e rved u po n co m ing

, ,

O fte n to se e th e m th at th e w o r d w as constantl
, y in th e ir
mo nth s h e info r med his maste r and by h is co mm and
, ,

b ro ugh t t h e c h ildre n into h is p r e se n ce P sam me tic h u s

.

th en h imse l f h e ard th e m say th e word up o n w h ic h he ,

th en p roce e d e d to make inq uiry wh at p eo p le t h ere w e re

w h o c all e d anyt h ing bekos ; and h e r e up o n h e l ear n t t h at
béko s w as th e P h r ygian name fo r ‘ b read I n c on side r a
.
’

t io n o f th is c ir c umstance th e E
gyp tian s yie ld e d th e ir
claims and ad mitte d t h e gre ater antiquity o f t h e
,

Phrygians ” .

th e child r e n on who m thi s exp e r i m e n t w as

B ut
m ade we r e no t likely to u tte r any wo r d n o t s u
g
 H O W L AN G UA GE B E GAN .
57

ge s ted to th em by s o u nd s e xtern al to themselves .

It s eems evid ent that they were imitati ng the

s o unds m ade by the go ats th at s u pp li ed the m
with m ilk Childre n d o form word s for them
.

s elves and h ave b ee n known to invent littl e

,

l angu ages i n whic h they co nversed apart fr om

the ho u seholds aro u nd the m B ut no c ase h as .

bee n known i n which wild child ren c au ght and ,

c ared for h ave h ad a l a ng uage

, .

“An instan ce ece tly occu d says Al ice Bod ing

r n rre
”
,

to n in th e
,
Ame ric an N aturali st writing o n th is s ubj ec t
,
"
,

o n Mo unt Pind us in Th essal y T h e w arde n o f t h e

.

king s fo re st o n Mo unt P indus was stroll ing up to a

’

s h e p he rd s b u t while o n a s ho o t ing exp ed itio n to p ro

’
,

c ure a d rink o f milk H e heard a r us tl ing in th e bushes

.
,

and was raising h is gun whe n the she ph e rd c alle d o ut to

h im no t to sh oot H e saw a nak ed c r e ature in the for m

.

o f a man runnin g in front o f h im so metime s o n its fe e t , ,

more o ften o n all fours I t re ac h ed th e but an d be gan

.

e age rly s u cking up the butte rmilk o ut o f a tr ough into

which c h ee ses h ad been p resse d T h e s heph e rd said .

the child was a Wallachian by b irth H is fath er d ied .

,

and h is moth er d istributing h er c h ild re n among h e r

,

n e ighb ors w e nt back t o her o wn country

,
T his b o y .

h ad e sc ap ed into the w oo ds and h ad kept himse lf al ive

ther e fo r fo ur ye ars I n th e summe r he d rank butter
‘
.

l d
mi k ai y a l nd lived w ell in the winte r h e to o k shelter
in th e c aves and ate he rbs and roots T h e ward e n .
,

it in t h e child b ade the she phe r d c atch and bind

p y g ,

him w ith a rope and then too k h im to h is h o me at

,

T rikal a .H e re be fe d and clothed h is l ittle O rson and ,

l a ced h im w ith a p ers o n wh o e nde avo re d to t e ac h h im

p
to talk or kept th e c h ild whe n possible under h is o wn
, , ,
 Y OF L AN G UA GE
58 T H E S T OR .

char ge B ut the bo y h as never lea r ned to speak a w o rd

.
,

”
t ho ugh he imitate s th e vo ic e s o f ma ny w ild c re ature s .

“
Thi s story is vo u ched for by the Sp ectator of
J an 9.
, I 89 2 .

Nor thi s an exceptio n al instance

is , as Al i c e
Bo d ingto n goes o n to S how

“T h e sa peak h as bee n shown in th e

me inabil ity to s

c ases o f oth er wild c h ild r e n found in I ndia coll e cted ,

by Colo nel Sleeman th e able o ffi cer wh o helped to sup

,

e thu ism I n a d istr ict n e ar th e G o o mte e River

p r s s gg . ,

in the Province o f O ud e w olves ar e never kille d by the

,

villagers fro m a fear o f th e ill l uck which th eir de ath

might bring upo n th e vill age and wol ve s co nse quently ,

ab o und A native troop e r saw a large sh e wol f l eave

.
-

h e r den fo ll o we d by th ree wh elps and a l ittle bo y all o n

, ,

t he ir way to th e rive r to dr ink Whe n chase d by th e .

troope r th ey all e sc ape d to th e ir de n the boy running ,

o n all fo urs as fast as th e young wolve s T h e whole .

p arty was d ug o ut the wolves w er e dug o ut and bolted

th e bo y was c aught bo und w ith a r o pe and afte r four
, ,

d ays se nt to an Engl ish o flice r Captain Nich o le tts H e , .

was kindly tre ated but he n ever learne d to sp eak ; he

,

w oul d fly at child re n and try to bite the m and r an to ,

e at h is foo d o n all fours But he w as frien dl y with a

. .

p ariah do g and wo ul d l e t h im shar e h is food

, He .

w o ul d suck up a wh o le p itc h e r o f milk H e never .

l aughed o r smiled de stroyed all h is clothes and in two

, ,

years and a h al f ende d h is sho rt l ife o f p iteo us degrad a

tio n spe aking o nce o r twice as h e lay d ying the words
, , ,

fo r wate r and ac hing h e ad ” .

After citing two mo r e I n di an i nst anc e s Ali ce ,

B o d ingto n su ms up the evidenc e as follows .

 H O W L AN G UA GE B E GA IV .
61

loud er s ou nd T hese h ave d eveloped re s p ectively

.

i nto hu m an gestu re hu m an wo rd and hu man

, ,

emp h as is .

As a gene r al rule all of the s e c o exi s t in spoken

-

l angu a ge ; one only is to be fo und i n written l an

gu age except where the ar tifi ce s O f italic s and
,

s p acin g i n p r inting and u nd erscoring in writing

enforce an occ as io nal e mph as is .

I n the Chi n e s e s poken l angu age i n ton ation pl ays

as import ant a p ar t as mere s ou nd .

M— i m ic is nu ue stio nab l the p r i m ary b asi s 11

w h iC h all the s e th r ee mod es of l ang ua ge are fo rme d ,
j

tho ugh ve ry mi ffy of tlTe exi sting wo r d s in all

fi

l a ngu a ges were fo r med on the second ary b as i s o f

a s soci a tion o f id e as and were at fi rs t u sed as m et a

h o rs The d ive r s ity of l angu age s is d u e to t wo

p .

an ato mic al s t r uc ture .

‘
J

L a ng uage, t e m s p ringin g fr om the mi micry of

-
f

n atu re c on s i s ts ulti m ately of the s e six important

,

el em ent s .

I E
.
motio na l excl a m a tio ns or ge s tu re —
s o und s

2 I mit ative so u n ds ;
.

C o nve ntion al s y mb olic s ou nd s ;

fiQ 3 .

(are
V ar ied c ombi n ati o ns of these i nto articul ate

the
t rib e 5 ive u se o f co ncrete terms to exp r ess

and
s o u nds

H e nce there is a a i co nnective s these l as t b elo nging

,

of the origi n o f g p
e lo m e n t removed by m a ny a ges

s ense i n wh at h afifi s n l angu a ge b eg an .

 CH A PT E R VI .

H OW IT BE CAM E M U LT I FO R M .

T HE p assage i n the Bible th at tell s the story of

the confusion of to n gu e s like m any other p as
,

s age s onc e reg arded as hi s toric al h as co me to b e

,

con s idered as the fig u rative us e of s o me ancie nt

tr aditio n It c annot be expl ai ned by any of the
.

k nown facts i n the develop m e nt of l angu age so as ,

to be accepted as the lite r al r ecord of an hi s to r ic al

even t
The law O f d i fferenti atio n in l angu age is simply
thi s : s ep aration of r ace s p r od uc es v ari atio n in
l an gu age ; for sep ar atio n o f race s b r in gs about at
once diver s ity of envi r o nm ent and the diver s ity O f
,

e nvi ronment i n proce ss o f ti m e d evelop s diver s ity

i n an atomic al struct u r e It is well known th at
.

the r e are r aces th at are phy s ic ally i nco mpetent to

p r on ounce some so u nds th at ar e e as y and h ab itu al
‘
I ri any widbs p re ad b ar b ar i a n r ac e th e more
,

b ar b aro us the race th e mo r e n u merou s will b e the

,

trib al u nits of soci ety and the gre ater therefore the
,

n u mb er of v arieties of s p eech The v ari atio n fro m

.
 H O W I T B E CAM E M UL T I FOR M . 63

a c o mmo n ty e will O fte n b e g re at e no u h to co n

W hen thi s is
the c as e however we h ave a right , ,

to i nfer ori gin al d ive r s ity of r ace ; for i f the

regio n the trib al u nits occ u py h as b een popu l ated
fro m a singl e c entr e o f li ngui s tic d i s p ers io n the ,

v arieti es d i ffere n t as they m ay b e i n mere v o cab u

,

l ary will all be ki ndred d i alects followi ng th e s ame

, ,

gener al typ e o f for ma tio n If it h as b ee n p o p u .

l ated fro m m o re th an one c e ntre they will be dif ,

fe re nt gro up s o f d i a lects If fr o m two o f di fferent

.

r ace typ e they will be ind ependent l angu ages

-

, ,

tho ugh po s s ibly i nfl u enci n g o n e another i n con

sequ ence o f c ontact .

U nless thrown i n to d efinite form by embodi ment

in a liter ature of so m e ki nd l angu age is con s tantly ,

c h angi ng E ven i n a n i s ol ated g r oup of the h um an

.

r ac e we might exp ect to fi nd li ngui s ti c vari ation .

B u t histo ric ally the r e is no s u ch thing as an

, ,

i s ol ated hu m an gr o up The d ifl e re nt race s h ave

'

in all ages h ad so me s o rt of contact with one an

,

other and h ave in v a ryi n g m e as u re b ut alway s i n

, ,

so me me asure aff ected the d evelopment o f lan

,

gu age i n e ach r ac e .

E ve n i n th e ori gi n atio n of any exi s ting l angu age ,

there m u st h ave b een a ti me wh en the tendency to

sep ar ation among the t r ib al u n i ts gave w ay b efo re
some stro ng force i mp elling them to u nity ; and i n
the UM the r e mu s t be l eft tr aces of
the e arlier time of s ep ar atio n S uch tr ace s are .

e asily fo u nd in the A ry a n l an g u ages in the di ffer

64 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

ent form s of the ve r b “ to b e and i n som e of th e ,

o the r s tron g or i r r egul ar ve r b s .

The l ang ua ge s O f l ite ratu r e u nd ergo c h ange also ,

thou gh of co u rs e in al m o s t i n fi n itely le s s degree

th an tho s e th a t h ave n eve r bee n s u bjected to th e
law of p r ecedent in s o powe r fu l a m an ner W e all .

re m ember th at kna ve and v ill a in h ad once milder

me an ings i n E n gli s h th an th ey n o w h ave W e are .

famili ar too with tho s e p as s age s of E liz ab eth an

, ,

E ngli s h in the Bible which h ave to be expl ained

to th e u nle ar n ed r e ade r of o u r own ti me the ,

“
ar tille ry th at m e ans bow and arr o ws and the ”
,

”
p hr as e fetched a co m p ass i n the s tory o f St , .

’
P au l s shipwreck and oth e rs of the kind
, .

Thi s ch ange th at is c o ns tantly goi ng o n in livi ng

l angu age s is s triki n gly exe mplified by a s e ntence
’
of M artin L u the r s q u oted by Pe s chel : (das s )
,

Go tt tk ue
'

nz ck ts a ls s ckleck tes , u nd das E va ngelium

”
s ei eine kindisclte L eb r e,

which wo uld now b e re nd ered to the G erm an

u nde r s tanding : (th at )
Go d does nothing b ut w hat is bad, and the G o spel
is a ch ild ish doctrine .
”

B ut i n s ti m e sck leck t m e ant s omethi ng

L uther
’

s ck lick tes th at is s m ooth ho n e s t u pri gh t

”
, , as i n
, , ,

the idiom rec/i t u n d scli l ecli t u p r i ght a nd d own ,

right ; and kindis ck m e ant s o m ething k indlicli es ,

“ ”
th at is childlike
, .

So we see how gre at is the te nd ency to c h ange

of me ani ng even in the word s of a l angu age th at
 H O W 1 T B E CAM E M UL T LE ORM . 65

are retai ned witho u t any change i n thei r form .

In the l angu ages th at h ad no t yet been fette r ed

by liter ary use the s e ch anges in me anin g mu s t
,

h ave been far m ore fre q uent while at the s am e ,

ti m e th ere we r e al s o ch ange s i n form u ntil at .

l as t o r igin al identity wo u ld b e wholly ob s cured .

More th an thi s as the w anderi ng tribe s p as s ed

,

o ut of re ach of o ne anothe r into an altogether

di fferent e n vi r o n me n t fo r e ach there would co m e ,

at l eas t two new c a u s es of di ffere n ti ati on the one ,

p u rely phy s ic al re s ulting from the ch anged voc al

,

org an s the other p sychic involving a ch ange in the

, ,

mod e o f co nstr ucti n g sentenc es .

The r e w as s till a nother facto r i n th e p r ocess

of d i ff erenti ation A fr equ ent and e arly c au s e
.

O f v ar i atio n in l angu age after th e fi r st s plitti n g

,

a p art into s ep ar ate tribes w as the O p er atio n of

,

the law of exogamy The u nwillingne s s of a tr ibe

.

of h u nters and fighters to be b u r d ened with the

re a rin g o f girl c hild r en whe n they co u ld s upply
,

them s elve s with wives by r aid s u pon othe r tribes ,

w a s no d o u bt o ne c a use of th is ve r y common law

a mong b arb ari a n s th a t i n s i s ted u pon m arri age w ith

a wo m a n o u tsid e of the t r ibe A nother c au s e w as

. ,

p erh ap s th e e arly p e r ception of the evil s re s u lti n g

,

from p erp etu al breedin g in and in Still a n other

- -
.

c ause may h ave been the d e s ire to p r event feuds

i n the tribe which wo uld i nevit ably r es u lt i f it
,

were allowa bl e for th e fightin g you n g men to

riv al o ne a no ther i n thei r desire to pos s ess an
attr active wo m an of their own trib e .

5
66 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

W h ateve r its o r igin thi s law O f exog amy co n

,

s tantly b r o u ght in as wive s a nd m o ther s women

O f othe r t r ibe s Thi s p r od u ced fo r a ti m e at
.
,

le as t d iffe r e n t di alects in the s am e ho us ehold

, ,

and is p r ob ably the r e as o n why in m a ny r a ce s

the r e s ho u ld s till exi s t m as c u li ne fo r m s o f s peech

u s ed o n ly by m e n and boy s and femi ni n e fo r m s ,

u s ed o n ly by wo m e n a nd gir l s .

The B u r m e s e l an g u a ge h as the s e di s ti nctio ns .

A s to r y is told in B u r mah in which the fate o f a

,

boy beloved by a p r i nce s s is d ete r m i n ed by a

m i s t ake he m ake s in the us e of a p r o no un D is .

g u i s ed as a gi rl he w as livi n g in the ap ar tm e nts

,

of the p r i n ce s s a nd they we r e h appy togethe r

, ,

u ntil o n o ne occ as io n goi ng to the g ate o f the

,

p al ace and ch allenged the r e by the g u ard s he ,

“
s aid Cli u n da w l a 7 A re y o u s p e aki n g to m e ?
u s i ng the m as c u line p r o n o u n wh e n as a s u ppo s ed
, ,

gi r l he o u ght to h ave s aid Cli zimmd l a

, Thi s
aw ake ned s u s p icio n and he w a s d r ow n ed in the
,

I r r aw addy . The p oo r p ri nce ss pi ned aw ay and

died .

G ram m atic al ge nde r as a m atte r o f fact in th e

, ,

hi s to r i c l ang u age s is s o l ar gely d i ss o ci ated fr o m

s e x th at g rammar i a ns h ave ve r y ge n e rally r efu s ed

to co ns id e r it as h avi ng h ad any s u c h o r igin and ,

h ave take n p ai ns to di s ab us e the m i nd s o f s t u de nt s

o f the ide a th at the r e is a n
y n ec e ss a ry c onnectio n
between se x an d ge nde r B u t thi s vi e w w as taken
.

b efo r e the r e s e ar che s of the eth nolo gi s ts h ad r e

ve aled the wid e exte ns ion o f the l aw of exog amy .
 HO W I T B E CA M E M U L T I FOR M 67

It is ti m e now to revi s e the doctr i ne of the gram

mari a n s a nd to c o n s id er whethe r there is no t g r e at
p r ob ability th at the l arge u se in e arly age s of
two l ang u age s i n the s am e ho u s ehold one masc u ,

li ne and the othe r femi ni ne d id no t nece ss ar ily ,

p rod u ce in the r e s u ltant to n gue s poken by both

s exe s all the p heno men a O f gende r The wo rd s .

th at we r e defi nitely k n own to h ave bee n the O ld

t r i b al wo r d s we r e co n s ide r ed m as c u li ne tho s e ,

k n own to h ave b ee n b r o u ght in by the mothe rs

were con s id e r ed femi ni ne while tho s e o f d u bio us
,

o r igi n th at co u ld neithe r be fathe r ed n o r moth

,

e r ed we r e co ns id e r ed n e ute r
,
.

B u t while I o ffe r thi s as o ne O f the s o u r ce s O f

g ra m m atic al gend e r I by n o m e ans co ns ide r i t
,

as the o n ly s o u r ce U ndo u btedly the tendency

.

a m o n g wild ra ce s to pe r s o n ify all n at u r e led to

th e for m ati on o f cl as s e s of wo r d s the te r mi natio n ,

an d th e pl a n o f i n fl ection of which di ffe r e n ti ated

them as m as c u lin e femi ni n e o r ne u te r

, Th u s
, .

a m on g the e arly R o m an s the indwelli n g s pi r it

o f a r iver w as conceived of as a m ale d eity ; th at
O f a fr u it b e ari ng t r ee
-
as a fem ale
,
.

It h as b een al r e ady s tated th at anothe r and a

notabl e element in the v ar i atio ns of l an g u a ge is the
g r e at d i fference in th e o r gan s of s p eech among the
r ace s O f m anki nd d u e to l ong age s of r e s id e n ce
,

in di ffere n t cli m a te s if not to o r igi nal dive rs ity of

,

r ace So u nd s natu r al and e as y to s ome race s othe r

.

r ace s c an n ot u tter at all The H awaii an fo r in

. ,

and
s t a nc e c an not c atc h the di s ti nction betwee n k
,
68 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

t, g an d d, l The Mo h awk h ad no p b m f
a nd r .
, , , ,

v o r w : he n eve r ar tic u l ated with h is lip s

,
The .

Chi n e s e h ave no d and n o r .

The s e facts h ave lo n g bee n hi s to r ic i r re s p ective ,

O f theo r ie s as to the u nity o r the d ive rs i ty of o r i

gin O f race s Tho s e who beli eve in the dive rs ity

.

of o r i gi n expl ai n m o r e r e adily the i m m en s e v ar i

ety o f l an g ua ge s by decl ar in g fo r an o r igi nal diver
s ity in the o r g anic s t r u ct u r e O f the r ace s W hile .

di alectic v ar i ety impli e s o r igi nal u nity the r e are ,

many g r o up s of l an g u a ge s which are s o di s s i m il ar

in s tr u ct u r e th at it s ee ms i m p o s s ible o n a ny theo r y
to fi nd a poi nt o f dep ar tu r e fr o m whi ch in co mm o n
they c o u ld h ave been de r ived The t r ilite r al r oots
.

of the S e m itic to ng u e s fo r i ns tan ce h ave n othi n g

, ,
,

in c o mm o n with th e a nci e nt A r y an r oots Yet .

both the s e g ro u p s of tong u e s belo n g to the white

fam ily o f race s The di ffic u lty of fi n
. di n g a c om
mo n o r i gi n is of co ur s e s till g r e a te r whe n we co m e
to co mp ar e the l an g uage s o f the othe r r ac e s with
tho s e o f the white r ace s .

The r e is anothe r c au s e fo r v ar i atio n in l an gu age

wo r th n oti n g Thi s is the delight take n in wo r d s
.

by the u ns oph is tic ated m i nd whethe r O f childhood

,

o r of race s at the child s s t a ge of develop m e nt

’

a d elight th at le ad s r e adily to the fo r m atio n of

ne w wo r d s .

W h ile the po ss e s s io n of a lite r at u r e t raditio nal ,

o r w r itte n h as a co ns e r v ative te nd e n cy th at r e s i s t s
,

C h an ge in l an g u age in the ab s e nce of a lite ra tu r e

,

t he r e is i n the child hood of race s a p as s io n for

 H OW I T B E CAM E M UL T I F OR M 69

n ovelty th at o f its el f p ro m p ts to con s tan t c h an ge s

in voc ab ul ar y . Thi s tendency is s ee n i n the c hild
hood o f i nd ivid u al s i n the m id s t o f civiliz ation and ,

O ffe rs the c u r io u s s p ect acle o f the fo r m atio n of

a r ti fici al l ang u age of which m any i n s tance s h ave

,

b een given in r ecent pu blic ati o ns .

I s u ppo s e the re are few i magi n ative boys of a

li n g u i s tic t u r n of mi nd who h ave n o t at s ome ti me
d u r i ng thei r yo uth i nvented e ach a l an gu age fo r
h is own u s e . S ometime s the s e ar ti fici al Str u ctu re s
a re m e r ely v ar i a tio n s o f o u r mothe r to n g u e ,b ut
m o re fr e q u e ntly they a re e fforts to form s ys te m atic
to n g u e s b as ed u po n i mp re s s i on s d e r ived fr o m the
s t u dy o f the i nflected tong u e s of G reece a nd R o m e .

The r e a re s eve ral hi s to r ic i n s tance s of the s am e

s o r t O f e ffo r ts to c r e a te ar tifici al l an g u age s m ade

by m a tu r e r m i nd s d elud ed by the d re am of e s tab

l is h ing a u nive rs a l l a ngu age The s e am bitio u s
.

s chol ar s s ee m to fo rget th a t l angu a ge is a g r o w t h .

B ut th e na tu r al tend e ncy we h ave n oted a m o n g

c hild re n o f li ng u i stic t as te acco u n ts r e adily fo r
the fr eq u e ncy with whic h w ande r i ng t r ibe s ch an ge
thei r e nti r e voc abul ary as they p as s aw ay fr o m the
nei ghb o r hoo d o f the o r igi n al s tock .

E ve n tho s e who like the R o m any h ave kept

, ,

p ar t of thei r a nc ie nt voc ab u l ar y fo r p u rpo s e s of

c onfed e rate fr a ud o w n al m o s t as s c anty a v o c ab u
,

l ary as the c an t O f thi eve s o r the sl ang o f the cow

b oy c an m u s ter .
 CH A PTE R VI I .

T H E C L ASS I FI CAT I O N O F T O N GU E S .

LET m eep e at a fe w of the mo r e i m p o r tant

r

poi n t s to whic h I h ave di r ected yo u r atte n tio n .

The s tar ting poi nt o f the s ci ence o f l an g u age

-

w as the di s cove r y m ad e by philologi s t s o f the

ki ns hi p of S ans k rit with L ati n a nd G r eek Thi s .

led to the cl as s ific atio n o f the A ry an fam ily of

to n gu e s and thi s aga i n to the e ffo r t to pl ace othe r
,

l an gu age s in s o m ethi n g like a d efin ite cl as s .

As they co u ld n o t b e g r o up ed by the ge nea

lo gic al p r i ncipl e it w as fo u nd nece s s ary t o cl ass ify
,

the m by the p r i nciple o f like ne s s a nd di ffe r ence of

s t r u ct u r e
. F u r the r s t udy e s peci ally in the dir e c
,

t io n o f as ce r taini n g t h e r oots o f the i nfl ected

to n g u e s b r o u ght p hilologi s t s to the co nvictio n
,

th at l an gu a ge s in the p r oce ss o f d evelop me n t p as s

th r o u gh ce r tain defi nite s tage s u n til they r e ach the
h ighe s t s y nthetic type and the n by r eg u l ar d e c o m
,

po s itio n they beco m e analytic .

The o r de r o f develop m e nt i n l ang u age is i n full

h ar m o ny with th e o r d e r O f d evelop m ent in s oci ety .

The s te ady gr owth o f the s y n theti c type fr o m ,

s i mple agg r eg atio n of the wo r d s fu r n i s hed by the

 T HE CL AS S I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
7I

mono syll abic s t age i nto a gglutin ative fo r m s up to , .

the hi ghe s t fo r m o f i n flection is fo u nd in the ,

s peech o f al l the r ace s th at fr o m s i mple t rib al

,

a gg r eg ati on up to the m o s t co mplex p o l itic al

s y s tem s o f the g r e at civilized n ation s o r gan ize ,

s o ciety A t fi rs t in t h e o r g aniz ati o n of s ociety the

.

principle o f co r po ra te r e s p o ns ib ility p r ev ail s and ,

in co ns o n ance with it p r ev ail s s ynthe s i s in l an

g u age The s t ate is all in all and m us t b e ar m ed
.
,

at all poi n t s let co m e wh a t ma

, y to the individ u al .

S O the s entence m u s t h ave its s ep arate wo rd s

mo r ti s ed together and m u s t m ove like a well
o r d ered b attalio n W he n the p r i ncipl e o f indi
.

vid u al re s p o ns ibility begi ns and m an beco m e s as ,

impo r t ant as the s tate th e analytic typ e o f l an gu age

,

co m e s i nto pl ay .

The c h aracte r i s tic fe at ur e of the m o n o syll abic

to n g u e s is th at they u se the s imp le r oot u nch anged
in fo r m The m o n o s yll able s s till exi s ti ng in E ng
.

li s h tho u gh the v as t m ajo r ity of them owe their

,

p r e s ent s i mplicity to the we ar a nd te ar of ti m e ,

may s e r ve ve r y well as in s ta nce s o f wh at is m e an t .

Th u s o ne fro m which are d e rived o nenes s o nly o ne

, , ,

s id ed an d the like is now a s i mple root wh atever

, , ,

it m ay o nce h ave b ee n .

The ch ar acte r i s tic fe atu re o f the a ggl u ti n ative

tong u e s is th at th ey u se wo r d s co ns i s ti n g of two
o r mo r e r oots weld ed to gether i nto o ne wo r d
witho u t ch ange o f fo r m E x ample s of thi s typ e .

c an b e fo u n d o n a s m all s c ale in E n gli s h

,
S u ch ,
. ,

for ex ample are r a il r oa d co tton p r ess nut bro w n

, ,
-

,
-

,
 72 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

co l o r -

bl ind till r iche r in s u c h c o m

. G e r man is s

p o u nd s exp r e ss i ng fo r ex amp le o u r s i ngle word

, , ,

cotto n by the do u ble wo r d Ba u mw o ll e th at is , , ,

t r ee w oo l a nd o u r tkimbl e by Finger /t u t o r fi ng er
-

, ,

ka t F r e n c h h as a few s u ch as es s u ie ma ins o r
.
,
-

w ip e ba n ds , fo r to w el ;
-
and v a n n - -

p ieds , or g o -
ba r e

f eet fo r vaga bo nd
,
.

Th at v ar iant of the aggl u ti n ative typ e c alled ,

v ar io u s ly by s chol ars i nte r c al ative p olys y n thetic , ,

and holop h ras tic h as wo r d s co ns i s t in g o f a g r e at

,

n u mbe r o f r oot s m ass ed i nto o n e co nti n u o u s u tte r

an ce W hitn ey ill u s tr ate s thi s typ e by a s e nte n ce

.

fr o m the C he r okee l a ng u age the lite ral t r an s l atio n ,

o f which r u n s th u s :

I—it li im g ive tk e br ea d my s o n
- -

, ,
.

The i nflected l ang u age s u s e wo r d s co n s i s ti n g

of a roo t m odified by s u ffi xe s o r p r efixe s o r both ,

compo s ed o f frag m e ntary r oo ts th at h ave lo s t thei r

g y a nd h ave co m e to exe r ci s e a m e r ely r el a
t inte r it

t io n al fu nction I ns tance s of thi s in E ngli s h ar e :

.

moo n s whe r e the s w as o n ce a wo r d b ut is now

’

, ,

a m e r e exp r e s s io n O f the li m iti n g r el a tio n of moo n

to s o m e othe r wo r d ; kapp ily whe r e the ly w as ,

on c e l ike lo ved whe r e the d w as o n ce did , .

The analyti c l an gu a ge s di s c ar d i nfl ectio ns m o r e

o r le ss wholly a nd exp r e s s g r a m m atic al r el ation s
,

by the u s e of p r epo s ition s co nj u n cti o ns adj ective s , , ,

an d au xili ar y ve r b s Th u s L ati n f a is s et o r F r ench

.
,

f ll l beco m e s in E n gli s h by a n alytic s ep ar atio n

, , ,

“
he m ight h ave b ee n ”
.

W e s e e the n th at the ge n e ral p r oce ss of d evel

 THE CL A SS I FI CA T I ON OF T OI VG U E S .
73

o p me nt in l a ng u age h as b een fro m s i mple root s to

s y n the s i s an d by di s i ntegr atio n and s u b s ti t u tio n
, , ,

fr o m s y n the s i s to analy s i s The te n de ncy of all

.

s p eech by the n atu r al and co ns t a nt p r oce s s e s o f

,

p honetic d ec ay is towar d the an alyti c s t r u cture

, .

B u t t h e l an gu age s which h ave r e ached the l ar ge s t

'

freedo m fr o m the bo nd s of s y nthe s i s h ave bee n

aid ed in thi s te nd e n cy by the cl as h betwee n dif

fe r e nt fo r ms of infl ectio n th at h ave co m e togethe r -

i n the s am e l an d .

Thu s F r ench s pr ang fr o m the s tru ggle for mas

te ry b etwee n the ki nd of L ati n s poke n by the

E u s k ar i an Kelt s of G a u l and the ki nd s of Ge r m an

-

sp oken by thei r F ranki s h Alle m annic and B u r gu n

, ,

d i an i nv ade r s and con q u e r o rs E ngli s h s p rang

.

fr o m the like co nte s t for s up r e m acy betwee n the

i nfl ected E n gli s h of the S as s e n ach mas te rs o f
the once B r iti s h i s l a nd and the d i alect of F r ench
s p oke n by thei r N o r man c on q u e r o rs .

The S e m iti c i nflectio n is wid ely di fferent from

th e A ry an The chief ch ar acteri s tic s of Se mitic
.

l an g u age s are :
I.
T r ilite ral roots eve ry ve rb al root bei ng m ad e
,

u p of th r ee co n s o n a nts ; fo r in s t a nc e gtl is the ,

“
root of the ve r b to kill .

2. The ve r b h as o nly two te ns e s one of com ,

le te actio n and o n e of incomplete

p
.

3.
The l a ck of the v alu able logic a l cop u l a the ,

“ ”
ve rb to b e .

The chief ch ar acteri s tic s of A ry an inflection

a re :
74 T HE S T OR Y OF L AIVG U A GE .

I .
The p owe r of deg rading the wo r d s u s ed to
m odi fy r oots s o th at they c an be fu s ed i n to the
ne w wo r d and lo s e thei r s ep ar ate i nd ivid u ality ,

h avi n g fu nction s m e r ely fo r m al ; as fo r i ns tan c e , ,

v er i whe e the f as o n ce the L ati n f a cere

fy ,
r y w ,

“ ”
to m ake .

2 .Cap acity fo r i nte rna l ch an ge in the r oot by

the exch an ge of vowel fo r vowe l — a fo r m of ,

i n flectio n r e s e mbli n g the Se m itic as fo r i n s t an ce , , ,

s ing sa ng s u ng s o ng o r in G e r m a n F l a tt P l a
, , , ,
t te r , ,

o r in F r e n ch l is l u s , .

3 I nfl e c t io n by p r efix ; as fo r i ns ta nce the g e

.
, ,

in i nfl ected E ngl is h and in G e r m a n o r the r ed u ,

pl ic atio ns in G r eek a nd L ati n .

The i n flected l a ng u age s c an b e trac ed u p to

an ce s t ral fo r m s of g r e a t s i m plicity ; an d it is
pos
s ible th at s o m e d ay they m ay all be t r aced to the

s am e o r igi n al r oot s tho u gh it m u s t b e s ai d by w ay

,

o f c au ti o n th at the be s t s cho l ar s a r e o f op inio n

th at Se m itic r oots and A ry an r oots ar e wholly

dive rs e .

B u t wh ateve r m ay b e i m agi ned as p o s s ible i n

r e s p ect to the i nflected l ang u a ge s n o o ne n eed ,

eve r hope to be able to t r ace the aggl u ti native

to ng u e s to id e ntity o f o r i gi n They are ve ry di .

ve r s e no t o nly in voc ab u l a r y b u t al s o in m od e o f ,

s t r uctu r e ; a nd as h as bee n al r e ady s a id

, wh at is ,

c alled the ge n e alo gic al m ethod O f cl as s ific ation

c annot be applied to the m They m u s t b e s i mply .

cl as s ed s id e by s ide as witho u t any p r oo f of iden

,

tity o f o r igi n .
 TH E CL AS S / FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
75

The monosyll abi c di alects — for they c an h ar dly

,

b e con s id e r ed as s ep ar ate tongu e s — s i m il ar as they

,

ar e i n st r uctu re a nd spoken by r aces do u btless n e ar

akin d i ffe r too widely in voc ab u l ary to be brought

,

u nder the mod e of cl as s ific atio n whi ch decl ar es

any on e ton gu e to b e s pru ng fr o m an
y other .

The ra ces c ap able o f ori gi nating a civiliz atio n

h ad thei r l angu age s bro u ght to a st and s till by th e
e s tabli s hment of p erm ane n t in s ti tu tio ns and lite rary
r ecord s eve n whe n the s e r ecord s were me r ely sto r ed
,

in the memori es of gifted familie s and h ad not yet

fo u nd a m ateri al fo rm .

S ome r aces re ached this pl an e o f d evelop m e nt

while thei r l angu age s were still at th e m o no sy l
labic s t age ; o ther s while thei r s were a dv anced as
,

far as the aggl u tin ative s t age ; and o the r s ag ain ,

while thei r s were in the lower s ta ge o f infl ectio n .

These we r e the yellow r aces the C hi ne s e h avi n g

,

re a ched civiliz atio n before their l ang u age h ad

grown o ut of th e mo no s yll abic s tage the T atar ic ,

trib es h avin g attained to aggl u tin atio n and the ,

O s m anli Tu rks h aving climbed u p to a sort of

i nfl ecti on .

The r aces c ap able of i nd efinitely conti n uing and

p erfectin g a civiliz ation rec eived i n al l likelih ood
,

fro m the e ar lier civilizer s o f the yellow r ace s h ad ,

thei r l an g ua ges c ar r ied u p to the high e s t form s of

i nfl ectio n i n the time of their long yo u th while ,

they ro amed aloof from the centres o f civiliz atio n .

The s e were the white rac e s .

Th e r aces inc ap able of either origi n ating a c ivili

 Y OF L AN G UA GE
76 T H E S T OR .

z at io n or co ntin u i n g it u n aid ed b u t d e s ti n ed to
,

s h ar e in the t as k o f p e r fecti n g it h ad th ei r la n
,

g u age s developed in a c u r io u s left h anded w ay by -

m u ltifo r m i nflect io n of the p r efix in add itio n to ,

a ge ne r al s y s te m o f holoph ras tic a ggl u ti natio n .

The s e we r e the bl ack r ace s o f the B ant u s tock .

I n all th is m e nt io n h as bee n m ad e O f the yellow

r ace s ,
co mm o nly c alled T u ran i an ; o f the S e m itic
white s ; o f th e A r yan white s ; and of the bl ack
r ace s . O f the H am itic r ace s and of the A me r ic an
r ace s n othi ng h as as yet been s aid I t is n o t b e
.

c aus e the r e is any d iflic u lty in s ep arati ng the H a

m itic r ace s fr o m the Sem itic H i s to r ic ally they
.

ar e di s ti n ct e n o u gh ; and they we r e o fte n a ntago

n is tic to e ach othe r . B ut in o ne s e ns e it may be

s aid th at the r e is no H a m itic to ng u e M i n gled
.

h is to r ic ally as the H amitic and Se mitic race s s o

O fte n we r e thei r l an g u age s h ave beco m e s o little
,

d i s ti ng ui s h able e s p eci ally whe n s t u died fr o m the

,

A ry an po i nt o f view th at p hilo lo gi s t s h ave gen

,

e rally cl as s ed them togethe r u nde r the co mmo n

title S e m itic bec aus e the Se m itic race s in the

, ,

So u th M ed ite r rane an and E as t M edite r r ane an ar e a

u lt im ately ove r m as te r ed the H a mitic a n d bec am e

thei r r ep r e s e ntative s in the extant lite r at u r e s In .

the No r th M edite r r ane a n ar e a they we r e s o e ar ly

ove r mas te r ed by A ry an ra ce s th a t it is o nly ve ry
r ece ntly th at thei r ve ry exi s te nce in tho s e p ar t s

h as bee n s o m uch as s u s p ected I n the E as t we

.

fi nd the di spl ac e m ent o f H a m ite by Se m ite ve ry

cle ar ly m arked Th u s the C h ald man civiliz ation
.
,
 T HE CL AS S I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
77

both Tu r ani an and H amitic w as ab s orbed by the ,

A ssyri a n the Sido ni an by the Tyri an and the H it

, ,

tite — whic h w as c ertai nly p artly H am itic thou gh ,

p r ob ably with mi ngled T u r ani an and even Ary an

elements — b y the H ebrew The Liby ans of No r th .

A fric a gave w ay to the Ph oenici an coloni s t s at Car

t h age and el s ewhere ; an d E gypt it s el f fell fin ally

u nd er A ry a n r ule As for the Arab s they we r e

.
,

a lw ay s p artly H amitic and p artly Semiti c O nly .

the E gypti an N ubi an and Liby an r ace s see m to

, ,

h ave been for any lo n g histori c p eriod p r e d o mi

nantly H a m itic .

The Ame r i can r ac e s both i n blood and lan,

g u age se em to h ave been m ai nly an o uts hoot o f

,

the gre at Tu r ani an stock Their h olophr astic typ e.

O f sp eech is b u t an exp ans ion of the a gglutin ative

s y s tem A s to r ace there h as prob ably b een an

. ,

i nfusio n of Polyne s i an bl ood in the p ar t of A me r

ica th at lie s alo ng the P a cific O ce an ; and p o ss ibly
fr o m the Ca m bodi an s ho r es of A s i a may h ave
com e th e s t r ain th at lifted so me Am eri c an r ace s
i nto civiliz ation W e sh all never k now th e he ar t
.

o f this mys tery u ntil th e h ie ro gly p h s of C entra l

'

A m eric a and Yuc at an ar e deciphe r ed .

At this poi nt i t may be well to fix o ur attentio n

o n the s u bj ec t O f th e geo gr aphi c al di s tr ibu tio n of
the gre at fam ili e s of l angu a ge .

The mono s yll ab ic with Chinese at th e he ad of

,

them are c o nfi ned to the southe as t o f Asi a O f

,
.

the v ario u s ki nds o f agglu tin ative tongu e s tho s e

th at present to u s the pheno meno n of aggluti n a
78 TH E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

tio n by s i mple att achme nt occ u py the gre ate r

p ar t of no rthe r n A s i a and in E u rop e the l and s of
Fi n nm ar k Lappl and H u n gary Tu r key and th e
, , , ,

B as q u e p r ovi nce s They p r ob a bly o nce cove r ed

.

the g re ate r p ar t of E u r op e and As i a Tho s e v ar i .

ant s of the aggl u tin ative typ e c alled th e holo

p h r as tic involvi ng aggl u ti nati o n by i nco r p o rati on
, ,

cove r ed o nce the whole o f the lo n g A m e r i c an

contine nt and are s till s poke n whe r eve r the s o
,

c alled I nd ia n t r ibe s exi s t Tho s e v ar i an ts of the

.

aggl u ti n at ive typ e th at h ave a l s o vowel i n fl ection

a nd co ns o nant al ch an ge by ass i m il atio n — trait s

th at b r i n g the m cl o s e to the Se m itic tong u e s
cove r the g r e ate r p ar t of A fr ic a The i nflected .

o cc u py a zo ne r e achi n g we s twar d fro m the G a nge s

to the A tl an tic cove r i n g we s ter n As i a al mo s t all
, ,

E u r op e a nd all of no r the r n A fr i c a
, O f co u rs e .
,

the te r m inflected here m u s t be m ad e to i ncl ud e

tho s e analytic to ng u e s th at h ave s p r u ng fr o m an
cie nt i nflected o n e s By colo ni z atio n fr om E u r op e
.

they h ave in hi s to r ic ti me s cove r ed the g r e ate r

p ar t o f the A m e ric an conti n e nt the h abitable ,

p art s of A u s t rali a and m any of the i s le s o f the

,

s ea .

In end e avo r i ng to cl as s i fy l ang u age s i t m u s t

neve r be fo r gotte n th at i t is o nly to like n e s s in
gr ammat ic al s t r uct u r e th at we c an t r u s t Li ke .

ne s s in voc ab u l ary is o f its elf wholly v al u ele s s ,

a nd m ay e as ily b e the r e s u lt of m e r e co i ncide n ce

.

If we allow o u rs elve s to be all u r ed by me r e ide n

tity of s ou nd to the fo r m ation of a theo ry of o ri gin ,
 THE CL ASS I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .

79

th ere is g r e at d an ge r o f o ur bei n g m i s led i nto ex

c e s s iv e a b s u r ditie s .

E x ample s h ave al r e ady been give n of thi s folly .

B u t s o i mp ort a nt is the p r i n ciple in vi ew a nd s o ,

g r e at is the te mptatio n ofte nti m e s to i gno r e it th at ,

ro o m is m ad e he r e for other i n s ta nce s illu s trati ng ,

th e d an ge r .

Sc hleiche r tell s u s th at the M a gy ar wo r d for

w o lf re s e mble s the S ans krit n am e fo r th at anim al .

B ut whe n the word is t raced to its r oot in e ach

l ang u age it is fo u nd th at the M agy ar wo r d me an s
,

a n a n i m a l with a ta il th e S ans k r it an ani mal th at ,

tea rs or r en ds The Tu ra ni an whil e h u nting the

.
,

b e as t o n ho rs eb ack s ee s h is mo s t co ns pic u o u s
,

fe atu r e as th e wolf r u n s b efo r e h im and n am e s ,

th e c r e atu r e fr o m th at The A ryan k n owi ng the

.
,

anim a l chiefly as the d e s t r oye r o f h is flock s n am e s ,

hi m fro m h is fe r ocio u s h abit of te ar i n g the s heep

to pi ece s .

F o r anoth e r i n s t ance t ake the s a ke u s ed by the

’

J ap an e s e fo r i n toxic ati ng o r exhil ar ating p u r po s e s .

I t wo u ld b e wild etymolo gy to try to co n nect thi s

J ap an e s e wo r d with the sack of which F al s taff w as
s o fo n d S a ke may b e rel ated to Saka the na me
’
. ,

o n the ancient i ns c r iptio ns fo r the Scythi an s as ,

the s e were o ftene s t O f Tu rani an blood ; b ut the

s a ck O f E li z ab eth an d ay s is cert ai nly the s ec i n v in
“ ” ’
F al s taff s favo r ite tipple b eing
s ec or
, d ry wine ,

”
Sher r i s s a ck the d ry wi ne of Xe r es
,
.

Throu gh all the typ e s of l angu age the r e r u n s a

p rinciple O f s ymmetry in e ach so th at by thi s tr ait ,
80 T H E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

a lo ne they might p e r h ap s be di ffe r e n ti ated from

o ne an othe r . Th u s in the mo n o syll ab ic we fi nd
,

a p r i nciple of i nton atio n by wh ich ce r t ai n cl a s s e s

O f ide as h ave thei r di s ti n g u i s hi n g to n e s e nablin g ,

the r ace to u tilize the s am e wo r d a gain and a gai n

in di ffe r e nt s e ns e s di s ti n g u i s hed fr o m o n e an othe r
by the d iffe r e nt to ne s in which they ar e u tte r ed .

The e ar l ie s t l ang u age is th u s e s s e nti ally m u s ic al .

I n the a ggl u ti n ative the r e is a r eco g nized in

te rc h a nge o f co ns o n an ts acco r di n g to d efi n i te
eup ho nic l aw s .

I n the Se m itic i nflectio n the r e is in addition ,

to an ass on anc e of thi s ki nd a r e m ar k able law ,

of vowel ch ange wh ich is the ve r y t r iu mp h o f

,

e u pho ny .

I n the Ar y a n l a ngu a ge s we h ave the p r i nciple

c alled by p hilologi s ts sy mbo l iz atio n By th is they .

me an th at co nn ection i n s ti nctively felt betwee n

the ide a and the g rammatic al fo r m ; fo r ex ample ,

a s ofte ned vowel te r m i natio n is a pp r op r i ated to

the fe m i ni ne ; an inc r e as ed te r m i nati on to the ,

pl ural ; and a r ed u plic ated fo r m to the p as t te ns e , .

The s e niceti e s are of co u r s e fo r the m o s t p ar t

, ,

lo s t as o ne of the s e highly i n fl ected l an gu age s

beco me s analytic .

The m o n o syll ab ic l an g u age s o r tho s e th at u se ,

r oot s in thei r n aked fo r m ar e at the p r e s e n t d a

, y
few in nu m be r tho u gh s p oke n by a ve r y l ar ge
,

po r tio n of the h u man r ace They ar e Chi n e s e .

,

Tibetan Si ame s e A nam e se and B u r m an tho u gh

, , , ,

eve n s ome of the s e are not wholly tongu e s of one

s yll able.
 T HE CL A S S I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
81

A ltho u gh both the J ap ane s e the Co re ans and

u se the C hine s e w r itten C h ar acte r the ir l ang u age s ,

are poly s yll abic a nd ar e o f the M ongoli a n typ e ;

th at is aggl u ti n ative The Chine s e wr itten ch ar

, .

a cte r bei n g an a r bitr ary se t of s ymbol s fo r s o u nd s

i n the Chi ne s e l angu age r ep r e s enting obj ects i t ,

m atte r s not wh at the s e O bj ects are c alled in o ther

to n gu e s if the people who s p e ak th e m choo s e to
u s e the C hi ne s e ch ar acter to r ep r e s e nt for them

the s am e O bj ects H e nce the C hi ne s e ch ar acter

.

s erve s the A nam ese J ap a n e s e and Co r e ans fo r u s e

, ,

with thei r l ang ua ge s tho u gh the s ou nd s are wholly

,

‘
d i ffere nt Thu s in s poken Ch i ne s e ma n is j en
.
, , ,

a n d i n C o r e an s a r a m ; b u t the w r itten ch ar acter

co nvey s p r eci s ely the s am e me aning to a C ore an

as to a C hi n e s e eye .

The aggl u ti native to ngue s are s poke n by a gr e at

v ar iety of r ace s ; a nd the to n g u e s the m s elve s di ffer
gre atly in type as well as in voc ab u l ary
,
.

Tho s e th at aggl u ti n ate by s i mple attach m e n t ,

incl udi n g however s o m e th at h ave al s o the i nco r

, ,

o rat iv e el ement ar e the U gri an the S am oyed

p , , ,

the T atar the M ongoli an the Tu n gu s i c the

, , ,

M al ay Polyne s i a n th e P ap u an and the D ravid i an

-

, ,
.

The U g r i a n or Fin nO H u ngar i an l an g uage s in -

c lu d e as d i alect s the s p eech of the Fi nns th at ,

of th e E s tho ni ans th at o f the L app s th at O f th e

, ,

M agy ar s o r H u n gar i an s th at of the O s ti ak s and , ,

th at o f the W o guls all at p re s ent E u rope an w h e r

, ,

eve r they c am e from o rigi n ally .

The S amoyed s are i n the m ain Sib e ri an .

6
82 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

The T atar to n g u e s i nc l ud e tho s e s p oken b y

the O s m anli o r T u r k s the Y aku ts th e B as hkir s the
, , ,

Ki r ghiz the U igu r s the U s bek s and the T u rko

, , ,

m a ns . A r e m ark able fe atu r e of the s e to n gu e s

is wh at h as been c alled the h ar mo n io u s s eque n ce
o f the vowel s .

The M o n goli an and the T u ngu s ic to n g u e s are

s poke n fo r the m o s t p ar t by the no m ad ic t r ibe s

th at bo r d e r on the Chi ne s e e mpi r e O f the s e .

Mo ngoli an tribe s the M antc h u h ave fo r s eve ra l

,

cent u r ie s been m as te rs of the Ch i n e s e e mpire ,

s upplyi n g its th r o ne with the i mp e r i al li n e It .

is do u btfu l whethe r the C o r e an and the J ap an e s e

l ang u age s s ho u ld be r eg ar ded as i ndepe ndent
b ranche s of the g r e at a ggl u tin ative family o r as ,

r e a lly m e m be rs of th e M o n goli a n br an ch .

The M al ay— Poly ne s i an i ncl u de s the M al ay p r oper ,

the Poly ne s i an and the M el an e s i an Thei r lan

, .

g uage is de s c r ibed as the l ing ua f ranca o f As i a

a m o n g the i s l an d s ; and they p e n et rate eithe r as

t rade rs or as p i rate s eve rywhe r e in tho s e e as ter n

s e as
. I t is evident th at the M al ay h as give n h is
s p eech as the co n q ue r o r to the P ap u a n j u s t a s the ,

Nor man fo r a ti m e gave h is to the E ngli s h m an .

The r ace s are as di ffe r e n t as any two r ace type s -

c an well be .

T h e M alay, o rt stature
says Wall ace “ is of sh
, ,

bro wn skinne d straigh t hair ed be ard less an d s mooth

- -

, ,

bodied T h e P ap uan is talle r black skinned frizzly

.
,
-

haire d bearded and h airy bod ie d T h e fo rmer is

, ,
-

bro ad faced h as a small no se and flat eyebro ws ; the

-

, ,
 T HE CL AS SI FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S . 83

l atter is lo ng fac e d h as a l arge and p ro mine nt no se

-

, ,

and p roj ec t ing e ye b ro ws T h e M al ay is b ashful col d

.
, ,

unde mo ns trat ive and quiet ; the P apuan is b o l d im

, ,

p e tuo us ex c itab l e a nd no isy

, ,
T h e fo rmer is grave .

an d seldo m l au h s th e l atte r is j o yous and laugh te r

g ,

loving ; th e o ne co nce al s th e e motio ns the othe r d is ,

pl ays th e m " .

The O ld n am e fo r the M al ay tong u e s eem s to

h ave been j a w a and the p u r e r d i alects appe ar
,

to b e the M al ay J av ane s e o r tho s e s poke n in the

-

L ad r o ne s Fo r m o s a and the Phil ippine s and the

, , ,

to ng u e s c alled di s ti nctively M al ay M alagass i , ,

J av an e s e an d the l an gu age of Su nd a The M el a

, .

me s i an b r an ch is s p oken in Fij i to which s h o u ld ,

b e add ed s ome doze n nei ghbo r i ng di alects The

Poly n e s i an di alects are s p oke n in H awaii the ,

M arq u e sas T ahiti R arato nga S am o a To nga and

, , , , ,

a m o n g the M ao r i I n all the s e M al ay Polyne s ian -

to n g u e s the r e is g r e a t s oftn e ss of voc aliz atio n .

The M al ay h as o ne fe atu r e co m mo n to ce r tai n

aggl uti n ative to ngu e s a s re m ote fr o m e a ch othe r

now as the Tu rki s h in E u r op e and the Mpo ngwe

i n A fr ic a ; th at is the g r e at p art which is pl ayed
,

by vowel c h ange It is moreove r e asy and s o ft . ,

with a n as al cl an g ; and it offers g r e at fa cility fo r

pl ay s u pon wo rd s .

The r e ar e P ap u a n to n gue s upon which M al ay

h as h ad no i nfl u ence ; b ut they h ave not as yet
bee n very fu lly s tu died .

The D r avidi an g r o u p b elo ng s to the s outhe r n

p art of th e Indi an p enin s ul a and includ e s tongues ,
84. THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

th at h ave s u rvived the g r e a t H i ndo o i nv as i o n .

The s e are T am il Tel u gu C ana r e s e and M al ayal am

, , ,
.

To the s e a ggl u tinative to n g u e s o f A s i a m u s t

b e added the anci e nt A kk ad and S u m i r s poken ,

a nd w r itte n by the e ar lie s t civili ze r s o f C h ald ma .

W hethe r they we r e o f the yellow r ace o r no t

h as n o t yet bee n defi n itely s ettl ed ; b u t it is i n
the highe s t d egr ee p r ob able th at they we r e .

Midway betwe e n the s e to n g u e s o f th e s i m pler

a ggl u t inative typ e a n d th e hol op h r astic to n g u e s
o f the A m e r ic an co nti n e n t m u s t b e pl ac ed th e
Bi s c ayan B as q u e o r E us k ar i an to n gu e s till s poken
, , ,

in the Py r e nee s ; and with it in all likeli hood , ,

m us t be cl ass ed the l an gu a ge o nc e s poken by th e

E t r us c ans of whi ch a fe w fr ag me nts r e m ai n in th e
,

s h ap e of i ns c r iptio ns u p o n thei r m o nu m e ntal

r e m ai n s and wo r k s of ar t Th e Et r u s c an s how
.
,

eve r we r e p r o b ably l ar gely H ami tic in r ace

, .

The A m e r ic an to n g u e s nu m e r o u s and di ffe r e nt

,

as they ar e are tho s e of the high e s t poly s y n thetic

,

typ e p u tti n g a co mplex id e a i n to a s i n gle wo r d

,

by a pec u li ar p r oce s s o f aggl u ti n atio n The

te r m k ol op k ra s tic s u gge s ted by H u m boldt b e s t
, ,

de s c r ibe s thi s typ e o f aggl u ti natio n .

N ext to the s e in th e o r de r O f d evelop m ent co m e

the B antu l an g u a ge s of A fr ic a which a ggl utin ate ,

by a s o r t o f r ed u plic atio n and al s o h ave vowel ,

ch ange and a r egu l a r s e r ie s o f p r e fi x e s — w h at I ,

h ave ve n t u r ed to de s c ri be as a s o r t o f left h anded -

i nflectio n O ne of the r iche s t o f the s e in c ap ab ili

.

ti e s is the M pongwe of the We s te rn co as t of A fr ic a .

 THE CL AS S I FI C A T I ON O F T ON G UE S .
85

Th e Z ulu al s o o n the e as te rn co as t s h ows s o m e

, ,

re mark able q u ali ti e s .

A s b ar e a s a ny o f the s e o f wh at m ay t r uly be
c a lled i nflecti o n a re the H a mitic tong u es A t .

the he a d of the s e i n hi s toric fam e and in lite r ary

re m ai ns , t h o u gh p r ob ably the r ude s t in lingui s tic
d e v elop m e nt w a s the to ngu e o f a nci e nt E gyp t
, .

W i th it m ay be cl ass ed the Be r be r or L iby an , ,

s p oken once o n the e n ti re A fr i c an co as t o f the

Med ite r r ane a n b eyo nd E gypt ; the E thiopi an o r ,

K us h ite s poke n i n th e r egio n a c r o s s the Re d S e a

,
,

o n bot h s ide s s o u th o f E gypt ; a nd t h e Sido n i a n

,

in Ph oen ici a .Fo r i n tho s e e a r ly d ays o f the

wo r ld s h i s to ry the H a mitic race s p r e ad fr o m Sido n
’

t o the Ca nar ie s a nd inde ed h ad s o me s h ar e in th e

,

C h ald ma n a nd H ittite c iviliz ati on s al s o .

T he S e mi tic r ace s with thei r l ang uages s p r e ad

, ,

a ll ar o u nd the H am iti c in A s i a fr o m A s s y r ia to ,

far the s t A r ab i a ; a nd i n A frica they s e ttled Carth a ge .

U tic a H ipp o T u ne s a nd Le ptis

, , , .

The Semi tic to ng u e s i nclude A ss y r i an H eb r ew , ,

Ph oen ici an A ramaic o r Sy ri an a nd A r abic Pe r

, , .

h ap s the H eb r ew Ph oeni ci an and A ramai c o u ght

, ,

all to be emb ra ced i n th e o n e te r m C anaa nite The , .

A rabic m ay b e divid ed i nto the a ncie nt H i my a ri ti c ,

the A r ab ic p r op er the G eez of A byss i ni a a nd the

, ,

A m h ar i c . The mo s t s tr iki ng fe atu r e s O f the s e lan

g u age s ar e thei r p o ss e s s io n o f tr ilite r al r oots a nd
their s ys tem O f i n flection by i n te r nal vowel ch a nge .

B etween the s e and the Ary a n to n gu e s h e a

n u mbe r of d i alects left as tray in the C au c as u s range
86 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

d ur i ng the m i gratio n of ra ce s Tho s e s poke n .

s o uthw a rd o f the m ou ntai n s s eem to b e wholly

u nr el a ted to tho s e o n the n orth of them ; n o r is

the r e any tr ace of ne ar ki n s hi p am ong m embe r s of

the sam e geog rap hic al g r o u p The s e Cau c as i an .

to ng u e s are : the G eo r gi an the S u anian the M in , ,

re l ian the L az ian the Ci r c ass i an the M it sje gh ian

g , , , ,

and the Le s gh ia n .

Thi s e nu m e rati o n b ri n gs u s at l as t to th e highe s t

type of infl ected to n g u es the A ry an ; and the s e ,

we r e s p oke n i n hi s to r ic ti m e s fro m I n di a to I cel and .

The A ry an family of l an gu a ge s i ncl u d e s the I n die ,

the I r anic the Keltic the Itali c the H elle ni c the

, , , ,

W e ndic and the Te u to n i c

,
.

The Indic tongu e s con s titu te tho s e th at were

s p oke n in I ndi a by th at b r a nc h of th e A r y an s to ck

which in p r oce s s of time fo u nd its w ay fr o m the

g r e at pl ate au n e ar the Cas pi an Se a i nto the m id
mo s t o f the th r ee p e n i ns u l as th r u s t by As i a i nto the
s o u the r n s e as Thei r eld e r to n gu e w as the S ans k r it
. .

B u t th at bec a m e in the c o u r s e o f a ge s deco m po s ed

i nto Pr ak r it and Pali lite r ary di alects and th e s e in
, ,

t ur n i nto the pop ul ar and wholly m ode r n di al ects ,

B e ng al i H ind i M ah r atti Cingh al e se and othe r s

, , , , ,

incl u di n g the fam o u s and m u ch t r avelled R o m any -

The I ranic to n gu e s i ncl u de the anci ent Z e nd ;

the Pe r s i an of the c u nei fo r m i ns c r iptio ns d u r i ng
the pe r iod of th e A c h oe m e nid dy nas ty ; thei r
d au ghte r the Pehlevi ; and th e m od e r n Pa r s ee
, ,

which fo r m s s till a nother s t age in the proce ss of

di s i ntegratio n and ab s o r ption o f forei gn elemen ts .
 T HE CL ASSI FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
87

The Keltic to n g u e s h ave fir s t a gener al divi , ,

s ion i nto Kym r ic and G a elic The Scotti s h con .

q u e ro r s of the E u s k ar i ans i n I r el and who l ate r

p as sed over i nto Caledo ni a and g ave to th at l and
its mode r n n am e and i n p ar t its hi s to r ic dyn asty
of king s s poke the Gaelic di alect Thi s di alect
, .

w as al s o s p oken by the s ettler s in the I s le of

M an T he Kelt s of W ale s C o r nw all and ori gi

.
, ,

n ally no do u bt of all so u the rn B r it ain s p oke the ,

Ky m r ic di alect Tho s e s u rvivo r s O f the lo n g

.

co n flict wi th the S ass e nach who took refu ge in

G aul a nd na med fr o m thei r a nci ent home the
p rovi nc e o f B r etagn e al s o s poke the Kym r ic ,

d i alect Th e other G allic tr ibe s — tho s e of G aul

.

in C aes ar s ti me tho s e of the Belgi an l and tho s e

’

, ,

of the H elveti a n l and tho s e of Italy on both ,

-

s id e s O f th e Po and tho s e of G al ati a i n A s i a

,

M i no r — ar e all s u ppo s ed to h ave s poke n the

Kymric di alect .

The Italic di alects are fo u nd e ar ly broken u p

i n th e Itali an p enin s u l a i nto m any v ar ietie s o f ,

which the O s c an the U mb r i an and the Lati n

, ,

ar e the chie f I n the end th e L atin bec am e

.

do m i na nt ove r all and ab s o r b ed the othe rs in

to its elf b ei n g de s tined to give law and o rd e r
,

to a wo r ld o f to n gu e s and r ace s It w as u lti .

m ately to beco m e the m othe r of F r ench Itali an , ,

Pr o v e ngal Sp a ni s h Po r tug u e s e R o m an s ch and

, , , ,

W all achi an be s ide s i m men s ely affecti n g the d e

,

v e lo p me nt of E n gli s h an d incre as ing its voc ab

ul ary to mo re th an twi ce its origi nal s ize .
88 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The H elle nic tongue s we r e e ar ly known as

di ffe r e nti ated i nto D o r ic IE o lic A ttic and Ionic
, , , .

A fte r t aki n g fo r m i n an u n r ivalled lite ratu r e a nd

’
beco m i n g the s p eech o f s chol ar s fr om Se n ec a s
H isp anian bi r thpl ace to the old B act r i a n l a nd
of its Ary an m othe r to ng u e and fr o m Yo r k in
-

B r i tain to A lex and r i a in E gypt it r e newed its ,

s u p r e m acy ove r the E as t i n the r oy al city of

C o ns tanti n ople u ntil the ye ar 1 4 53 when i t s an k ,

i nto a di alect o r cl u s ter o f di alects of the u nlet

t e r e d beco m i n g l ar gely an alytic and we ake n i n g
,

its vowel s o u n d s i n to a m o noto no u s iot a O nly .

o n e of the s e di alect s is w r itte n It is k n own as .

the R om aic o r Mode r n G r eek ; and the s chol a rs

of A then s are s eeki n g to r id it as m u ch as p o ss ible
of the fo r eig n wo r d s th at h ave c r ept i nto it and ,

to r e s to r e a s tr ictly H elle n ic voc ab u l ary .

The W e ndic to n gu e s are cl as s ified as L ettic ,

E as t Sl avic and W e s t Sl avic

, The L ettic i ncl u d e
'

the Lith u ani an the O ld P r u s s i an and the L etti c

, ,

p r ope r s poke n in Co u rl and and L ivoni a

, The .

E as t Sl av ic i ncl u d e the R u ss i an the B u l g ar i an , ,

and the Illy r i an , the l as t b ei ng a cl us te r of d ia

lect s s poke n by Se r b s C r o ats and W e n d s The
, , .

W e s t Sl av ic i n cl u de the di alects o f th e L ech s the ,

Czech s , and the Pol ab ians U nde r the te r m

.

L eek s a r e g r o u ped the Pol e s th e Sile s i a n s a nd

, ,

the Po me r an i ans U n de r the te r m Cz ecks co m e

.

the Bohe mians the M o r avi ans and the Slov ak s

,
, .

R u s s i a n lite r at u r e h as o f l ate aw ake ned the i nte r

e s t o f the c u ltiv ated wo r ld B u t as id e fr o m thi s
.

,
 T HE CL ASS I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G U ES . 89

with the fu rther exceptio n o f a few Bohemi an

writers the r e h as been littl e evid ence of o r i gi nality
,

or c r e ative powe r in the Sl avic i n tellect .

The Te uto nic r ace s are gener ally cl ass ified as

divi s ible i nto the H igh G erm an the Lo w Ge r m an , ,

and the Sc andin avi an ; and the l angu ages h ave

followed th e s ame cl ass ific atio n B ut it w o uld .

b e d i ffi cult to s ettle to which of the s e c ategori es

to as si gn the r aces th at p o ured into th e R om an
emp ire b e fore the fifth ce ntury c ame to an end .

Th e A lle m an s the Bu r gu n di an s the G oth s the

, , ,

Fr anks and the S u evi an s as well as the to ngue s

, ,

th ey s poke d o not fall r e adily u nde r any one o f

,

th e s e he ad s The Goth s o f M oesi a who s e sp eech

.
,

’
w e h ave i n U lfi l as s Bible we r e app are ntly ne ar
,

a kin to the L o w G erm a ns ; b u t they h ad n o t in

their l angu age th at modific ation of the vowel

c a lled i n G er man U mla ut which is s o ch ar acter
,

is tic o f the other Te uto nic tongue s .

The H i gh G erm an tongue is the liter ary s p eech

o f the Ge r m an r ace s aw ay fr o m the s e abo ard ;
a nd i t is divi d ed by epoch s a d ivi s io n th at need
,

not c onc er n u s here It h as to a l arge d egree r e

.

taine d i ts i nfl ected fo r ms and h as i n prose a he avy

,

and clu msy st r u ctu re si n gul arly at odd s with cer

,

ta in pi qu a nt powe r s it po s se s ses in th e w ay of pic

ture s q ue dimi nutives and qu a int and n aive idiom s .

The Lo w G erm an tongu es h ave h ad a wide

exte nsio n .
They were at the e arlie s t hi s toric
,

p eriod spoken o n the s e ab o ard of n o rthe r n

,

E u ro pe and along the lower R hi n e They now

 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE
90
.

i ncl ude E n gli s h D u tch F r ie s i a n a nd a n u m b er

, , ,

of di alects s poke n a lo n g the s hore s of the B altic .

E n gli s h is d e s ce n ded fr o m the s o — c alled A n glo

S axo n which s ho u ld r athe r be ar the n ame o f
,

I nflected E ngli s h A s we s h all s e e it u nde r we nt

. ,

e no r m o u s m od ific atio ns fr o m its co ntact with

No r man —F r e nch D u tc h is the d ir ect d e s ce nd ant
.

of O ld D utch ; and F r i e s i an of O ld F ri e s i an , .

A mo n g the s e L o w G e r m an to n g u e s m us t al s o
“
b e incl u ded O ld S axo n of which the H eli an d ,

is the O ld e s t lite rar y doc u m e nt .

The Sc and in avi an to n g u e s we r e tho s e s poke n in

D e n mark Swede n a nd No r way a nd in the chief
, , ,

No r s e colo ny th at of Icel and

, They we r e the .

D a ns k the Swedi s h and the No r s k

, , The O lde s t .

lite rary No r s k is th at whi ch w as u s ed in I cel and

to r eco u nt the ancie nt legend s of th e r ace It is .

mo r e inflected th an the m ode r n Swedi s h D ani s h , ,

a nd No r wegi an which i n p r oce ss O f ti m e we r e d e

,

ve l o p e d fr o m the O l d No rs e tong u e an d bec am e

mo r e o r le ss analytic al i n thei r s tr u ctu re .

A ll the s e to ng u e s we r e o n ce highly i n flected .

Thei r m ode r n r ep r e s e n tative s fo r the m o s t p ar t

are analytic E ngli s h whic h h as h ad th e cl as h
.
,

of two i nflected to n g u e s — the far the s t ap ar t p e r ,

h ap s O f all the A ry an fo r m s of s p eec h — to aid in

,

the p r oce s s o f r id di ng i t o f i nflectio ns is the m o s t ,

an alytic of all .

To thi s ge ne ral acco u nt o f the Cl as s ific atio n of

To ngu e s I no w ad d table s whic h m ay help to
"

cle ar up the s u bj ect fo r the r e ad er .

T H E CL ASS I FI CA T I ON OF T ON G UE S .
.

91

All th e Ameri c
{o
an

‘
xc
to ngue s e e pt

O t mi

A na mese
 C H A PT E R VII I .

T H E S PE E C H O F O N E SY L L ABLE .

T HE Chi n e s e are the chief people who u s e the

s p eech of o n e s yll able . It is the r e fo r e to the m
th at we s ho uld look fo r light o n th is s u bj ect .

W e m u s t al w ay s r e m e m ber th at C hi na h as fo r
a ge s bee n the gr e at give r o f civiliz ation to all
e as te r n As i a Thi s fact and the i nfan tile s tage
.

at which thei r l an g u age s topp ed g r owi n g ar e

s t r o n g evide nc e s of the i mm en s e a nti u ity o f the
q
civiliz atio n of the C hi ne s e I t is t r u e th at au th e n
.

tic hi s to ry in Chin a d ate s o n ly fr om the p e r iod in

which the r ace of C how fl o u r i s hed and thi s c an ,

n o t be c a r r i ed b ack far the r th an abo u t a tho u sa nd

ye ar s befo r e Ch r i s t But the rac e m us t h ave bee n

.

a p e a cefu l a g r ic u lt u r al p eopl e with j u s t e n o u gh lit

,

e r at u r e to give fi x it
y to thei r l ang u age a nd with
o u t n ation al org aniz atio n fo r m any a ge s b e fo r e thi s
,

ti m e O n the b as i s of an e arly —e s tabli s hed anc e s

.

tra l wo rs hip thei r g r e at l awgiver Ku n g—fu—ts b u ilt

, , ,

u p for the m a u tilit ar i an p hilo s ophy th at p ractic ally

took the pl ace o f a reli gi on Thi s philo s opher lived
.

in the s ixth cent u ry before Ch r i s t H is mo ral and .

econo mi c cod e h as s uffice d for v as t nu m be r s of

94 THE S T O R Y OF L A N G UA GE .

the r ac e B uddhi s m and T auis m however h ave

. , ,

both fou nd thei r votarie s amo ng million s o f the

Chine s e .

The are a O f Chi na p rope r is ne arly the s am e as

th at of the U nited State s It is d ivided i nto ei gh .

teen p rovi nce s e ach h avin g its o w n c apital a

, ,

walled city The e mpi r e i ncl u des m any ou tlying

.

provi nces ; and in th e ti m e of M ar co Polo s re s i ’

dence at the co u r t of the Gre at M og u l its r ule r s ,

we r e m aste rs o f the g r e ater p a rt o f A s i a It w as .

then know n to the E u r op e an wo rld as Cath av .

The pop ul ation is i m m en s e and homoge n eou s ,

con s ti tuting abo u t one thi rd o f the h u m an r ace .

The gover n ment h as fo r m any age s even when ,

i n the h and s Of a fo r ei gn and conq u erin g dy

n as ty bee n th at o f a p atr i ar ch al mo n ar chy the
, ,

o ffi ci al s ys tem bei ng r egu l ated by competitive

ex am in atio ns .

E xcept as regar d s the p o s itio n of wom an the ,

civili z atio n of Chi na is p e r h ap s equ al to th at of

E u rope i n the e ar ly ye ars of the s ixteenth c e ntu ry ,

and in so me respects it is sup e r i or to it The lit .

e ratu r e is ve r y exte n s ive cove r i ng the whole fiel d

,

o f i ntellect u al exp r e ss io n i n writte n form gre at ,

attentio n bei n g p aid to s tyle The C hi n e s e pre

.

ceded the E u rop e ans in the use of p ap er p r i n ting , ,

gunpowde r m ac ad amized streets c anal s silk t e a

, , , , ,

the s o c alled I ndi a ink s p ectacl es u n ive r s al ed u

-

, ,

c ation co mpetitive ex am in atio ns fo r the p u blic

,

s ervice gam e l aws and family n ame s

, , .

The geog r aphic al i s ol atio n of the r ace thei r low ,

 T H E S P E E CII OF ON E S YLLAB L E .
95

stage of lingu i s tic develop m ent their j e alo u s ex ,

c lu s ive ne ss and pe r h ap s th at i n n ate i n c a p a city fo r

,

co n ti n uo us prog r e ss which we find gene rally ass o

c iate d with g r e at p r ecocity al l co m bi n ed to keep
,

thei r civi li z a tio n at a s tan d s till fo r co u ntle ss age s .

L ike the I ndo C hine s e and the Tibeta ns ; the

-

Chi n e s e h ave s tr ai ght bl ack h ai r ve ry little be ard , ,

ski n o f a le athe r yel low colo r and eye s obliq u ely

,

se t . The hei ght o f the he ad is e q u al to its b r e adth

o r gre ate r th an the b r e adth Stu de nts of c ran i
.

O lo gy give the p r opo r tion of t ra ns ve r s e to lo ngi

t ud inal di a mete r thu s :

Med ium
Lo ng
Bro ad

N ow wh ile E s ki m o s and N egroe s are lo ng s kulled -

typic al M o n goli an s are b ro ad —s k u lled .

I n ch ar acter the Chi n e s e are ind u s t rio u s fr u g al

, , ,

c ra fty i n t rad e and law abidi n g Thei r tr ait s emi

,
-
.

u e ntly fitted them to begin a civiliz atio n .

W he r e the ance s to r s of th e Chi n e s e c ame fr o m

is s till u nk n ow n . B ut there is evide nce th at they
migr ated fr o m the we s t i nto the provi n ce of Sh an
s e which li e s withi n the bend of the Yellow
R ive r ,
,

at a very r emote p e r iod The r e h as been s o me

.

attempt to co nnect them with the Akk ad p eople

Of e a r ly C h ald aea the ,

a re a O f who s e i nfl u e n ce

w as very wide ; b u t no s u r e li nk s O f evide n ce

alo ng thi s li ne o f gene alogy h ave as yet b een

e s tabli s hed .
 96 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

It is certain at all events th at at a very e arly

, ,

p e r iod they c u ltiv ated g rai n r ai s ed fl ax an d wove it

, ,

into g ar ment s u tilized the s ilkwo r m and the m u l

,

be r ry and enga ged in t rad e They h ad a l r e ady

,
.
,

befo r e thei r hi s to r i c age s o m e k nowled ge o f as

,

t r o no my and h ad p u t their l a ng u a ge i nto w r itten

,

ch ar acte r s .

The l angu a ge mu s t h ave c e as ed its d evelop ment

al m o s t at bi r th I t is s till in its childhood s i mply
.
,

bec au s e its fix atio n in a w r itten fo r m to ok pl ace at

s o e ar ly a d ate .

E ve r y wo r d is a r oot and every r oot is a wo r d

,
.

The r e is no trace of i nflectio n ; the r e is n o t even

a ggl u tin atio n The w r itte n l ang u age is th e u ni
.

ve rs al to ng u e of c u ltu re ; the s p oken l an gu age

v ar ie s with eve ry p r ovi nce The ch ar acte rs ar e .

ve r y n u m e r o u s while the s o u nd s they r ep r e s ent

,

a r e co m p aratively few in n u m be r one a n d the s am e ,

s o u nd ofte n repre s e n ti n g as m an y as a h u nd r ed

di s ti nct id e as The ch aracte r s which o r igi nated in

.
,

pictur e s and in a co mbi n atio n of lin e s do no t make ,

u p an a lph ab et b u t a s yll ab ary

, .

L e t m e ill us t r ate wh at is me an t by a s yll ab ar y .

S u ppo s e we wi s hed to m ake a s yll ab ary fo r the

E n gli s h l ang u age It wo u ld be a ve ry di ffic u lt
.

t as k as E n gli s h h as a v as t n u m be r of s yll able s

, .

B ut the ide a wo u ld be to choo s e a C h ar acte r to

r ep r e s e n t eve ry s ep a rate s yll able in the l an g u age .

Th u s let s s tand fo r the s yll able im b for ag y for

, , ,

ine ; and we s ho u ld w r ite the word imag ine with

the ch ar acte rs s by .
 T HE S P E E CH OF ON E S YL L AB LE .
97

Thi s is
j u st wh at the C herokee h al f b r eed Se -

q u o y ah did with the co m p a ratively few syll able s

-

of h is o w n l an g u age m aki n g u s e of the lette r s of

,

o u r alph ab et s o m eti me s e r ect

, s o meti m e s u p s ide ,

d ow n s o m eti m e s fl at on thei r b ack s H is is p e r

, .

h ap s the l as t syll ab ary eve r invented and i t is s till ,

u s ed by the C he r okee n atio n .

The Chine s e s chol ar s divide thei r ch aracte rs

i nto six cl as s e s The fi rs t they c all S i—a ng —
. li ing .

The s e r ep r e s ent the fo r m s o f the O bj ects m e ant ,

a nd co rr e s p o n d to the a ncient E gyp tian hi e r o

glyph s E ac h o f the s e s e r ve s al s o in co mbi natio n
.
,

with oth er c h ar acte r s as a determi native o r cl ass ,

te r m .

The s eco nd they c all C/z i se e The s e r e p re .

s ent id e as o f r el ation Th u s a li n e d rawn u nder

.
,

“
the ch ara cte r fo r s u n i ndi c ate s the m e an i n g
d aw n .

The thi r d they c all k y The s e r ep r e s e n t an

.

ide a by the u n io n of tw o o r mo r e ch ara cte rs .

“
Th u s the ch ar acter for s i nce r e
,
is m ade u p
“
o f the two c h ar acter s s i g nifying man and
wo rd s .

The fou r th they c all Cli u eu clz o o The s e re p re - -

.

s ent,
by c h an ge o f form o r s o u nd a v ar i ety o f ,

“ ”
m e ani n gs Th u s the ch aracter fo r h and b ei ng
.
, ,

m ade to tu rn to the r ight me an s r ight If

,
.

“
O r the s am e
”
tu r ned to the left it m e ans left ,
.

"
c h ar acter may me an either m u s ic o r d elight ,

a ccordi n g as it is s o u nd ed ; if s ou nded y e it me an s ,

“ “
mu s i c ; if l o i t me ans d elight,
.
98 T H E S T OR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

The fifth C l as s they c all Cli ia ckiek These .

rep r e s ent met ap horic al m e an i n gs Thus the ch ar .

,

“ ” “ “
a cte r fo r ar r ow m e ans d irect or a wo r d ,

”
s p oke n to the poi nt .

The s ixth cl ass they c all Ck ielz s iz ing The s e .

are ph onetic ch ar acte r s a nd are i n nu mb e r ove r ,

twe nty tho us and They ar e co mpo s ed o f two

.

p ar ts the p honetic ch aracte r prop er and the d ete r

,

m inativ e The determi natives co mpri s e s uch nat u

.

r al O bj ect s as s u n m oo n mo u nt ain rive r fi re, , , , ,

water he ad he ar t h an d foot eye sheep cow

, , . , , , , ,

hor s e do g ; s uch p r i m ar y s oci al rel ation s as fath e r

, ,

m othe r so n d au ghte r ; s u ch prim ary q u aliti e s a s

, ,

high l ow gr e at s m all s trai ght c rooked ; s u ch

, , , , ,

p r i m ary action s as to see to s p e ak to w alk to r u n , , , .

Th u s the ch ar acter fo r wood is a necess ary d ete r

,

m inativ e for a nythi ng m ad e of wood as t abl e ch ai r , , ,

b ox There ar e two h u nd r ed and fo urteen o f thes e

.

dete r mi n atives .

The likene s s thi s sys te m be ar s to the E gypti a n

a nd Ch ald ze an sy s te m s o f ideophonetic s poi n ts u s

to the prob ability th at the s ame Tur ani an ge ni us

l ay at the fou nd ation o f e ar ly E gypti an Ch ald aean , ,

a nd C hinese civiliz ati o n .

The Chi n e s e ch aracte rs h ave v ari ed fro m ti m e to

ti m e there b ein g six d i s ti n ct s tyles o f writi n g to
,

be fo u nd in C hi n ese book s .

The sounds as h as bee n s aid ar e far fewer th a n

, ,

th e ch ar acters fo r the r e are o nly five h u nd r ed sy l

,

l ab ic s ound s while the r e ar e over thirty tho u s and

,

ch aracters The nu mb e r o f ch ar acters i n o r di n ary

.
 THE S P E E CH OF ON E S YL L A B L E .
99

u se , however is o nly abo ut five thou s and Still

, .
,

the di s c r ep an cy in n u mb er betwee n the act u al

s o u nd s an d the w ri tten ch aracte r s is enor m o u s It .

is evid e n t th at o n a n ave r age a bo u t ten of the s e

c h ara cte rs mu s t be c alled by the s am e s o u nd W e .

h ave a few i ns tanc e s of thi s ide ntity o f s o und fo r

d i ffe r e nt id e as in o u r own l ang u a ge Th u s w r ite .
,

r ite r igk t w r ig /i t, all h ave di ffe r ent m e ani n gs b u t

, , ,

th e s ame s o u nd B ut the p u zzle th at is e x ce p

.

t io nal in E n gli s h is the r ule in C hi ne s e .

To m eet the di ffi culty O f m aki n g the s e five h u n

d red s o u n d s r ep r e s e nt in conve rs atio n the m ultit u de
o f id e as fo r which s o m any ch ara cte rs we r e fo u nd

n ece s sar y th r ee method s we r e d e vi s ed

,
.

The fi r s t w as to co mbi ne with the wo r d i nte nd ed

an othe r s u pple m e nti n g its m e a ni n g Th u s with .
,

the word fo r kea r is u s ed the wo r d per ceive .

Th e s eco nd w as to u s e cl ass ifyi ng wo r d s with the

no uns . Th u s the word m e ani n g g r asp w itk tk e
,

b a nd w he n u s ed with the wo r d m e a ning s o m eti m e s

,

k n if e s o m eti m e s s ma l l boot a nd s o m eti m e s f ing e r

, , ,

fixe s u po n i t the me ani n g knif e .

The thi r d w as by th e u s e of m u s ic al i nton ati o ns .

The s e ar e ei ght in n u m ber m aki n g the s p oken

,

l an g u age a s e r ie s O f co ns tantly v aryi ng i nfl ectio ns

o f the voice .

The g ram m atic al co ns tructio n is exp r e s s ed by

the po s itio n and con n ection of the wo r d s in the
s e nte nce The s ubj ect co m e s fi r s t then the ve r b
. , ,

then the d i r ect followed by the i nd i r ect co m ple

m ent E very wo rd th at modi fi e s o r defi n e s an
.
 1 00 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

other i nv ari ably p r ecede s it Th u s the s ame word

“

by a ch ange o f po s itio n is c h an ged i n g r amm atic al

v alu e W e k now s o m ethi ng o f thi s p r inciple o f
.

po s ition al g r amm ar in E n gli s h Thu s when we .

,

"
s ay,
Th e s u mm e r is war m the wo r d s u mmer is a ,

nou n ; but whe n we s ay O n a warm s u mm er day ,

they met the e n e my the wo r d s u mmer is an ad ,

je ctive Thi s ch an ge of p l ace and o f fo r ce is i n

.

C hine s e acco m p an ied by a ch an ge of to ne al s o .

The r e is so meti m e s a ch an ge of s o und while the ,

c h aracter fo r the w r itte n wo r d rem ai ns id entic al .

I n s p ite of all the s e exp edi e nts fo r i ndic ating

di fferent v al u e s fo r a s i n gle r oot there is of co u rs e ,

m uch r oo m for ambig u ity Cu s to m alon e cle ars .

up this ambi gu ity Th e r e ar e m any well e s t ab .

-

l is h e d and conventio nally u nd e rs tood g r oup s of

roots Thu s fo r d i ffe r e nce of O p i n io n they say
.
, ,

“
ni tung w o s i I e as t tho u we s t ; fo r conve r s ing
, , , ,

“
n i w en w e ta , I as ki n g tho u a n swe r in g
, W ei ght , .

“
is kking ts c u g /i n li ght he avy ; di s tanc e y w a n
,
-

”
kin , fa r ne ar -
.

L ike th e re s t o f the T u ran i an l a ng u ages Chi ne s e ,

h as no di s tinctio n o f ge n de r a ll n o u ns as s u c h ,

bei n g r ega rd ed as i mpe r s o nal I ndeed they are ,

c alled by the gr ammar i ans d e a d wo r d s the ,

”

“
ve b s alone bei g
r n livi n g wo r d s Still s e x is .

i ndic ated by prefixe s the s o n be ing s p oke n o f as ,

ma n cli ild the d au ghte r a s w o ma n ck ild the st al

-

,
-

lion as noble k orse a nd th e m ar e as motli e r —

-

, k orse .

Plur ality is often i n dic ated by r ep etition as j inj in ,

-

,
”
the men The no u ns as h as been alre ady s aid
.
, ,
 THE S P E E CH OF ON E S YLL AB LE . IOI

h ave no i nfl ectio n ; and the r el atio n exp r e ss ed in

o the r to ng u e s by ch an ge of e ndi n g is give n in
Chi ne s e by s t r i n gi n g the nou ns alo n g o ne afte r the
o the r s o as to m ake o f the m p ra ctic ally a c o m
p o u n d wo r d Th u s th e p o r cel ai n mar k th at r e ad s
.

T lz e T a ming dy n a s ty w a n l ei/z t/i ir d y ea r ma n u - -

f a ctu r e is i n telligibl e e n o u gh eve n to u s To o ne .

fam ili ar with C ar lyle s e it would even s ee m n atu r al

a nd e as y .

The r e is howeve r a p article th at exp r e s s e s

, ,

o f and is u s ed to fo r m the e q u iv ale nt o f o u r

p o ss e s s ive The r e are p r epo s iti on s tha t d efi ne an
.

a bl ative s e n s e The ti me mar ks of the ve r b are all

.
-

i ndic ated by po s itio n and the us e of p article s I n .

“
the collo q i l e te ce j
u a s n n o o i
k n ta l a i now he
, ,

co m e we h ave p r e s e nt ti m e ; in ming neen ta l a i

,
”
,

”
next ye a r he co m e fu tu r e ti m e ; in s /za ng y ue ta
,
’

“ ”
la i,
l as t m o n th h e co m e p as t ti m e H e r e the , .

ti m e m e ant is evid e nt fr o m the colloc atio n B ut .

gene rally whe n n o p ar ticle is u s ed p r e s ent ti me is

, ,

i mplied ; and a p ar ti cle me ani n g w ant is p ut with

the ve r b to i ndic ate fu tu r e ti m e while o ne me ani ng ,

co mp l ete is p u t with i t to i ndic ate p as t ti m e

.
In .

like m an n e r p o s itio n a nd the u s e o f p ar tic le s p oi nt

,

o ut the m ood o f the ve r b .

It will b e p erceived fr om all th at h as b ee n s aid ,

th at m o no s yll abic l an g u age s h ave in r e ality no

word s at all b ut o nly roots O ur m o n o s yll able s it
, .
,

mu s t be remembered h ave beco m e s o by p honetic,

dec ay ; and th e re s e mbl ance betwee n the m and

tho s e of genui ne mo no syll abic l angu age s is illu s ory .
 Y OF L AN G UA GE
'

1 02 THE S T OR .

There is howev er i n C hine s e an app r o ach to

, ,

”
wo r d making
-
Thu s ts e . so n is u s ed as a , ,

”
di m in u tive s o th at from ta u s wo r d is d erived
, , ,

“
ta u ts e
-

s wo r d s o n
,
or knife -

,
.

W ith s o i n fan til e a l ang u age the C hi n e s e h ave ,

n ece s s ar ily p r od u ced a fe eble lite ra tu r e b u lky as ,

it is . Yet po o r as is th e lite r atu r e i t is m o r e ,

widely d i ffu s ed among the p eople th an is th at of

a ny othe r race in the l and th at g ave it bi r th .

The wr itte n o r cl ass ic al l an gu age s p e ak s only to

the eye I t is no t u s ed even by the le ar n ed fo r
.

o r al co mmu nic atio n Q u otatio ns fr o m the C o n .

fuc ia n cl as s ic s are u nd e rs tood bec au s e of the ge n ,

‘

e ral familiar ity o f s chol ars with the s e wo r k s B ut .

a ny ne w co m p o s itio n in th e w r itte n ch aracte r ,

whe nhe ard fo r the fi rs t ti m e is u ni ntelli gible , .

The s poke n l an g uage s are fu lle r and m o r e di ffus e

th an the w r i tte n l an gu a ge u s i n g O ften two wo r d s ,

fo r its o n e They Su b s tit u te a di ffe r e n t and a

.

co mpo u n d wo r d fo r th e s ingl e o ne o r th ey p u t ,

with e ach i ndefi nite wo r d o f the w r itte n l an g u age

a nothe r th at d efi n e s its m e ani n g Th u s the wo r d .

“
m i ng , p eople is defi n ed fo r the eye by the ch ar
,

acte r th at b elo n g s to i t b u t wo u ld n o t b e cle ar to ,

the e ar H e nce the collo q u i al fo r m is q u ite di ffe r

.

ent bei n g pan—s in g The s o u n d k u ng m i ght m e an

, .

“ ”
j us t o r a l abo r e r o r to attack or m e r it
, , , ,
“ “ ”
r e s pectfu l
”
or or to p r ovid e or s o m e o ne of
, ,

s eve r al othe r m e a n in g s a ll of whic h h ave p r ec i s ely ,

the s am e p r o nu nc iatio n and to ne ; fo r th e s ys te m

o f exp r e ss io n by i nto natio n is far fro m co m plete .
 T HE SP E E CH OF ON E S YL L AB L E . 1 03

Bu t the colloqu i al fo r m s define the s e m e ani n gs by

“
additio n s To me an j u s t kung beco m e s ku ng
.
,

“ ” ”
ta o a l abo re r k u ng ts ia ng to att ack k ung -

k ie/z ; “ —
m e r it k u ng la o ;, r e s p ectful
”
k u ng k in ,
-

to p r ovid e ku ng — y in, .

J u s t as L ati n w as u nde rs tood d u r ing the middle

a ge s in E u r op e a nd u s ed unive rs ally by the
le arned long after the ge ne r al u s e o f the nation al
l a ngu age s th at h ad s p r u n g u p fr o m the G e r m an
iz e d s oil o f pop u l ation the w r itten l a n g u age of ,

Chi na is u nd e rs tood by the le ar n ed all ove r the

e mp i r e I nd eed i t is u s ed n o t o nly the r e b ut al s o
.
, ,

i n J ap an C o r e a the L o o C hoo I s l and s M antc h u

, ,
-

r ia an d Cochi n C hin a
-

.
,

The s p oke n l ang u age s are as di ffe r ent fr o m o ne

a nother as It ali an fr o m Sp an i s h o r Sp an i s h fr om

Portu gue s e They h ave di ffe r ent co ns tr uctio ns

. ,

idio m s pro nun ci ation s and to ne s No r th o f the

, , .

g r e at r ive r Y i ang—tz the v ar i ation is no t s o gr e at ;

-

b u t s o u th o f it the r e are m any di s tinct d ialects

th at m ight well b e c alled so m any di ff erent l an
gu age s The C ou rt d i alect is u s ed o ffici ally all
.

ove r th e e mpi r e and is th at whi ch fo r eig n e r s c all

,

“
M a nd ar i n The C hi ne s e c all it K w a n k w a
.
the -

”
l ang u age o f o ffic e r s I t h as an exte ns ive liter a
.

tu r e o f its own .

T he cipal ex celle nce s o r advantage s o f th e

pr ni
e e t e l e says Nev ius are it s r e mark
”
C h in s w r i t n a gu g
n a , ,

ab le co mp actne ss an d its po w e r o f e x p r e ssio n I t is .

j ustl y ad mire d fo r th e be auty and variety o f its ch arac

t e rs its cop iousn e ss and t h e del ic ate s hade s o f me aning
, ,
I O4 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

w hic h it e xpre sses T o s h ow its ful ne ss in so me poi nts

.
,

t ake t h e fo ll o w ing ill ustratio ns I n t h e p l ace o f o ur o ne

w ro d ‘ to c a rr
y t h e C
’
h ines e u se k ik ‘ to tak e o r c arry
‘ ‘
, ,

in th e h an d p ao to c ar y i t
r n h e a r m s ky ili to

c arry un de r th e ar m p ung ‘
, ,

t o c ar ry e x te n d ed in bot h

ting ‘
,

ar ms to c ar ry o n t h e h e ad pe t o c arry o n
‘
, ,

th e bac k tia o to carry su sp e nd e d fro m th e e nd s o f

ta i ‘
,

a st ic k r e s ting o n t h e sh o ul d e r to c arry sus ”

, ,

p e nde d fro m t h e midd le o f a pol e o r p ole s re s ting o n , ,

t wo m e n s sh o ulde r s
’ ’
.

The l angu age of the Bod d sc h i o r Tibetans is -

m o no syll abic like the Ch in e s e b ut it h as p r efixe s

, ,

in its wr itte n fo r m The s e howeve r are n o t p ro

.
, ,

n o u nc e d , so th at the s p o ke n to n g u e is p u r ely
m o no s yll ab ic . A llied to the s e to n g u e s a r e the
Kho l ang u age o f Camboj a and the M en l an g u age
o f Peg u in B u r m ah I n I ndo — Chi na ge n e rally th e
.
,

t rans itio n fr o m the m o no syll abi c s tage to the

a ggl u ti n ative d ue to the p r e s e n ce o f r ace s o f I n
,

d ian and o f M al ay d e s ce n t m ake s s o m e o f the ,

l an g uage s di ffi cult to cl ass ify Yet the o r igi nal .

M o n goli an s tock the r e u ndo u btedly cli ng to the

m o no syll abic typ e of s p eec h Si am e s e and B u r .

m e s e s u rp as s Chi n e s e i n the n u m be r of r oots

applied to the d efi n ition of m e an i n g I n Si am e s e .

the auxili ary r oot p r ecede s th e p r i ncip al r oot ; in

Bu r me s e it follows it The s e to n g u e s and the
s p eech O f A n am o r Cochi n— Chin a ar e like C hi n e s e in
thei r us e o f to ne s for di s c r imi n ati ng m e ani n g Cam .

boj an howeve r tho u gh m o no syll abic h as no to n e s

, , , .

The p e r petui ty of the Chi n e s e l ang u age as of ,

the civiliz atio n is l ar gely d u e to the fact th at the

,
 THE S P E E CH OF ON E S YLL AB L E . 1 05

c o u ntry h as alway s been co n q u e r ed by ki nd r ed

r ace s howeve r b ar b ar ic they m ay h ave b ee n
, .

W heneve r the o r igi n al co mm u nity th at h ad de

v e lo p e d civiliz atio n w as co nq ue r ed by n o mad ic
horde s fro m o u t s id e the M o ngol o r M antc h u co n ,

q u e r o r s th at fo u nded dy nas ti e s a nd a dded te rr i

to r ie s to the o r i gi n al s tate bei n g o f the s ame ,

s tock a ccepted the civiliz a tio n they fo u nd a nd ex

,

te n d ed i t to a wid e r d o m ain The R o man e m .

pi re s p r e ad the L ati n tong u e and R o m an c u ltu r e

by co n q u e s ts m ad e by R om an ar ms ; the Ch i
n e s e e m pi r e h as alw ay s s p r e ad it s to ng u e a nd
its c ultu r e th r o u gh the co nq u e s t s m ade by b ar b a
r i a n chiefs who h ad m as te r ed it The ve ry c au s e .

th at s ec u r ed p e r p et u ity p r evented p rog r e ss ; the re

w as n eve r a ny n e w blo od .

I m u s t n o t neglect to m e n ti o n th at th e r e is o ne
mo no syll abic to n g u e o n the A m e r ic an co nt ine nt .

Thi s is the s p eech O f the O to m iS a r u de tr ibe of ,

M exic o th at w as o nc e u nde r A ztec r u le P r e s cott .

s t a te s th a t b e s ide s tho s e who penet rated into the

,

v alley the r e we r e m any dwelli n g in the co u ntry O f

,

T u l a on the west “ whe r e thei r l an g u age is well

,

p r e s erved .

T ON GU ES O F O N E S Y LL AB L E .

B od — O to m z
'

I Ch in ese 2 ds c/z i 3 . I n do Cli inese

-
4 .

y lc b (sp ok e n M xico)
.
. .

(in man d ia e ts ) or Ti e tan In e

a b c. e
y
. . .

Bakh e ng , B ar ma , M 6 11 , T ’h a , Kh o h me n, La w, Anam,
or or or or or or or

s p ee ch A v an es e Pg e uan , S iames e Camb ojan s pee ch ch

sp e e

p k
of s o en of f o

Arraca n in Lao s To q i n u n
B urmah d an
Coch i Ch i n -
na
 C H A PT E R IX .

AGG LU T IN AT I VE S PEE C H .

T HE lie s t T u rani an civi liz atio n w as on the

ear

Per s ian G u l f at the m outh s o f the Tig r i s and the

E u p h r ate s whic h the n e m ptied thei r w ate r s i nto
,

the G u l f at s ome di s tance fr o m e ach othe r ; for

all u vi al depo s i t s h av e in the c o u rs e of a ge s m ade

l and at the expe ns e of the G u lf .

A t Tel 10 h n e ar the m o u th of the E u ph rate s

-

, ,

i ns c r iptio ns h ave bee n fo u nd d ating b ack to 40 00

,

B C
. . The r e we r e two r ace s the A kk adi and the
,

S u mir i who r uled in the s e p ar ts b u ildi n g the r e

, ,

g r e at citie s and te mple s The te mple s we r e in

.

te nded fo r the wo rs hip of the he ave nly bodi e s ,

we r e c r own ed by ob s e rv ato r i e s fo r w atchi n g the m ,

and we r e s e r ve d by p r ie s tho od s of m any r ank s ,

u s ing an e s tabli s hed r it u al and po ss e s s i n g a vol u

mi no u s s ac r ed lite ratu r e of litu r gie s hy m ns and , ,

m agic al i nvoc ation s .

The s e p eople we r e the i nve nto rs of th e ar t of

c u neifo r m w riti n g and the l an gu age they s p oke
,

and w r ote w as n e ar ly r el ated to the m od e r n Fin

n i s h B u lgar i an and M agy ar both in g ra mm atic al

, , ,

s t r uct u r e a nd in voc ab u l ary The ve r y nam e s

.
,

Akk adi or mo u nta i nee rs and S u mir i or r ivera in

, , ,
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE SP E E C/f .
1 07

p eopl e remind o ne of the term s o f like me ani n g

,

in the Fi nni s h trib al n am es Akka ra k and S uomi

, .

C omp are al s o the foll owi ng table of words and ,

note the likeness i n vo c abu l ary between the A kk ad ,

the Fi n nish and the M agy ar

,
'

E nglis k Akka d Fin nisk

cop per nrud

iro n
co untry
fi el d
sp ace

co mplete fill, til

full
fle sh
l ight
d ay i
road
no se

I
thou
he
we

Fi n n i s h is o ne o f the fe w no n A ryan l angu ages

~ -

th at are so ft and m elodio us pos s e ss e s te r se and

,

p icture s qu e idi om s and h as p rod uced a p oetry

,

t r u e to n atu re .

The A kk ad syll ab ary s hows by i ntern al evide n ce

th at the r ac e h ad o nce u s ed p apy r u s o r p atch ,

ment or so me si mil ar m ateri al to w r ite u p On and

, , ,

hieroglyphs as its s crip t W hen the Akk ad i c am e

.

d own into the pl ain s they exc ha nged the s moother

,
 1 08 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

w riti n g m ate r i al fo r cl ay and i n s te ad of the hie r o

, ,

glyp h s they u s ed the wed ge —

,
s h aped ch ar acte r s
c alled by u s mode r n s c u n eifo r m .

Thi s wi s e a nd powe r fu l r ace extend ed thei r s way

fro m the m o u ntains o f E l am beyo n d the Tig r i s
we s tw ar d to the Medite rr an e an and eve n to the
i s l and o f Cyp r u s The r e is a g r owi ng di s p o s itio n
.

a m o n g ar c h a o lo gis ts to b elieve in a fa r g r e ate r

exte ns io n of the A kk ad civiliz atio n th an thi s .

So m e r ece nt di s cove r ie s m ake it no t u nlikely th at

at a ve r y e ar ly s t age in its develop m e n t i t fo r m ed

the b as i s o f the wo nd e r ful civiliz ati o n o f E gypt ;

a nd the r e are t race s of it s exte n s io n e as tw ar d i nto

the l and s of the D r avid a and o f the Cam b oja ns in

the tw o I ndi an pe ni ns u l as and p o s s ibly fr o m an
,

cie n t C am boj a ac r o ss the oce an to the l and s of

'

the Q u ich es the M ay as and th e Q u ic h II as i n

, ,

A me r ic a . The r e is a s t r o n g s u s picio n o n the

p ar t o f m ode r n eth nolog is ts th at the s e A k k adi
we r e the ance s to rs o f the Chi ne s e who l e ft the ,

p ar e nt race be fo r e the l ang u age h ad r e ached the

aggl u ti nat ive s t age . I thi nk too th a t we m ay yet
, ,

di s cove r evide n ce th at the Akk ad civil iz atio n lay

a t the b as i s o f the E t r u s c an in I t aly bei n g i n t r o .

d uc e d i nto E u r op e in the age th at s aw the co nti

n e nt j oi n ed to A fr ic a at m any p oi nts I ndeed .
,

the r e s ee ms good r e as o n to believe th at the r e w as

a n e ar ly u n ive r s al civ iliz atio n of the yellow r a ce
,

th at cove r ed all h abit able p ar ts O f the e ar th s -

’

s u rface, the n ve ry di ffe r ently s h aped fr o m w h a t

they are no w and p r ob ably far le s s d ivided by
,
 A G G L UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 09

w id e tretch e s O f s e a L ate r ble nding i n s o m e

s .
,

r egi o n s with the H am iti c r ac e and m as te r ed by

i t the A kk adi m ad e s till gr e ate r adv an ce s Still

, .

l ater th ei r co nqu e s t by the Se m ite in A s i a and by

,

th e A ry an in E u r ope b r o u ght abo u t the hi ghe s t

s t a ge of civiliz ati o n a tt a i nable by ar t as disti n

guis h e d fr o m s cience H oweve r vi s io nary all thi s

.

s p ec u l ative hi s tory fo r the A k k ad i m ay be the ,

cu n eifo r m syll ab ar y and the C h ald ae an to ng u e

we r e ce r tai nly l o n g u s ed fr o m the Tig ri s to the
M edite r r ane an Fo r all th at p r i mitive wo rld they
. ,

we r e the o nly fo r m s O f c u ltu r e .

Th e p eople of A kk ad we r e wo r ke r s in m etal s ,

wood a nd s to ne ; p racti s ed mi ni n g ; t raded to the

,

R e d S e a to A r me ni a a nd M ed ia to Sy r i a a nd
, ,

T ars u s F r o m the fi r s t they s eem to h ave b u ilt

.

up on terr ace s; both to r emove thei r edifice s above

the low alluvi al pl ai n and to give the m a n imp o s
i ng app e ar an ce The g r e at s tr uctu r e s o f U r r o s e
.

in ter race s I ts b r ick w all s were d eco r ated w ith

.

bl u e en am el poli s hed agate s al ab as te r mar ble

, , ,

s l ab s m o s aic s copp er n ail s and gold pl ate s

, , , .

There w as gr e at s pl endor of ado r nme nt R afte r s .

of p al m wood s u pported the roofs .

The Akk adi we r e g r e at invento rs and alway s ,

fro m th e p r actic al p o int of V iew The weight o f .

the w ater o f E u p h r ate s gave the b as i s o f the

C h ald E an metri c s y s tem the B abyloni an t ale nt
,

co r r e s po nd i n g with a c u bic foot o f w ate r taken

fr o m the r ive r Th e Akk ad i g ave u s the divi s i o n
.

o f the ye ar i nto month s and week s and the divi ~

1 10 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

s ion of the week i nto s even d ay s They divided .

the ci rcle i nto th r ee h u nd r ed and s ixty deg r ee s ,

and the deg r ee s i nto s ixty m i n u te s They in .

ve nted the po s itio nal v al u e o f fig u r e s and even ,

h ad a m od e of w r iti n g them e q u iv a le n t to o u r
m ode o f exp r e ss ing d eci m al fr actio n s W hile the .

A ry an race s we r e s till in b ar b a r i s m and the Se ,

m it ic t r ib e s we r e w a nde r i ng ove r the Sy r i a n d e s

e r t the s e e ar ly T u ra ni a ns w
,
e r e hi gh in m any ki nd s
of c ult u r e .

U r of the C h aldee s fr om which Te ra h and h is

,

s o n A b ram e mig r ated no r thw ar d to H ara n at the

foot o f the A r m e ni an m o u ntai ns w as o ne o f thei r

,

citie s U r and H aran we r e both devoted to the

.

wo rs hip of the Mo o n and we r e both e ar ly p o s

,

s e s s ed of a l ar ge Se m itic p op u l atio n th at h ad co m e

to t rad e and e nd ed by s ettli n g The n am e U

, .
r

p r e s e nt s the Se m iti c fo r m O f the S u m ir ian er i ,

city It w as no t ve r y far fr o m the g r e at c om

.
’

me rc ial city E r id u the good city which t rad ed

, , ,

O ve r the w ate rs o f the Pe r s i an Gu lf .

I n the s e ancie nt ci tie s — E r id u Ur E r ech , ,

— we r e lib r a r i e s co ntai ni ng
( U r u k i) a n d L ,a r sa

m an s e ar lie s t tr aditio ns W he r e the m o u nd o f

’
.

Tel loh s tand s w as S irp u r ra the city o f the g r e at

-

fl am e S ayce thi nk s the m on u m e n ts u n e ar thed

.

he r e m ay be d ated as far b ack as abo u t 40 0 0 B C . .

I s h all give a rapid s ketch o f th e r e s u lt s of the

exc av atio ns m ade he r e by E r n e s t d e S ar z e c both ,

o n acco u nt of the anti q u ity of the city and the

comp ar ative r ecentne s s of the s e d i s cove r i e s .
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH I I I

The p al ace o f G ud e a d eliverer of j ud gm e nt

, ,

o ne of the ancie nt p r ie s t kings w as u ncove r ed -

, .

I t w as co ns tr u cted O f l ar ge s q u ar e b rick s ce m e n ted

togethe r by b itu m e n e ach b r ick be ar ing th e in
,

s c r iptio n O f the p r ie s t ki n g
-

I t contai n ed an op en
.

c o u r t with fo r t re s s p al ace h ar em and temple

, , ,

towe r the pl an o f all r oy al b u ildi ngs i n the

,

Me s o potam i an r egion fr o m th at d ay to thi s The .

s t at u e s fo u nd we r e no t O f colo ss al s ize They .

we r e c ar ved o u t of g r ee n d iorite Thi s s tone .

s ee m s to h ave been impo r ted fro m th e Si naitic

p e ni ns ul a by the w ater r o u te aro u nd A r abi a and
th r o u gh the R e d S e a .

Th is l an d o f d io r ite and p orp hyry h ad been con

q u e r ed by N a r a m S in and S ar go n a tho u s an d ye ars

befo r e A h u nd r ed ye ars l ate r th an the time of

.

the s e C h ald ze an p r i nce s S e ne fr u the fathe r o f

, ,

Kh u fu the b u ilde r of the G r e at Pyr amid acco r d

, ,

“
i ng to E gypti an rec o r d s d r ove aw ay the fo r ei gn
,

p eople fr o m th e s e m i ne s ; b u t in G u de a s ti me
'

the C h ald aeans we r e i n po ss e s s io n o f the m a gain .

Still l ate r in the ti m e of A b r ah am the new E la

, ,

mite dyn as ty in Ch al d ma hold s s o uthe r n P ale s ti n e ,

while lower E gyp t is i n the h and s O f the H yk s o s .

The gr ad u ated s c ale in the lap of Ki ng Gu de a ,

with whi c h h e h as me as u r ed the b uilding the pl an ,

of which is al s o in h is lap h as been s u bj ected by

,

P r ofe ss o r Fli nde rs Petri e to a comp ari s o n with

the E gypti an and the B abyloni an s tand ard s and ,

fo u nd to b e o n the b as i s of the E gypti an c u bit ,

an d not of th e B abyloni a n Thi s wo u ld i ndic ate

.
1 12 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

a bo rr owi n g o n the p ar t of E gypt b efore the r i s e

o f B abylo n to i mp o r t an ce .

The he ad s fo u nd in thi s city o f S irp u rra ar e o f

d i s ti nctly T u rani an typ e Th e e arli e r S h amanis
.

tic typ e of T u r ani an beli ef h ad al r e ady d evelop ed

i nto the wo rs h ip o f pe r s o nal god s G u de a r eco rd s
.

h is exp u l s io n o f witche s s pi r it s ee r s ch ar m e rs
,
-

, ,

and m a gici ans

. The exi s te n ce o f s l ave ry a

n ece s s ar y i ns t it u tio n in the begi nni n g s of civiliz a

t io n — is b ro u ght o u t by the te r ms in which a

S at u r nali a is de s c ribed The e q u a l ity of wo m e n
.

with me n is ve r y cle arly i ndic ated .

A t E ri d u a di s cove r y w as m ade th a t add s one

m o r e piece o f evide nce to p r ove ide ntity o f o r i gi n
fo r the Ch al d ma n a nd the E gypt ian c iviliz ation s .

T h e s o n of the god E a w as wo r s hipp ed the r e

u nde r the nam e As ar i The divin e n am e of
.

O s i r i s in E gypt is A u s ar ; and both the s e na m e s

ar e w r itte n with the s i g ns ey e a n d c/z a ir .

The to ng u e s o f A kk ad and S u mi r are the olde s t

a ggl u ti nat ive to ngu e s of which we p o ss e s s any
t r ac e The r e w as anothe r howeve r of ind efinite
.
, ,

anti u ity b u t at a ve r y e ar ly p e r i od e s t abli s hed in

q ,

g r e at powe r b etween the Ch ald man and the E gy p

t ian c iv il iz atio ns Thi s w as the H ittite The gr e at
.
.

H ittite r ace th at w arr ed o n e u al te r m s s o lo n g

,
q
w ith the E gypti a n s who c alled the m K k ita a nd
, ,

with the A s sy ri a ns who c alled the m K /z a tti w as

, ,

p r ob ably o f th e s ame s tock as the A k k adi They .

ce r tai nly u s ed an a ggl u tin ative l an g u age They .

wr ote in hie r oglyph s of their o w n which h ave ,

 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH .
I I3

been identified as s i mil ar to the Ky p rio te ch ar

a c te r s . The bilingu al i ns criptio n of T ark o nd é m o s
h as been the key to the s tudy o f the H ittite
s yll ab ar y .

A l ar ge b ody of evidenc e goe s to s how th at thi s

H ittite civiliz atio n p r ev a il ed fr o m the M e so p o ta
mi an r egio n o n the e as t to the whole e as te r n co as t
o f the M ed ite r r ane an o n the we s t i n cl u din g the ,

i s l an d o f Cyp r u s ; Sidon bei n g the chief s e apo r t ,

a nd K ad e s h o n the O r o n te s a nd Ka rc h e m is h on

the E u p h rate s bei n g the s u cce s s ive c apital s The .

p e r iod of the H ittite powe r w as the ti me o f A b r a

h a m a nd of the r ule O f the H yk s o s in E gypt
, .

Thei r g r e atne ss co ntinu ed d u ring the r ei g ns of

th e war like Ph ar aoh s of the eightee nth dy n as ty ,

an d u ntil thei r power w as cru s hed by S ar go n ,

Ki n g of A ss y r i a by the c aptu r e and d e s t r uctio n

,

of Kar c h e m ish 7 1 7 B C , . .

I thi nk th at in thei r ve ry n am e s will be s ee n

a like n e ss to the n ame s of the A k k adi a nd the

S u mir i a nd even to tho s e O f the di s tant E t r u s c an s

,
.

C omp ar e for i n s tance the H ittite n a me s p r e s e r ved

, ,

i n E gypti an r eco rd s Khita s i r a M ar o s i r a S ap a

,
-

,
-

l al a M aute na r a and U r ma N o fi r u ra with the

, ,
-

n ame o f the A kk ad city S irp u r r a o f Ki ng G u d e a , , ,

O f the city L ar s a o f the godd e ss N an a of Ki n g

, ,

S atar o na and h is d a u ghter the P r i nce s s Kir gip a , ,

and with n am e s i n the far aw ay It ali an l a nd like

-

R as en a Por s e na Ti ni a L al a T h ania
, ,
Then doe s
, ,
.
,

n o t the bo ss of T ar k o nd é mo s r emi nd u s at o nce of

T archon the fo u nder of T ar q uinii?

,

8
 1 14 T H E S T OR Y OF L A N G UAGE .

Next to the s e older aggluti native tongu es com e

five l arge gro u p s in the no r th o f As i a and E urop e .

'
The s e are the l ang uage s o f the T u ngtI s the tru e ,

Mo n gol s the T u r k s the Fi r ms and the S amoyeds

, , , .

In the s e the roo t is n eve r obsc u r ed and the ,

lingui s tic s tr u ctu r e is s tr ictly li m ited to the addi

tion of s u ffixe s The Yakut a Tu rkish di alect .
, ,

s p oken on the icy se a of Sibe r i a may serve us ,

with an illu s tration o f the s i mpli ci ty of c o nstr uc

tion th at m ar k s the form atio n O f words in these
tongu e s Thu s s it s i gn ifie s on e co ncerned with
.
,

wh atever the r oot s p ecifie s Ati m e ani ng w ares “ .

,

a ti s it will me an a m a n conce r ned with w ares

“
a
-

“
merch ant Ay i m e ans c r e atio n ; ay i s it cre a
.
-

"
tor . A gain the s u ffix ir s ig nifie s actio n
, Fro m .

“ ” “ ”
tia l wind comes then tia l ir to blow
, , , .

Yet these to n gu e s h ave i n re ality no verb .

W h at is perh ap s thei r m o s t s t r iki ng c h ar acteristic

is the euphonic h ar m ony of vowel s whic h p rev ail s
i n them I n the Yakut tongu e the pl u r al s ufiix
.

consists of the co ns on ants l and r ; but wh at

vowel is to come b etwee n the m is d etermined
by the vowel of the root Th us we h ave a ckal a r .

“
the fathers ; oc/z olo r the child r en ; ,

”
the be ar s .

T h e M antc h us who con q u ered the Chi nese em

,

pire i n 1 644 belo n g to the T u ngti group The

, .

'
T u ngti tribes lie between the Ye n i s ei and the
L en a They i ncl u de T u ngUs prope r O ro c h us
.
, ,

D aurians B irars G old s M ane grs S ana irs N gat

, ,
g , , ,

kons Nigidals Lamuts Y u pi ta tze

, , fis h ,
- - -
 A GGL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 1 5

and M antc h u s M any of the s e tr ibe s are nomi

.

n ally G r eek C hri s ti an s Their mor al ch ar acte r is

.

r ep r e s ented as far above th a t o f other A s i a tic s .

The M ongol s o r Tatar s h ave fou r br anche s :

, ,

E as t M ongol s o r T at ar s p r op e r K alm u ck s B u
, , ,

r iats, and H az ar a .

The T ata as the C hine s e c all them are divided

, ,

i n to two ho r de s the S c h ara in the s o u th and the

, ,

K alk a in the n orth I t w as thi s race th at fo u nded

.

the Mo n gol emp i r e u nd e r J e ngh iz Kh an which in ,

the thi r tee nth c ent u ry s tr etc hed fr o m Sile s i a and

M o ravi a in E u r op e ove r al mo s t all A s i a Thei r .

M o ngo li an le ade rs bro u ght the nam e T a ta r to the

we s t and it bec am e fixed upo n t r ibe s th at we r e
,

r e ally Tu r ki c who h appe n ed to b e s e r vi n g u n de r

,

the Tatar s p rop e r .

The K al m u ck s c all them s elve s OliOts o r E lliotts

'

, ,

“ ”
o r D ur ba n a ir a d the Fo u r A lli e s
,
The s e fo u r .

hord e s are the D zu n gar the T u r g u t the Ch o s o d , , ,

and the Tu r bet The s e are s till n o m ad ic live in

. ,

co nic al felt tents and keep he rd s of ho rs e s c attle

, , ,

a nd s h eep . They ar e B u ddhi s ts R e ade rs o f D e .

Q uincey will reme m b er h is wond e r fu lly vivid d e

s c r iptio n of the flight of the ho r d e fro m R u ss i a .

The B u ri ats s p e ak three di ffe r e nt Mongol d ia

lects L i ke th e D zu ngar and the T u r g u t they
. ,

h ave acc epted B u d dhi s m tho u gh keeping up their ,

old Sh am a ni s t u s a ge s .

The H a z ar a wa nder betw ee n H e r at and Cab u l .

They c ame i nto Afgh ani s ta n with Ti mu r d u r i ng

h is c on q u e st s i n the s o u th of A s i a They are .
1 16 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Shi ah M oh am med ans Some s p e ak Pe r si an ; b ut .

a l arge p r op orti on o f them h ave retai n ed their

ori gi n al M o n gol di alect .

The T u r k s compri s e the U i gurs U s b eks O s , ,

manlis Y ak u t s Tu rko m ans N o gh aia ns B as ians

, , , , ,

“ ”
and
Ku muk s Kar ak alp ak s o r ,
Bl ack C aps , ,

Kirghiz They s tretch fr o m the Si be r i an s e a

.

co as t d own into centr al A s i a and we s tw ard i nto ,

E u rop e .

The U s b eks ar e th e chi ef r ace i n the Kh an ates

of Khiv a Bokh ar a and Kh o k and , , .

The Selj u k s and O s m anli s in s ucce s s ion co n

q u ered we s te r n A si a and fin ally the l atter over ,

c ame the E u r op e an E m pi r e of the E as t These .

l ast h ave m ingled thei r blood with m any other

r ace s b u t s till keep thei r ori gin al to n gu e The
, .

d i alects o f all the me mbe rs o f the g r o u p are s o

s imil ar th at the Y akut o f th e icy s e a is intelligible

to the T u r k of c entr al A s i a and even to th e T u rk ,

of Co nstanti nople .

The Tu r ki s h verb is mech anic al and tr ansp arent

in its v ar io u s ch anges which are bro u ght about by ,

the in s e r ti o n of its inflections i n th e body of the

fi rs t fo r mation .

“
Thu s sev lovi n g ; sev mek “ to love ; s ev
, , ,

—
me mek “
n o t to love ;
, s evcnzemek
“
n o t to be ,

able to love ; sevd ir mek to c a use to love ; s ev ,

dir is kmek to c au s e one another to love ; sevil

,

mek , to be loved ; s ev il e menz ek n o t to be able ,

to b e loved ; and so on throu gh fo r ty forms or

voices The vowels as in most o ther Tu r ani an
.
,
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH . I I 7
“ to
to ng e
u s, ar e h a r mo n ic . Th u s , se v mek love , ,

“ “
b u t ba k ma k to r egard ; sol o r
, ,
the ho u s e s ,

“ ”
b u t a t/a r the ho r s e s
, .

The Kirghiz s p e ak a d i alec t di ffe r ing from Tatar

o nly in the i nterc h ange of certai n lette rs : j fo r y ,

b for p All for j s it fo r tck t for d p for f a nd d

, , , , ,

“
fo r l
. They are d ivided into th e K ar a o r Bl ack , ,

Ki r ghiz and the Ki r ghiz K az ak s o r “ R id e r s They , .

ar e all n o m ad s .

The T u r k u n like the A rab h as destr oyed w h e r

, ,

eve r he h as r u led R u i ned citie s and d e s ol ate .

p r ovi n ce s m ar k h is p ath of c o nq ue s t C on s tan ti .

no p le A then s A ntioch A lex a nd r i a Pe r g am u s n o

, , , , ,

l e ss th an B agd ad E d e ssa Jeru salem D am as c u s

, , , ,

a nd C a i r o h ave ce as ed u nder h is s w ay to be
li ghts to the wo r ld M e s opotam i a and E gypt
.
,

u n til he held the m we r e the m o s t fe r tile l and s

,

in the wo r ld ; they a re no w inc ap able of s u s t ai n

ing the g r e at p op u l atio ns th at o nce s ub s i s ted u po n
the prod uce of thei r s o il .

The Fi nns co mp r i s e the U g ri an s B u lg ars Pe r , ,

m i ans and tru e Fi n n s

,
.

The U g r i ans are d ivid ed i nto the O s ti ak s the ,

W o guls and th e M agy ar s

,
.

The D a nubi an B u lg ar i ans are of Sl av blood and

l ang u age and di ffe r fr o m the Bu lgars of the Volga
, ,

the Sl av s i n the region of the D anu b e h avi ng ab

"
s orbed the B u lg ar s th at penetr ated into E u rop e

d u r ing the m edi ae v al period .

The tru e Fi n ns live o n the B altic and c all thei r ,

l and S uo m i A llied to the m are the L app s They

.
.
1 1 8 THE STOR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

h ave n ar r ow sli t eye s s et horizontally i n the face , ,

b r o ad cheek bo n e s wid e mou th sho r t n o s e and

-

, , ,
-

yellow s ki n The ir lite r ary r ank is h igh for they

. ,

”
cre ated the K alev al a i n m any r espects a ,

re mar k able epic .

The Fi nni s h d ecl ensio n s hows the s am e mech an

ic al and tran sp ar e n t str u ctu re al r e ady n oted in the
infl ecti on s of othe r aggl u ti n ative tong u es Thu s ,

t a r/ m “be r
, a ; é a r fi zm “
o f the b e ar ; karfi u tm , ,

without be ar ; ka r / ms m o u t o f the be ar ; ,

and s o on throu gh fifteen c ases The p lu ral s u ffi x .

,

Thus k a r / mz n
' '

z, is i n s e r ted . of the be ar s ; , ,

“ “
ka r fi u z ta kar fiu zs ta
’ ’

witho u t b e a rs o ut o f ,

the be ars ; and s o on .

The M a gy ar l a ngu age retai ned by the m o d ,

e r n H u ngar i an s h as prod uc ed a lite r ature r ich

,

i n q u ali ty no le ss than i n q ua nti ty Kis faludy .

,

V o r os mas ty Pe tofi and A r any ar e said to be

, ,

p o e ts of r e al me r it .

The S amoyed s s pe ak a l angu age n e ar ly allied to

th at o f the Finn s .

A ggluti na tive in speech also are the tribe s o f

the p ol ar r egi on of who m the E s ki m o are the ,

type The E ski m o e a ters of r aw fl e s h as they

.
”
, ,

are c alled by the A meric an t r ib es ne ar est them ,

c l l them elves I nu it
a s n — th at is men ”
They
- -

, , .

’
fo r m their word s by s u fiix e s but h ave n o h armony ,

of vowel s Thei r l angu a ge is divided into m any

.

di alects The Ale utians T h 1ink e e ts and H aid ah s

.
, ,

re s e mbl e them i n se amanship p hys i que and , ,

l an guage .
 A G GL U T I N A T I VE S P E E CH I 1
.
9

The I n nu — it c an form a co mplex s e n te n ce in

-

a s i n gl e wo rd like the A meri c ans H e nce thei r

, .

tongue is a t r ans itio n al o ne and is o n the w ay to ,

the genuine holop h ras tic type Th u s the G ree n .

l and er s ay s : S a mg z é s z nz a r za fi ak as uar —o ma r
' ' ' '

- - - -

arz t—
'

tog og -
lite rally , Knife be auti ful to b uy go
,
- - - -

"
h as te will likewi s e tho u al s o h e s ay s which me an s
- - - - - -

, ,

H e s ay s th at y o u al s o are going to h as te n to b uy
a b e au tifu l k n ife .

In the s p eec h of the I n nu it no u n s h ave th r ee - -

n u m be r s as in G r eek and s ix c as e s m ar ked by

, ,

affixe s The adj ective s too are d ec l i n ed The r e

. .

ar e di m i n u tive s and a u g m e n t ative s S u b s ta ntive s .

beco me ve r b s by taki ng an affix The ve rb h as .

nu m e r o u s i nfl ection s .

I t s ee m s to me th at the tr u e po s itio n o f both

the In n u it and the B as q u e tongu e s is dete r mi ned
- -

by the s ettled fact in ling u i s ti c develop m e nt th at ,

r ace s o u ts ide of the e nviro n me nt th at p e r m its

the gr owth of civiliz atio n do yet m ake p r og r e ss
i n l an gu a ge H ence the do u b le te nde ncy in the
. ,

o n e d i r ectio n to the holop h ras tic type — which

, ,

c a n b e p ar alleled in G e r m an
— and in the othe r , ,

to ab und an t i n flectio n o f the aggl uti native typ e .

A s howeve r there is a nothe r l an g uage th at of

, , ,

the A u s tr ali ans re s embli ng the s e in abno rm a l

,

growth ap art fro m any adv a nce in the life of the

r ace I s h all not s top he r e to dwell u po n the
,

p ec u li ariti es of the B as q u e tongu e the s p eech o f ,

the E s ki mo h avin g co me in o u r w ay j u s t here

s olely o n acco u nt o f geog rap hic a l p roxi m ity to
 1 20 TH E STO R Y OF L AN G UA GE .

the Tu ngusic M ongolic Tu rkic Fi n nic and S am

, , , ,

o y e d ic forms o f aggl uti n ative s peech .

A fter the s e five g r o u p s origi n ally no rthern , ,

co m e the J ap an e s e and the C ore an tongu e s The .

J ap anese r ace is now beli eved to c onsist of tw o

p ar t s — one co ming fr o m No rth A s i a by w ay of
,

C o r e a the other from So u th A s i a by w ay o f the

,

R iu k iu I s l and s G r iffi s think s th at the A i mos

.

c am e fro m I ndi a and th at they form the b asic

,

stock of the J ap anese ra ce which a ccord s with the ,

d octr ine establ is hed by histo ry everywhe r e el s e ,

th at the hi ghe s t developments ar e po s sible o nly

whe r e the r ace i s mixed The co n q u erin g tr ib e of .

Y amato c ame in all p r ob abi lity fro m M antc h ur ia ,

for the J ap an e s e l ang u age h as all the st ru ctu r al

and synt actic p ec uli ariti e s com mo n to the U r al

A ltaic g r ou p and the r ace type is in the m ai n th at

,
'

of the M antch u s The s k u ll is sho r t and r o u nd

.
,

the eye s are ob li qu e the c heek bo n e s are p r omi,

-

nent and the b e ard is s c ant

, There seem s to .

h ave been al s o an i nfu s io n o f M al ay blood and ,

the n ation al typ e clo s ely resembl e s th at of the

Chi ne s e and M al ay C hi ne s e -
.

The J ap ane s e c all thei r i s l and co u ntry D a z [ Vip

'

po n, G re at J a p a n H o ndo the l ar gest isl and is

.
, ,

the nu cleu s o f the empi r e The i mp eri al dyn asty .

d ate s b ack to 6 60 B C when the A ry an r ac es . .

,

were j u s t begi n ning to be conscio u s of something

like hi s tory The A ino s o f the p u r e blood were
.

d riven out by the i nv adi n g Yam ato tribe fr o m

mo s t of the i s l an ds ; and o nly a re mnant o f them
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 21

ar e s till to b e fo u nd in Ye ss o and in the K u r ile

I s l a nd s .

F r o m C o re a abo u t te n ce nt u r i e s afte r the

,

fo u nd ati o n o f the e mpi r e Chi ne s e civiliz atio n w as ,

i ntrod uced and with it the reli gio n of B u ddh a

, .

Befo r e thi s S hi nto o r wor s hip of the e m p e r o r

, ,

and of the heroe s prev ailed and it is s till the faith , ,

of th e m ass e s B udd hi s t enthu s i as m in proce s s

.
,

of ti m e m ade monk s of the mik ado s and gave

,

fe u d ali s m its oppo r t u n ity I t w as b ut the other .

d ay a s i t we r e th at the co u n t ry w as r e s cued by
, ,

a b rief and almo s t bloodle s s r evol u tion fr o m the

so r t of ar med an ar chy th a t extr eme fe u d ali s m

p r od uce s .

The C hine s e s yll ab ary w as lo n g the o nly w r itten

form o f the J ap ane s e l ang u age u ntil Kob o a gr e at , ,

s chol ar i n P ali S an s k r it and C hi n e s e i nve n ted in

, , ,

the ninth ce n tu ry the J ap ane s e syll ab ary of fo rty

s even ch ar acte r s i nc r e as ed by d i ac r itic al points
,

to s eve nty .

The s poken l angu age is o ne of the s o fte s t in the

wo r ld ; and the lite ratu r e is exten s ive and v ario u s .

N o u n s ar e no t inflected bu t are p r eceded o r ,

followed by p ar ticle s th a t i nd ic ate th ei r gender ,

n u m be r o r c as e The p r efix 0 o r o n mar k s the

,
.

m as c u li n e ; me or men the femi n i n e B ut the s e ,

.

are u s ed o nly when there is a n ece ss ity fo r i ndi

c ati n g s e x Pl u rality is not often exp r e ss ed ; b u t
.

whe n it is i t is m arked by th e additio n of m

,
,

o mo o r o the r p ar ticl e It is s ome

'

ala d ta c/z z
g
.

, , ,

ti m es exp r e ss ed by r epetitio n C o mpo u nd no un s .

1 22 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

are formed by c h angi n g the fir s t l etter o f the l ast

compo nent in acco rd an ce w ith a settled p rinciple
for the ch ange of co ns o nants k and f b ecomi ng 6 ,

t, d ; ts , dz s iz and k, g
or p ; ; s, z ; .

This ch ange is c alled th e mg ar t .

The p rono u n fo r the s eco n d p er s on ch anges

acco r di ng to the r an k o f the p e r s o n addressed as ,

in Germ an .There ar e th r ee mode s o f address

to s uperior s to e q u al s and to i nfe r io r s
, ,
.

The verb is witho u t n u m be r and p er s on There .

are two conj u gatio n s i n e ac h o f whic h there are

,

four princip al p arts : the r oot th e b as e for neg a ,

tive and futu r e fo r ms the p r e s ent i ndi c ative and ,

the b ase fo r co nditio nal fo r m

,

s To these ter m i .
,

n ations are annexed p r od u ci ng form s si mil a r to the

,

mood s and tenses o f E u r op e an g r amm ar s There .

ar e a few ir r egul ar ve r b s .

The syntax is pecu li ar The s u bj ect co m es first .

i n th e s entence then the co m plement and l as t of

, ,

all th e pre d ic ate the adj ective p r ec ed ing the nou n

,

and the adverb the ve r b P r epo s itio n s are p ut .

after the nouns to whi ch they belong Co njunc .

tions and interro g ative p ar ticle s ar e thrown to the

end of the cl au se s o r s ente n c e s which they affect .

The wr itten l ang u age h as fo r m s d i fferi ng gre atly

from those o f the s poke n A lon gside o f th e .

p honetic s yll ab ary of n ative i nve n tion the C hi ne s e ,

ch ar acte r s are s till in u s e ; and C hi nese lite rature

is still stu died by the c u lt iv ated cl as se s There are .

di alects ; b ut the s p eech of Ye ddo i s under s tood

everywhere .
 A GGL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 23

In b ook s the c h ar acte r s ar e in p e rp endi cul ar

line s a nd ar e r e ad downwa r d s beg in ning at the
,
,

extr em e r i ght .

The J ap a ne s e h ave n o t o nly as toni s hed the

A ry a n wo r ld of the we s t by t hei r gre at excellence
i n b r onze and po tte r y and in a s tyle of p ainting
th a t is the p e r fec tion o f d eco rative art s howi ng ,

wo n d e r fu l m as te ry o f colo r and a g race th at rav

i s he s the eye ; b u t they h ave al s o b ee n of l ate the
wonde r of n atio ns fo r the facility with which they
h ave eme r ged fr o m the s oci al and p olitic al s tatu s
of o u r m iddle age s i n to the light of the n i netee nth
ce ntu ry witho u t lo s ing th r o u gh ab s o rptio n in the
,

ar t s of pe ace the e n e r gy th at s t r ike s in w ar .

The C o r e an to ng u e is in s t r u ctu r e ve r y s i mil ar

to the J ap an e s e R ecent re s e ar c h h as fo u nd in it
.

t race s i ndi c ati n g ki ns hip to the tong u e s of the

D ravid a . C hi ne s e is l ar gely u s ed in Co r e a to the
n eglect o f the na tive s p eech .

Far re m oved fr o m all the s e i n s p ace a nd u ntil ,

ve ry rece ntly o ne wo u ld h ave s aid in blood ar e , ,

th e D ravid a the ab o r i gi n e s o f I n d ia The s e i n cl ude

, .

s o m e o f the P ari a h c as te b u t co ns i s t m ai n ly o f the

,

wild hill t r ib e s c alled by the H i n doo s C/z mz a a l a

,
’
,

o r the I m p u r e .

The hill tr ibe s we r e d r ive n fr om th e more fe r tile

regio n s of I ndi a by the H i n doo s o n ly afte r m any
ce ntu r i e s of str u ggl e They h ave neve r a dopted
.

th e religio n l angu age o r u s a ge s o f any o f the

, ,

s u cce s s ive c onq u eror s o f thei r n ative l and whether ,

H i ndoo M ogul Tu r k A fgh an or E ngli s h and

, , , , ,
1 24 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

h ave always r etai ned thei r o r igi nal p at r i ar ch al

gove r n m ent They h ave n o c as te and n o he r edi
.

tary p r ie s thood .

Thei r phys io gno my app r o ache s mo r e ne ar ly th e

Mo ngol typ e th an any o the r The s ki n is d ar k . ,

o fte n bl ack The s k u ll is long The fac e is l ar ge

. .

a nd wide a nd r o u n d r athe r th an ov al
,
The j aw s .

ar e neve r p r o m i n e n t The n o s e is b r o a d an d fl at
.
,

w ith dep r e ss ed b r idge The eye s ar e ge n e rally .

bl u e the m o uth l ar ge the lip s thick and p r o tr ud

, ,

ing the u pp e r li p lo n g with s m all m u s ta che upon

,

it the b e ard s c ant the h ai r lo n g bl ack an d

, , , ,

s h a ggy .

I n ch aracte r they ar e b rave a nd t r u thfu l a nd ,

are fr ee fr o m the p r ej u d ice s whi ch m ake acce s s to

the H i ndoo di ffic u lt fo r the fo r ei gn e r .

They live m ai nly in So u th I ndi a whe r e th e r e are ,

five D r avidi an l an gu a ge s The s e are T u l u M al ab ar .

, ,

o r M al ay al am T a m il Tel u g u o r G e ntoo an d Kan

, , , ,

n adi ,o r Can ar e s e T e n millio ns s p e ak Ta m il ;

.

fo u r tee n m illi o ns Tel u g u O u t s id e of thi s r egio n

, .

ar e fo u r o the r D rav idi an l ang uage s Khond , ,

Gond K ota and Tod a

, , .

A s in m o s t othe r a ggl u t inative to n g u e s the r e ,

latio ns of the r oots to o n e an othe r in the D ravid a

s p eech ar e defi n ed by s u ffi xe s an d the r e is a e u h o
p
~
,

n ic ch an ge o f vowel s the defi n i n g s yll able bei n g

,

“
do im t Thu s iz a ttz k ni fe ”
’

n a n .
, but é a ttu l u , , ,

“
k ive So l o p zt l z tige r b ut p u l u l u
’

n s a s , , , ,

tige rs .

O ne t race of g r amm atic al ge nde r is the c las s ifi c a

 A G GL U T I N A T I VE S P E E CH
5
“
tio n by high and low c as te all n am e s of me n , ,

deitie s or s p i r it s belo n gi n g to the fo r m e r while all

, ,

n a me s of anim al s and o f m o s t vi s ible obj ects belo n g

to the l atter .

The r e is m o r eove r a d i s t inctio n betwee n mas

, ,

culi ne and femi n i n e by s u ffixe s Th u s mag a n is .

,

“
so n ; m ag a l d au ghte r ; 27 14971 , m as te r o f ,

ho u s e ; z lldl
'
“ mist r e s s , .

The Br ahu i o f B e lo o c h is tan s eem to b e of thi s

D ravid a s tock .

F r o m the D r avid a we p as s in geog raphic al o r der

to the M al ay s They are : I The tr u e M al ays
. .
,

the p eople o f th e p e ni n s u l a o f M al acc a and of the

i s l an d o f S u matr a as al s o the Atc h inese Pas s u mah s
, , ,

R ej a n g s a nd L a m p o n g s
,
2 The p eople o f the . .

Philippi n e s te r med T a gal s and Bi s ay a 3 The

,
. .

S u nd ane s e in we s te r n J av a 4 The J av an s in . .

e as te r n J av a 5 The B att a in Su matr a 6 The

. . . .

D y ak s in Bo r neo 7 The M a c ass ar s and B u gi s in

. .

Celebe s . 8 S c a ttered t r ibe s in Fo r mo s a Ceylon

. , ,

a nd M ad a gas c a r .

Th e M al ay s h ave alw ays bee n g r e at sailo rs .

They peopled the i s les fro m M ad agas c ar o n the

we s t and th e H awaii group o n the north to E as te r
I s l and o n the extrem e e as t M i ngli n g with the .

P ap u an s i n m any P acific i s l and s they p r od u c ed ,

the hybrid s c alled M icro ne s i a n s ; th at is dwelle r s ,

in the s m all i s l and s They e arly e s tabli s hed the .

i n s tit u tio n of ta boo by whic h pe rs o n s o r things ,

to u ched by th e chiefs were co ns ec rated s o as to ,

m ake i t u nl awful for other s to meddle with them .

 1 26 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The D y ak s
id to be th e p u re s t r e p r e s e n
ar e sa

tativ e s of the old M al ay typ e The M al ay s k u ll .

v ar i e s in m e as u r e fr o m 7 3 to 8 2 They ar e the r e .

fo r e cl as s ed am o n g th e b r o ad he aded Yet they -

are s u rr o u nded by lo n g he ad ed r ace s -

.

Thei r l ang ua ge s tho u gh they co n tai n p o ly sy l

,

l ab ic r oots r e s e mble the m o no s yll ab ic in h avi n g

,

n o p ar t o f s p eech s t r ictly d i ffe r e n ti ated The s am e .

r oot o r g r o u p o f r oot s is the r efo r e c ap able of

p er
fo rm i n g any grammati c al fu ncti o n The p e r s o nal .

p r o no u ns h ave d u al and pl u ral n u m be r s The r e .

are n o ve r b s p r op e r ly s p e aki ng : th e p r efix o f a

,

s u b s t an tive denoti n g a ctio n c o nvey s the ve r b al

i de a .

Th u s in the D y ak l an gu age th e p r efix Oa

, , ,

alo n g with m ay b e ass u m ed to me an

, to be
affected
‘
by s o m ethi ng F r om t z rO/z “ sl eep ” ”
'

to s leep ; fr o m Ea /z oam‘
, ,

“
is de r ived Oa tz r O/z
’

, ,

“ L7 ”
cove r Oa /z a /zoo zz t
, cove r ed H e n ce c an be
, .

fo r m ed the s e nte n ce f a Oa tz r O/z ba Ea /z o o m‘“ H e

" '

, ,

”
s leep s cove r ed the wo rd s m e an in g l ite r ally
, He ,

with s leep with cove r .

The M al ay s p r op e r w r ite in the A r abi c ch ar

acte r ,a nd ar e M oh am m ed a ns Th e M al ay s of .

J ava are al s o Mo h a m m ed a ns ; tho s e o f B ali and

L o mb o c k ar e B r a h m i ns The B u gi s and M ac as s ars .

are M oh am med ans ; they u se two d i ffe r e nt sy s

tem s of native c h aracte rs in w r iting The Ta ga .

l as are C h r i s ti ans a nd s p e ak Sp a nis h as well as

,

T agal a The Mol u cc an M al ay s ar e M o h amm e

.

d an s and s p e ak l ang uage s th at s eem to b e Bu gi s

,
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE SP E E CH 27

and J av ane s e mingled wi th the tongue s o f the

s av age t r ib e s o f the M olucc as .

The color of all the s e tr ib e s civiliz ed and un ,

civilized is a li ght reddi s h brown s o m etimes of

,
-

an olive tin ge Th e h air is inv ar i ably bl ack

.
,

str ai ght and co ar s e i n texture The face is n e arly

, .

d estitute o f b e ard and the bre ast and li mb s are

,

fr e e fro m h ai r I n hei ght they are c o ns id er ably

.

belo w the ave r age E u r op e a n The body is r obust ; .

the b r e as t well d evel op ed ; th e feet s mall thick , ,

and s ho r t ; the h and s s m all and r athe r delic ate .

The fac e is of the Mo n goli an type a littl e bro ad ,

and i ncli ned to b e fat The forehe a d is r ather

.

ro u nded th e brows low the eyes bl ack and very

, ,

sli ghtly obliqu e The n o s e is r athe r s m all not

.
,

p ro minent but str ai ght a nd well sh ap ed the apex

, ,

a little r o u n d ed the no s tr ils bro ad and s lightly

,

expo sed The cheek bo n e s are r athe r p r o mi nent

.
-

th e mo u th l a rge the li p s bro ad and well c u t b ut

, ,

not protrud i ng the chi n r ou nd and well fo r med

, .

I n ch ar acter the M al ay is imp ass ive re s erved , ,

difii de nt and even b as hfu l

, H e is u nd e mo nst ra
.

tive i n m anner slow and delib er ate in s peech

, ,

and ci rc u ito u s i n introd ucing the s u bj ect h e h as

co me exp r e s s ly to d isc u ss A lone he is t acitu rn .

, ,

neither t alking nor singing to hi msel f P addling .

a c ano e wi th others he j oins them in ch anting

,

a monotono us and pl aintive song Ave rs e to qu ar .

rels and to p racti c al j oke s the M al ay is exceed ,

ingly s en s itive to b re ache s of etiq u ette o r to any

i nterferenc e wi th his p er s o n al liberty The hi gh er .
 1 28 THE STOR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

cl asses are very p olite and well bred ; yet they

are reckle ss of h u m an life an d c r uel when aro used ,

to acti on .

Their civiliz ation s ee m s to h ave b een derived

from the r ace s to who m they owe re s p ectively
the Moh am m ed an and the B ra h m i n ic al r eli gi ons .

The P ap u ans co m e n ext to the M al ays geo

gr ap hic ally and h ave bee n m u ch ass oci ated with
,

them hi s toric ally ; b u t no two r ace s could be

more di ffe r ent in ch aracte r .

They inh abi t the e as ter n i s l ands of the M al ay

Archipel ago e s p eci ally the gre at i s l and of P ap u a
, ,

or New Gu i n e a as well as all the i s l ands e as t

,

ward as far as the F ijis The i s l and s in whi ch the.

M al ays predomi n ate o r i gi nally belo nged to the

c ontinent of As i a while tho s e in which the Pa
,

puans are the n ative typ e we r e o nc e a p art of

a conti nent now s u bmerged th at w as then con
ne cte d with A u s t r ali a The fau na and fl o ra i n
.

these two divi s io ns are d e s c r i bed by W all ace as

w holly distinct .

The n ame P ap ua n is s aid to be M al ay and to ,

s i gnify fr izzled h ai r th at fe at u r e b ei n g ch ar acte r

,

istic of the Pap u ans They co n tras t s tr ikingly with

.

the M al ay s The colo r of the body is a d eep

.

sooty brown or bl ack n eve r however qu ite the

-

, , ,

j et bl ack of so me negr o r ace s The h ai r is h arsh

-

.
,

d ry and fr izzly g r owi n g in little tu fts which m ake

, , ,

i n m ature life a co mp act fr i zzled m o p I n height .

the P ap u an is supe r ior to the ave r age E u rop e an ,

bu t the legs are long and thin The h ands and .

 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 29

feet are l ar ger th an tho s e of the M al ay s The face .

is long the forehe ad fl attish the brow s ve ry p r o m i

, ,

nent The no s e is l ar ge r athe r ar ched and high

.
, ,

the b as e thick the no s tril s b ro ad with the ap e r ,

tu r e hid den owing to the tip of the no s e bei ng

,

elo ng ated Th e mo uth is l arge and the lip s are

.
,

thick and p r otub e r ant .

I n s p eech and actio n the P ap uan is i mp u l s ive ,

a nd d e mo ns tr ative to a g r e at d eg r ee H is e mo .

tio n s and p as s io n s exp r e ss the ms elve s in s ho uts

an d l a u ghte r in yell s and frantic le a in s
, p g .

W all a ce in h is co mp arative e s ti mate of the two

,

r ace s give s the m a highe r r an k th an the M al ay s

,

in i ntellectu al e n dow m e n t I n vit al e n e r gy he .

,

s ay s the P ap u an s are far s u p e r io r to the M al ay s

, .

The P ap u an h as too a m ar ked feeli n g fo r art, , ,

deco r ati ng h is c an o e h is ho u s e and al mo s t eve ry

, ,

d o m e s tic u ten s i l with el abo rate c arvi n g In the .

affectio n s h e is infe r io r to the M alay as he is

, ,

violent with his childre n while the M al ay is ge ntle ,

a nd ki nd .

I n the P ap u an l a ngu age s the ve r b h as the s ub

p ro n o u n p r efixed an d there are th r ee n u m
j e c t ,

b e rs as i n G reek B u t the r e are n o te ns e fo r m s

,
.
-

p as t time b ei ng m ar ked by p re fi x in g the wo r d

“ l e dy and fu ture ti m e by s u ffi x in g the
”
kw a f ,
a r a ,

“
word fl ew i s till /
”
So me mod ific atio n s o f m e an
,
.

'

i ng are al s o exp re s sed by p re fi x in g z to th e r adic al

vowel s a O or a ; and othe rs by affixi ng it to the m
, ,
.

'

Still others are expre s sed by the affix z a p lu ral ,

'

s aa.
 1 30 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

It is doubtful whethe r the A ustr ali an l angu age s

sho u ld be cl ass ed amo n g the agglutin ative o r ,

s ho u ld be give n a pl a ce a mo n g the i nflected The .

l angu ages are s aid to be as n u m ero u s as the tr ibe s ,

and are so d i fferent th a t they are m u tu ally u n int e l

li gible W hile no wor d exi s ts for general te r ms

. ,

a nd the r e are ve r y few n u m e ral s i n other r e s p ect s ,

the s e l angu age s h ave adv anced far o n the upward

g rade of develop me nt They ar e r ic h i n infl e c .

tio ns o r wh at s eem to be s u ch to those who h ave

,

le ar n ed s omething of the m .

The r e are no prefixe s The me anin g o f r o ots is .

defi ned by s ufli x e s The wo r d s ar e p oly s yll a bic .

,

begi n with a con s o n ant and end wi th a vowel like , ,

It ali an Nou n s and adj ective s h ave d u al as well

.

as pl u r al nu mb er and h ave ten c ase termi n ation s

,
-

The ve rbs h ave m any te ns e s three nu mb e r s th r ee , ,

ge n ders for the thi r d pe rs o n and s ep ar ate fo r m s ,

fo r a ctive p ass ive reflexive rec ip r oc al d e te r m i

, , , ,

n ative and continu ative mod es of acti o n

,
“

O u ts id e o f l angu age the r e are i n the r a ce few ,

t r ace s o f i nvention L i fe s energie s are ab s o rb ed

.
’

in the ch as e The r ace is the mo s t b esti al o f all

.

h u man r aces They are lo n g h e aded and p r o g

.
-

n atho u s bl ack b r ow n in color with h an gi n g lower

,
-

lip p r omi nent cheek —

, bo n e s h igh b ut n ar r ow fo r e ,

he ad fl attened no s e a nd very long co ar s e bl ack

, , ,

h ai r — their chief poi n t of d i ff e r enc e fr o m the

,

bl ack s o f Afr ic a The body is cove r ed w ith .

h ai r . The skull c ap acity of the r ace is fr o m

59 to 8 6 bei ng i nfe r io r to th at of the Po ly ne
,
 A G GL UT I N A T I VE S P E E CH 1 31

si an s o r the P ap u an s o r the Negro es of Afric a

o r the M al ay s .

The adv anced s ta ge o f l angu age attained by

thi s wretched p eople p l ace s them be s id e other
o utlyin g tribes far re m ote fr om th em ge o gr aph i
,

c ally notably the I n—

, nu —
it o f the fr ozen regions of
the N orth and the B as q u es of the Pyrenees
, .

I h ave alre ady give n s ome d es crip tfo n o f the

sp eech of the I n nu— it -
It is i n pl ac e now to c all
.

yo u r attentio n to th at of the B as qu es .

The B as que s are ge n e r ally beli eved to be the

d escend ants of tho s e Ib e r i ans whom first the Kelts
a nd after them other A r y a n r ace s d rove i nto the

m o u ntai ns where a lo n e they co u ld m ai ntain their

,

indep endenc e They o cc u py in Sp ain the prov

.

inces of Vizc ay a o r Bi s c ay G u ip u zco a and Al av a

, , ,

as well as a l arge p art of N av arra ; and i n Fr ance

the p rovinc es o f N av ar r e and B ear n .

At the ti me of the R om an co nq u est this region

w as held by the sam e p eople u nd er th e n ame of
V asco nes a nd i t afte rwar d b ec a me a p ar t of H is
,

p ani a T arrac o ne ns is N either Vi s igothic kings nor

.

the rulers o f the F ranks were ever able wholly to

tame th e sp irit o f th e s e b r ave m ou n taineers They .

lon g kept thei r anc i e n t i ns tit u ti o ns .

I t i s pos s ible th at they repre sent in blood both

the old H a mitic and the old T u ran i a n elem ents th at
o nce m ad e u p the pop ulati on of th is p art o f E u rop e .

Their l angu age is s till s p oken by o ver six h un

d red tho us and per s o n s I ts n ative n ame is B usk
.

ara,
the E ask rep resenting it is s up posed the , ,
1 32 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Va sk in Vas co n e s the n ame by whic h the ce w as

,
ra

a ncie ntly k now n I n thi s tong u e the s ub s t antive

. ,

h as no d is ti nctio n o f gende r ; b ut by the u s e of

m any affixe s p e r fo r m s the d o ubl e fu nctio ns o f a
n ou n with it s d eclen s io n s and of a ve r b with its

co nj u gatio ns By its te r min ati o ns the sam e word

.

m ay th u s exp r e s s m ood ten s e pe rs o n nu m be r , , , ,

the c as e and n u m be r o f the obj ect and the s e x , ,

r ank an d n u m b e r o f the pe r s o ns add r e s s ed

, Ag .

gl u tination h as fu ll s w ay in the fo r m ati on o f c o m

p ou nd wo r d s and di m i nu tive s The ar ticle h as .

two fo r m s —a fo r the s ing u l ar a k fo r the p l u ral ;

, ,

and it is affixed to the s u b s tantive .

The o r d e r of s y ntax is as follow s : the n o u n with

ar ticl e a ffixed come s fi r s t in the s e n tence the n the ,

adjective the n the adve r b the n the ve r b and l as tly

, , ,

the object with the p r ep o s itio n afli x e d I t will be '

.

ob s e r ved th at in s ome r e sp ects thi s o r d er re s e m ble s

th at of J ap ane s e .

A few c as e fo r m ation s will s e r ve to ill u s t ra te the

-

aggl u tin ative ch ar acte r of the l an gu age Thu s .

‘ house
e z c/z e, .

etc/z e h o us e
'

tz r , of th e .

e ich e hou se
'

tz c -
a w a, h e wh o is of th e .

sa me, so n .

se mea -
r en, o f t h e so n .

sa mea -

r en a , -

h e wh o is of th e so n .

It m u s t be r e marked th at B as q u e is s ai d to b e
spoken in not a few c as e s by d e s cend ants of fair
h ai r ed blu e eyed Goth s who s ettled i n the B as q u e
,
-
 A G GL U T A/VA T I VE S P E E CH .
r3 3

p rovi nces B ut the fair typ e of the white r ace is

.

fou nd at an e arly p eriod on b oth s ides of the

M ed ite r rane an and the a ncestors of the s e people
,

may h ave b een Be r b er s .

Last i n the list of aggl u tin ative tongu e s though ,

re ally as o f lowe s t typ e d eserving to co m e fi rs t ,

are so m e of the l an gu a ge s of the p u r e Negroes of

A fric a . I t ak e the G rebo spoken at Cap e P al m as

, ,

as an illu s tr atio n of the typ e .

The G reb o i s h arsh i n so u nd ab rup t and ih ,

d i s ti nct in e n unc i ati o n abounding i n in articul ate

,

n as al and g u ttur al s ou nd s l imited in vo c ab ul ary

, ,

almost d e s titu te of inflecti ons a nd c a p able of ex ,

pressin g o nly the s imple s t ide as .

I t is l argely monosyll abic ; and m any of the

wo rd s s m all as is the voc abul ary are di s tingui s h
, ,

ab le as in C hi nese only by the i nto n ation

, , So m e .

o f the no un s form a pl u r al but it is m erely by th e

,

ch a nge of the fin al vowel Fo r in s tan ce 611i bllé

’

.
, , ,

“ cow “ ” “
“ cow "
s ; hy a lt child chil dre n ”
, , .
,

There are ve r y few adj ective s and the w ant o f ,

th em is suppli ed by a circ umlocu tion as K a nu 71 2

’

mi,
H u nge r work s hi m an alogo u s to the G erm an
,

E S h a nger ! 27 m .

The verb h as o ne form for what occurred to day -

another for wh at occurred ye s terd ay and a third ,

for wh a t o cc urred at any p revi o us time I t h as .

ki ndred form s for future time All the ch ange s ar e .

m ad e on the fin al s yll able of the ve r b .

There are n egro tribe s who s e l ang uage s are of a

far higher typ e th a n this .
1 34 THE STOR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

A mong ggl u ti native l angu age s mu s t al s o b e

a

cl as s ed the ki nd r ed to n gu e s of the S an o r B us hm en, ,

an d the Kho i o r H otte n to t s who are s t r i ctly

'

, ,

s p e aki n g n o t Neg r o e s at al l b u t r e mn an ts of a
, ,

r ace p r ob ably e ar li e r o n the A fr ic a n co n ti n e nt .

Both the s e to n gu e s r e s emble C hi n e s e in the u se of

to n e s They h ave the additio nal p ec u li ar ity of
.

”
s o u nd s th at h ave bee n c alled click s The s e ar e
.

ve r y v ar io u s and are cl as s ed as d e ntal p al at al

, , ,

ce r eb ral a nd l ate ral The l as t is s aid to be like

, .

the q u ack o f a d u ck .

Be s ide s its s ys te m of aggl u ti native s u fli x e s the ,

— ‘
‘
l angu a ge of the Kho i Kho 1 n h as th r ee in fl ected
’

nu m be rs like the A u s tr ali an to n g u e s as well as

, ,

g r am m atic al gend e rs .
fl GGL U T I N A T 1 VE S P E E CH 1 35

M e ge ngr
'

T ungus i c Sanagir i

Mo ngo lic
Ha z ara

T
'

ur kic

Per mian

Samoy edie

l
Aus tr a ian .

Dr aw da

M andi go n
 C H A PT E R X .

P P
H O L O H R A ST I C S EEC H .

T HE holophr as tic l an gu a ges all belong to th e

A m e r ic a n continent a nd to one r ace tho u gh th at ,

r ace consists of ve r y m an y tribes .

T h e geologic and cli m atic conditio ns o f A m e r

ic a at the time of the e ar lie s t existence of man o n
thi s co ntinent forbid u s to i m agi ne the pos s ibility
o f his migr ation fr om the A s i atic co ntinent o r ,

fr om the E u r afric an co n ti ne nt by w ay of A tl anti s

-
.

There is cle ar proof however o f h is existence

, ,

o n the conti n ent as a to ol m a ker and a user of fi r e

, ,

d u r i n g the clo s ing sce n e s o f the Q u ate r n ary p e r iod .

C lipped arrow he ad s h ave b een fo u nd i n the M is

-

s o u r i v alley bene ath the vertebr a of a n eleph ant .

I n the A r gentine R ep u blic b o ne and s tone im

,

p le me nts and the re ma i ns of h e arths h ave bee n

fo und ass oci ated with the bones o f the extinct
,

ho rs e and o f other ani m al s n o w extinct Thi s w as .

lo ng before either n o r the r n A s i a o r th e e as te r n

Polyne s i an i s l ands we r e i n h abited .

E arly A m eric a n man d id n o t then co me fro m

, ,

a ny l ands to the we s tw ard . B ut how abo u t the

l ands to the e as twar d ?
 H OL OP H R A S T I C S P E E CH
37

The ancient l and b r id ge across the Atl antic

-

stretc hi ng fro m the Canar ie s and the Azore s to

the A ntille s b elonged to a geologi c p eriod lo n g
,

before th e app e ar a nce o f m an o n the e arth It is .

evid ent then tha t h e did n o t co me to A meric a

, ,

fro m th e s o uthe r n p ar t of the conti nent th at then

stretched fro m B r itai n to the wate r s o f the S ah ar a .

But there w as a nothe r l a nd b r idge

-
o ne th at l as ted
,

down to th e l ate s t age s o f the Tertiary p eriod ,

sep ar ating the N o r th A tl antic from the waters

abou t the North Pole and m odifying the cold
both o f E urop e and North A me r ic a By this .

ro adway e arly A m e r i c an m an must h ave cros s ed

fro m E u rop e to thi s contine n t .

This is the ar g u m e n t of D r D ani el G B r i nto n

.
-
.
,

the d e an am o ng A me r ic a n ethnolo gists ; and I

acc ept it willingly fo r the ori gi n o f the r ace But .

I c annot a gre e that it s h uts u s up to the s upp o s i

tio n th at there w as no s u b s eq u e nt i nfl u e nce fro m
the other regions o f the wo r ld u p o n the A meric an
r ac e
.

It s eem s to me th at there is weighty evid ence i n

favor of the p rop o s itio n th at the civiliz ations of
M ex ic o C entral A m eri c a Yu c at an and Peru were
, , ,

i ntrod u ced from ac r o s s the s e a at a comp aratively

recent p eriod Yet tho u gh not as D r Bri nton
.
, .

believes them to be w holly i n di geno u s those

, ,

civiliz atio n s wo uld s ee m to h ave b een s o afl ecte d

’

by the p sychic c h ar acte r o f the r ace as to p re s ent

rem ark able tr aits o f s i m i l ar ity to o ne another and
to the gener al tone of the u ncivilized communities .
1 38 THE STOR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The ho lop hr as ti c typ e o f thei r l angu ages th e ,

Sh am ani s tic c h aracte r of thei r r eligion s the tote m ,

istic b as i s of thei r s oci a l o r ga niz a tion s m ark all ,

the t ribes as o f co mm o n o r i gin .

They mu s t have le ft E u r op e far too e arly to

h ave received any b e nefit fr om the Tu rani an b e
gin nings of civ iliz ati o n in A s i a Fo r they knew .

n othi n g whe n the E u r op e ans o f A ry an d escent

,

c am e amon g the m of whe at ry e b ar ley o ats o r

, , , , ,

rice nothing o f i r on nothi n g o f the c amel the

, , ,

hors e the ass the ox the s heep the ho g the

, , , , ,

do g o r the p o u ltry o f the othe r hemi s phere

, .

A nth r opolo gi s ts a gr ee th at the r ace s fou nd by

Col u mbu s and h is followe r s on the A m eri c an
conti n ent sh ow g r e ate r u ni fo r mity th an the r ace s
of the O ld W orld The r e ar e m any r e as o n s for
.

beli eving i n thei r ge ne r al id entity o f o r i gi n .

The tr ib e s v ary in colo r m o r e th a n i n p hy s ique .

A mid the i mme ns e dive rs ity in voc abul ary th at

thei r l angu ages show they all ag r ee i n s tr u cture
, .

The p r ehi s to r ic rive r na m e s of both A meric as

al s o go to show u lti m ate identi ty o f r ace .

A s to the civilized ra ce s th a t in M exico C entr al ,

Americ a and Peru b u ilt ci ti es p r acti s ed a r ic ul

,
g ,

ture minin g and manufactu r e s and h ad so m e

, , .

thing o f a lite ratu r e m u c h th at co nce r n s their

,

origin is still s h r o u d ed in d a r kne ss B ut the .

p r ob ability is th at s ub s tanti ally th e s am e r ace ,

c alled Q uich e i n the no r the r n c o n tinent and ,

’

Q uich txa i n the s o u the r n eithe r r eceivin g from

,

mis s ion aries of a highe r r ace as thei r tr aditio n s ,

 H OL OP H R A S T I C S P E E CH 1 39

tell the tale the ge r m s of thei r civiliz atio n

'

, or ,

the m s elve s o r igi n ati n g i t delive r ed it in v ar io u s

,

w ay s to the othe r c ap a ble race s o f the Pa cific

co as t a nd the G u l f of M exi co I n Yu c atan the .
,

M ay a s r eceived it b ut whethe r as a s u bj ect or

,

a r u li n g r ac e is u nc e r tai n I n G u ate m al a the .

Q ui ch es the m s elve s kept it at its height In .

M exic o the Toltec s C hichimec s and A ztec s

, , ,

r eceived it ei ther by con u e s t o r by s i mple con

’

,
q
tact with it Still e ar lie r p e r h ap s u n de r the
.
, ,

n ame of Q u ich uas a ki n dred fo r m of the s am e

,

civil iz atio n o f the S u n wo rs hip e rs ar o s e in the

-

highl an d s o f th e s o u the r n c onti n ent a nd w as car ,

r ied to it s highe s t p i tch i n Pe r u a nd E c u ado r afte r

,

the s u bj u g ati o n o f the A y m aras by the I n c as A .

le s s am bitio u s fo r m of the s am e cultu r e w as es

t ablis h e d by the M o z c as aro u nd Bogota .

I n b oth co n ti n ents the s e civilized r ace s w o r

s h ip e d the S u n L ike all wo rs hip e r s o f the S un
.
,

th ey b u ilt te m ple s and py r am id s in i m itatio n of

s u n r ay s and o n the a lt ar th at s u r mo u nted all the
-

s ucc e s s ive te rr ace s offe r ed u p thei r victi m s in sac

r ifi c e to the m aj e s ty of thei r god s A m o n g s ome .

o f the s e r ac e s the victim s we r e h u man bei ngs the ,

A ztec s excelli n g in the fi e rc e n e s s of thei r r i te s all

other s The p oliti c al i ns ti nct of the mo r e inte lli
.

gent r ace s o f the conti ne n t s eem s to h ave moved

the m to the c onfed e ratio n of tr ibe s a nd the p rac
ti ce o f co mm u ni s tic life The s e fo r ms of o r ganiz a
.

ti on p r ev a iled a mo n g th e com m u niti e s of Mexico ,

Cent r al A meric a Yuc at an a nd Pe r u ; a mo n g the

, ,
 1 40 THE S T OR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

P u eblo tr ibe s of New M exi co ; and am o ng the Iro

u o is o r Six N a ti o n s o f the A tl antic co as t Thi s
q .

politic al u nio n and co ns equ e nt civili z ation s ee m s

to h ave take n pl ace as l ate as abo u t the twel fth
ce ntu ry afte r C h r i s t ; and the l a te n e ss of s u ch d e
v e lo p m e nt poi n t s co n cl u s ively to the origi n atio n

of thei r c u lt u r e fr o m anothe r co nti n e n t .

All the t raditio n al myth s h ave the s am e s ignifi

‘
c ance They s how u s the co mi n g o f c iv ilize rs
.

di ffe r i ng in r ace fr o m the n ative s white m e n with ,

b r o ad b r ows and fl owi n g be ar d s — Q u etz alco atl ,

fo r Mexico B o h ic a fo r the M o z c as of B ogota and

, ,

M an co C ap ac with h is s i s te r— wi fe M am a O e llo fo r
, ,

Per u all h u m an izi n g a p eople al r e ady po ss e ss ed of

,

s o m e civiliz atio n a nd e s peci ally ch ecki n g the p r ac

ti ce o f h u man s ac r ifice s .

The r e are s till s o m e advoc ate s of the s ol ar—myth

expl anatio n of folk lo r e who wo uld fai n r e s olve all
-

the s e tr ad itio nal fo u nde r s into p e r s o n ified D aw n ,

L i ght n in g and the l ike

. B u t we h ave h ad a b u n
.

d an t evide n ce th at thi s m ethod o f expl anati o n c an

be p us hed too far and its r e s ults h ave al w ay s b een
,

too v a gu e to add anythi n g to o u r r e al k n owled ge

of e a rly eth n ic l ife The e ffects p r od u ced by the
.

adve n t of the s e s t r an ge r s we r e n o t s u ch as the s ol ar

myth theo ry w arra nts u s in expecting They we r e .

s u ch as B u ddhi s t m i s s io n ar ie s fr o m C am boj a o r

Ch r i s t ia n m o nk s fr o m I r el and m ight h ave p r od u ced .

W he r eve r they c am e fr o m i t is evide n t th at

,

we m us t n o t look in the l an gu age s of tho s e they

tau ght fo r any t race o f the te ache r s They co uld .
 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 41

h ave h ad no p erm anent influenc e u pon any of the

l angu ages .

I t h as been e s ti m ated th at more th an twelve

h u ndred l an gu ages were s poken in the two A mer
ic as Som e o f these were mere di alec ts ; but eve n
.

the s e d i ffered widely fr om the p arent tongue in

voc ab ul ary The migr ati o n and s ep ar atio n of
.

trib es a nd the fre q u ent adoption i nto tr ibes o f

,

refu gee s from othe r tribes gave ri s e to co n s tant

,

intermi n gling and modific ation of voc ab ul aries .

Thi s g r e a t m u ltiplic atio n of l angu age s p r ove s

th at the r ace h as long been at a l ow s tage of
p ro gre ss and th at there h as at no ti me b een any
,

d ecid ed ri s e i n the s c al e o f civiliz ation The lan .

gu ages the m selve s give evid ence of no co ntinu

o u s ly p rogressive typ e o f cultu re The m any .

trib e s h ave c h an ged their voc abul ar ie s ; b ut the

id entic al metho d of p utting words together h as
s u rvived witho ut ch ange .

Still lik e all r aces th at h ave not h ad the d evel

,

o p me nt of thei r l angu ages checked by too e ar ly a

civiliz ation the A meri c an tr ibe s s how a state o f

,

c o n s ide r able adv a ncement i n their l angu ages W ith .

the s ole exc eptio n of the O tom i in the mountain s

northwe s t of the v alley of A nah u ac they h ave all ,

go ne far beyo nd the mo no syll abic stage and even ,

b eyo nd th at o f s impl e agglutin atio n B ut they .

h ave none of them re ached etymolo gic al i nflec tion ,

s till les s th e a n alytic stage I t mu s t b e remem

.

b ered th at th e to n gu e o f the In nu it is As i atic and

- -

not truly Americ a n .

 1 42 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

They are all of one commo n typ e and th at type ,

is m ar kedly di s ti nct fr om the typ e of any r ace in

the O ld W o r ld except p e r h ap s the B as q u e Yet
,
.

they all d iffe r wholly fr o m o ne a nothe r i n v o c ab u

l ary ; and the r e is al s o s t r u ctu rally g r e at dive r s i ty
am o n g the m .

O ne s t r iki n g ch aracte r i s tic of the m all is the

fr e q u e n cy of lo n g wo r d s I n m o s t of the m thi s
.

r e s ults fr o m the te nde n cy to the holop h ra s tic s t r u c

t u r e o f exp r e s s ion — a long co m po u nd ide a being

,

b u ndled u p as it we r e i nto one u tte ran c e All

, , .

the m odific ation s and r amific atio n s of a give n

tho u ght are gro u p ed togethe r and l au nched i nto
s p eech in a s i n gle wo r d B anc r o ft ill u s t rate s thi s
.

p ec u li ar ity by th e Aztec wo r d fo r l ette r —po s tage ,

the lite ral me an

ing o f wh ich is “ the p ayme nt r eceived fo r c arry
ing a p ape r o n which s o m ethi n g is w r itte n
”
.

A nothe r p r i nciple of the s e l a n g u a ge s is th at of

r ed u plic atio n o r a r ep etitio n o f the s a m e s yll able
,

to exp r e s s the pl u ral Still anoth er is the l ar ge

.

u s e o f fr e u e n t a tive s an d d u al s A n othe r ag ain

q .
, ,

is the applic atio n o f gend e r to the thi r d p e r s o n of

the ve r b To the s e p ec u li ar u s a ge s m u s t b e add ed
.

s till an othe r : the r e ady u s e of the s u b s t antive as a

ve r b and its co nj u g ation as s u ch

, .

By co m p ar i s o n and cl as s ific ati on o f th e co u nt

le ss l ang uage s and di alect s they c an b e r ed u ced
,

to a few g r e at g roup s The I n nu it or E s ki m o

.
- -

, ,

n o t being p rope r ly an Am e r ic an l ang u a ge m u s t be

,

excl u ded The r e then r em ai n th r ee g r e at g r oup s

.
 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 43

o n th e P aci fic c o as t of North Americ a the T inné h , ,

th e Aztec and the Q u ich e M aya

, The A nd e s -

gro u p i n So u th A meric a may be cl assed under

th e s am e n ame as the Q uich e— M ay a All the .

rem ai ni ng tongu e s of both Ame r ic as may be

g r ou p ed u nd er th e ge n er al name App al achi an ,

u nle ss we exclud e the tribe s s o uth o f the A m azon

and e as t of th e A nde s m aking o f them a fi fth

,

g r o up c alled A m azoni an
, .

The T innéh g r o u p c overs th e no rther n p art of

the R ocky M o u ntai n r ange s endi n g its br anches ,

i nto Al ask a B riti s h Col u mbi a British A meric a

, , ,

W ashin gto n O regon Califor ni a N e w Mexico

, , , ,

Tex as and M exico

,
I t incl ude s the di alects
.

s poke n betwee n H ud so n s B ay and the M acken

’

zi e R iver ; those of the Kutchins and Ken ai i n

A l ask a and on the P aci fic co ast n e ar M t St . .

E li as ; those o f th e T ac u ll ie s of New C aledoni a ,

the U m p qu as of O rego n and the H o o p ah s o f .

C alifo rni a ; and tho s e o f the Ap ache s o f A r i zon a ,

N ew M exico and M exic o,

.

The A ztec group h as its se at in C entr al M exico ,

extend s into C e ntra l A meric a and al s o h as o u t ,

lying di alects th at re ach as far no r th as O rego n .

This N a hu atl A ztec Chichi mec Toltec o r Mexi

, , , ,

c an sp eech extend s fro m th e pl ate a u of A nahu ac

e as tw ar d to the Gu lf and westw ard to the P acific .

I t also stretches s o uthward i nto the inte r ior o f

N ic ar agu a The Ta r as co s lyi n g northwe s t of the
. ,

v all ey of M exico tho u gh r eputed to h ave ae co m

,

anie d the N a hu a r ace in the ir mi g r atio n s ou th

p
w ard s p ok e a totally d i fferent l angu age
,
.
1 44 THE S T OR Y OF LA TVG U A GE .

The M ay a o r Q uich e g r o u p h as its s e at i n Ce n

, ,

t r al Ame r i c a and Yu c ata n In G u atem al a th e .

Q u ich e and in Y u c atan the M ay a r ep re s ent th e ,

p u r e s t and hi ghe s t typ e of thi s g r o u p The T z e n .

d al the di alect s poke n ne ar the cel eb ra ted r u i ns

,

o f P ale n q u e is s aid to b e the olde s t fo r m of all the

,

l ang u age s in thi s r egio n I h ave ve ntu r ed to cl as s .

with the s e the l angu age s o f the Q u ich uas and the
A ym aras in the A nde s r eg io n The ge n e raliz atio n .

m ay be too wide b u t it s ee m s co nve ni ent ,

.

The App al achi an tr ibe s i ncl u de all tho s e with

which the E n gli s h and the F r ench fi rs t c am e in
co ntact fro m the A tl anti c to the b as i n o f the M is
s is s ipp i an d al s o the t r ibe s of the n o r the r n p ar t of
,

S o u th A me r i c a They we r e fo r the m o s t p ar t
.
, ,

n o m adic s u b s i s ti n g by hu nti n g a n d fi s h ing

,
and ,

e n gaged in pe r p etu al w ars with o ne anothe r .

Thei r ability w as al m o s t wholly co n fi ned to w ar

a nd the ch as e A s i ngle i ns ta n ce o f c ap acity fo r
.

p r og r e ss w as the inventio n by the h alf b r eed Che r -

okee G eo r ge G u e s t o r Se q u o y ah o f a syll ab ary

, ,
- -

by wh ich h is tr ibe s l ang u age co u ld b e expre ss ed ’

in w r itte n fo r m .

E lo q u e nce the gift o f a p r o u d and fr ee r ac e is

, ,

al s o thei r s The o nly p eo ple of So u th A m e r ic a

.

who r e s e mble the m in the s e fe atu r e s o f ind o m it

abl e p r ide and fl u e nt s peech ar e the A r au c a
n ian s who fr o m the time of the Sp an i s h c o n q u e s t
,

u ntil not very m any ye ars ago p r e s e r ved thei r

i nd epend e nce .

The chi ef familie s of thi s App al ach ian g r oup

 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 4
1 45

were the Algonki ns the I roq uoi s the D akotas ,the

, ,

Ch aht a M us ko kis the Cad d o e s the Kioways and

-

, , ,

the Sh o s h o ne e s U nde r the gener al n ame o f

. .

Algo nkins are e mb raced the Cr ees the M icm a cs , ,

the O ttawas of Can ad a ; the P ass am aquoddi e s th e

, ,
'

Pequots the M oheg ans the L e n ap e the N anti

, , ,
r

cokes the Powha tan s of o u r o w n A tl antic co ast;

‘
, ,

the M i amis the S ac s the Foxe s the Ki ck ap oo s

, , , ,

th e Chipp e w ay s and the Sh awn ee s who all once

, , .

b elonged to the v alleys o f the O hio the Tenne ss ee , ,

and the M is s issipp i U n de r the n ame o f Iro quoi s

.

are i ncl ud ed also th e E rie s the H uron s the Cone s , ,

to g as and the Tu s c ar o r as They lived in Can ad a

, .

and i n the A tl antic regio n of the U nited St ates .

U nder the n ame of D akotas are incl ud ed Assi

nib o ins C rows W i nneb a goe s O m ah as M and an s
, , , , ,

Otoe s Po nc as O s age s a nd K an sas The T ute lo e s

, , , .

and the M o n ac an s of Virgi n i a were al s o of this

family Thei r r ange w as i n the i nterio r o f wh at

.

is no w the U nited State s U nd er the n ame of .

Ch aht a M usk o kis fall the Cr eeks the C hoctaws

-

, ,

the Chick as aws th e Yem as see s and th e Semi

, ,

noles They occ upied the G ulf States and also

. ,

G eorgi a and So uth Caroli n a U nder the n a me o f .

Cadd o es we m u s t i ncl u d e al s o the P awnees the ,

A rick are es and the W is h itas

,
They covere d the .

region lying so uthwe s t of th e Mi s s i s sippi U nder .

the n ame of Kiow ays and th at of S h o sh o ne es are

to b e cl assed a nu mb er of s m all tr ibes Th e U te s .

and the Co m a nche s o f S h o s h o ne e stock are the

o nly ones worth mentio n ing .

10
 1 46 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Along with the s e m u s t b e cl ass ed the Caribs ,

who were at the ti me of thei r fi r st cont act w i th
,

the E u rope ans m as te r s of the northern co as t

,

of So uth A me ric a and of the L esser A ntilles .

The origin al home of thi s ra ce w as s o uth o f the

A m azon the to n g u e o f the B ak ai ri s till resid ent
,

in the highl and s at the he ad of the T ap ajo z R iver

bein g a pu re and ar ch aic fo r m of Cari b speech .

U nd er the s am e he a d too m u s t be pl a ced the

, ,

Ar aw ak s who o n ce held all the W e s t I ndi es as

,

well as Gui an a .

The tr ibe s of the A m azo n r egi on — a co untry ,

as l ar ge as the U n ited St ate s e as t of the M i s si s

sippi — whereve r they o r igi n ated c ertai nly c ame

, ,

up from the s o u th i nto the l and s they now occupy .

H owever dive r se now they are all s upposed to

,

be descended fr o m the lo n g he ad ed Tu pis and -

G u ar anis h aving di s pl aced an e ar li er and sho r t

,

he aded r ace who s e s k u ll s ar e fo u nd in the shell

he aps o f the co as t .

O f the m any h u ndred tr ibes e a ch h as a d i fferent

,

l angu age E ven s c attered m emb er s of the same

.

tribe c annot u nd e rs tan d o ne a n other B ut the .

l angu age s all h ave the s am e gra m m atic al stru cture .

They are all holop h r as ti c and all h ave an ab un

,

d ant voc ab ul ary The p r epo s itio n follows the

.

no un and the verb end s the s e n tence in them

,

all
. The s e tr ibe s s p e ak with ve ry l ittle mod ul a
tio n o f voi ce .

I n tre ating of the t raditio ns o f th e civilized

tribe s and of the mon u m ental r em ains th at still
 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 47

a ttest their s tage of c ulture I s hall to u ch u po n ,

m any p oi nt s th at wo u ld s ee m to i ndic a te the

d e riv atio n of thei r civiliz ati on from the O ld W o rld .

O ne cle ar p r oof of the ori gi n of at le a s t s o m e

p ar t of thi s civiliz ation fr o m ab r o ad is the fact
th a t the b an an a w as gr ow n l ar gely in Am e r ic a
b efo r e the Sp a ni ar d s c am e W he n Piz ar r o l anded .

o n th e co as t o f Peru he w as m e t by the n ative s

,

with a p re s ent o f b an an as s e r ved in a lordly di s h .

I n the to m b s of the I n c as moreover bed s c o m , ,

p o s ed of b anana le ave s h ave been fo u nd Now .

the b ananas of A m e r ic a h ave neve r bee n fou nd

i n the wild s t ate They ar e all s eedle s s
. The .

wild b an ana is a n ative o f the M al ay r egio n ,

and p r od u ce s s eed Thi s s eed p r od u ci ng v ar i ety

.
-

g r ows in C oc hi n Chi na the Philipp ine s C eylon

-

, , ,

an d Kh as i a . The s eedle ss v ar iety could h ave

b ee n tr an s po r ted to the N ew W orld o nly in the
for m of a ro ot o r s u cker .

The o r g aniz atio n of s o m any of the t r ibe s of

the G anowan i an F am ily (Bow and A rrow F am ily ) ,

as M org a n c all s the A me r ic ans i nto g enres o r , ,

cl an s and p h i a tr ia o r brothe r hood s is anothe r

,
/
, ,

li nk th at connects them with the O ld W o r ld .

The p hy s ic al s tructu r e of the Ame r ic an race

is ,
however u ni q u e
,
A gas s i z writing in the
.
,

A ma zoni an v alley no te s the gre at co ntras t b e

,

tween their typ e and th at of the N egr o r ace .

The N eg r o is s le nd er with lon g legs and arm s , ,

a nd a co mp ar atively s hort body ; while the A m e r i

c an i s s ho r t le gged short—
-
ar med a n d l o ng b o die d
, ,
~

,
 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

the tru nk being rathe r he avy i n bu ild The Negro .

h as a n arrow che s t ; the A m e r ic a n a s ho r t neck ,

and gre at widt h of s houlde r s The legs o f the .

Negro h ave th e k n ee s bent in and the hi p as w e ll ,

as the knee joi n t h abi tu a lly flexed

-
Th e l egs of .

the A meric an o n the other h and ar e rem ark ably

, ,

s tr aight .The N egr o h as crinkled and woolly h air ;

th at of the Am eric an is he avy s tr ai ght and bl ack , , .

The A meric a n of the No r th A tl antic whether of ,

Algo nkin Iroq u oi s or Flo r id a stock h as a ro u nd

, , ,

he ad ; l ar ge s ali e nt and aq u ili n e no s e ; eyes d ark

, ,

brown and pl aced ho r izo n tally ; mo uth l ar ge and

str ai ght ; teeth n e arly ve r tic al ; face tr i angul ar .

H is n eck u nlike th at o f the A m azo ni an is l ong

, , .

H is che s t is b r o ad tho u gh not deep

, H is b ody .

is mu s cul ar b ut s eldo m fat H e is w arlike cr u el

, .
, ,

and revengeful i n ch ar acte r tho u gh p o ss e s sed of ,

some nobl e qu al itie s E ven after h is long c on .

tact with the white race he h as m ad e bu t littl e ,

prog ress .

The A m azoni an tr ibe s h ave i n gener al this

type : brown s ki n with yellowi s h tinge ; thick
, ,

str ai ght bl ack h ai r ; bl ack ho r izo n tal eye s ; low

, , ,

bro ad forehe ad ; no be ar d ; m edi u m hei ght ; bro ad

mu s c u l ar ch e s t ; s mall h and s and feet Their dis .

p o s iti on is i ncu r io u s u nd e m on s tr ative a nd u n

, ,

a mbiti ou s They s how littl e trace o f a reli gio u s

.

belief and seem to h ave no i de a o f a futu r e state

,

o f existence Their c u s to m s v ary gre atly S ome

.
.
,

like the M und ur u cu s p r acti s e tattooi ng o n a gre at

,

s c ale as a m ark of soci al di s ti nction

, So m e like .
,
 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 1
.
49

th e A rar as p aint their chi n s r e d with anatto ;

,

s o me like th e s emi civilized Tic u n as go clothed

;
-

, ,

’
other s like the Pare ntinti ns are enti r ely n u d e
, , .

So me like the M ur as pie r ce the li p s and we ar

, ,

p ecc ar y t u s k s i n the m i n ti m e of w ar Some .

,

like the P u r up u r us and the Pi ro s h ave b ut one ,

wife ; othe r s are polyg amou s M any ar e like the .

,

Mi ranh as c ann ib al s So m e like the C ais h anas

, .
, ,

kill thei r fi rs tbo r n chi ld r en In all A m az oni a .

,

the r e is no tr ace of any ancient civiliz ation The .

civiliz atio n of So u th A m e r ic a w as co nfi n ed to th e
A nd e s .

The t r ibe s of the A nd e s ar e th e Q uich uas and

the Aym ar as They are the d e s ce nd ants of the
.

n u m e r ou s ra ce r u led by the I nc as and e mployed

by them i n b uildi n g the wo nde r ful wo rk s whi ch
atte s t thei r s kill in ar chitect u r e a nd e n gi nee r i n g .

'
The Q u ic h ti a typ e is : oblo n g he ad ; s ho r t and
ve ry s li ghtly arched fo r ehe ad ; p r o mi n ent lo n g ,

aq u ili n e n o s e with l ar ge n o s tr il s ; m o u th l arge

, ,

b ut lip s n o t thick ; teeth be au tiful ; chi n s hort b u t ,

not r ec edi ng ; cheek —bo ne s not p romi n e n t ; eye s

h o r izo ntal and n eve r l ar ge ; eyeb r ows l o n g ; h ai r
j et—bl ack thi ck s t r ai ght c o ar s e yet s oft ; little o r
, , , ,

n o b e ar d ; che s t lo n g b r o ad deep and h ighly , , ,

a r ched ; s m all h and s and feet ; height s eldom

re ac hing five feet ; col o r b r o nz e ; and exp r e s s io n
s ad .

The Aym aras are d ar ker and h ave fl atte r n o s e s .

W hil e the Peruvi an s k ull is s m all th at of the ,

A r au c ani an and th at of the Car ib ar e l ar ge The .

 1 50 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

l an g u age of the A r auc ani an is akin to the tongu e s

o f the P am p as t r ibe s the A b ip o n e s the G u ayc u r u s
, , ,

a n d the L u le s A ll the s e m u s t be co ns id e r ed as
.

wholly ap ar t in r ace and l ang u a ge fr om the A ma

zo ni an t r ibe s .

The P at ago ni ans ar e tall h an d s ome and br ave , , .

They ar e d ar k olive —b r own in colo r .

The F u egi ans wh o c all the ms elve s Y ac anna

,

c u n ne e ar e low in s t atu r e
,
and h ave l ar ge he ad s , ,

b r o ad face s s mall eye s l ar ge che s ts cl u ms y b odi e s

, , , ,

with l ar ge k n ee s and ill s h aped legs Thei r lan -

.

g u a ge is s t r o n gly holop h ras tic and its voc ab u l ary ,

is r ich in te r m s exp r e s s ive o f all th at co n ce r ns

the ir d aily li fe s pe n t am id co ns tant d amp an d cold .

The A ym ar a l angu age is o n e of the m o s t gut

t u r al in the wo r ld The Q u ic h ua and s eve r al othe r
.

So u th A me r ic an l an gu age s h ave the pec u li ar ity of

u s i n g d i ffe r e n t wo r d s fo r the s am e r el a t ion s hip as ,

s p oke n by m ale s a nd fe m ale s Th us in Q u ic h ii a

'
'
.
, ,

“
b r othe r i n the m o u th of a m ale is H a zz a ziga z ;
'

“
in th at o f a fe m ale T zir z Si s te r s poke n by a
'

, .
,

m ale is P a m ; by a fe m ale N a fi a
’ '
’

, , .

Le t u s no w con s id e r m o r e in det a il the r ecord s

o f the hi s to r ic ally civilized ra ce s .

A fte r a c ar e ful ex am i natio n o f th e v ar io u s myth s

of the civilized t r ib e s I h ave co m e to the co ncl u
,

s io n th at o ne and th e s am e c u lt u r e he r o is r e r e
p
-

s e nted by the M ay a Z a mna o r C u k u lc an the , ,

Tze nd al Vot an the Q u ich e G u c u m atz and the

, ,

N ah u a Q u etz alco atl Votan c alled hi m s el f o f the

.

r ace of the Se r p ent s and fo u nded the anci e nt em

,
 H OL OP H R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 51

pi r e o f the C ha ne s or Se r pents in C hi ap as
, both ,

c ap ital city and empire b eing c alled in the t r adi ,

ti o ns o f the l ate r Q u ich es of G u ate m al a Xib alb a , .

C uk u lcan G uc u matz and Q uetz alco atl all me an

, , ,

in th e s eve r al to n gue s of the M ay as the Q u ich es , ,

an d the N a hu a t r ibe s Plu m ed Serpent , .

The t r adition s of the Q u iches p r e s e r ved in the

P ap al V a/z o r N ation al Book t r an s l ated by the
, ,

z e alou s and le ar n ed m i s s io nary o f the s ixtee n th

ce n tu ry F athe r S ah agun co ntain an acco u nt o f
, ,

the c r e atio n o f the wo r ld and o f e arly man th at

s how s s o m e wo nd e r fu l poi nt s of r e s e m bl an ce to

th at o f the A kk ad i p r e s e rved fo r u s in the old

,

c u neiform r eco rd s Thi s evide n ce of antiquity and

.
,
'

the fact th at O rd o fi e z cl ai ms the empi r e of Vot an

as a n empire of the Q u ic h es fo rc e u p o n my m i n d
,

the c o nviction th at the Q u ich es p r eceded the

M ay as in the e s tabli s h m e nt of a c iv iliz atio n and ,

th at the Q u ich e civiliz atio n in G u ate m al a w as

s i m ply a l ate r develop m ent by the s am e r ace .

The Pe r s i ans in the E as t fu r ni s h an ins tance o f the

like n atio nal r e s u s cit ati o n afte r l o n g ob s cu ratio n
a n d dep e n d e n ce .

Votan is said to h ave come by se a fr om the e as t

with s even fam ili e s to h ave given l aws and c u l
,

tu r e to th e native i n h abitants and to h av e b u ilt the

,

city o f N a ch an or Pl ace of Se rp e nt s s u ppo s ed

-

, , ,

as I h ave s aid to be the city c alled Xib alb a in

,

the t radition s of the l ate r Q u ich es of G u ate m al a .

Vo tan is d e s c rib ed as h avi ng m ade r ep e ated voy

age s b ack to the l and fro m which he c a m e and o n ,
 1 52 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

h is etu r n fr om o n e of the s e to h ave fo und s even

r

othe r fam ilie s s ettled in the l and The s e we r e .

T z e q u ils w ho m he r eco g n ized as al s o o f the s e r

,

pe nt race .

The T z e q u ils bec am e the fo u nder s o f th e allied

o r s u bj ect ki n gdom the c apit al of which w a s T u lh a
,

in T u l an N a— ch an is s uppo s ed to be i de n tic al with

.

the r u i ns at P ale nq u e a nd T u lh a with tho s e at

,

C op an Two othe r allied ki n gdo m s h ad thei r c api

.

tal s r e s pectively at M ay ap an in Y u c atan and at

Chi q u i mu l a in H o n d u ras .

The M ay as make Z amn a pl ay in Y u c atan the

same p ar t as Vot a n in C hi ap as a nd de s c r ib e him ,

as the fo u nder of M ay ap an The Q u ich es m ake.

Gu c u matz the co nq u ero r of Xib alb a (N a C h an ) -

i ns te ad o f its fo u nde r and allot to hi m the p ar t

,

o f fo u nd e r o f thei r G u ate m al a n e mp i r e .

The r e w as ce r tai nly a g r e at e mpi r e in the r egio n

abo u t P ale n q u e be fo r e the fo u nd atio n o f the o the r

e mpi r e s ; a nd both P ale nq u e a nd C op an th at is , ,

N a ch an and T u lh a we r e in r u i ns lo n g befo r e the

-

Sp ani ard s c a m e Thei r glo ry h ad d ep ar ted no r

.

d o th e c iv il ized nation s fo u nd in the l and by the

Sp ani ar d s s ee m to h ave h ad any k n owl edge of
thei r exi s tence M ar co Polo m i ght j us t as fr uit
.

fu lly h ave q u e s tio ned the Gr e at Kh a n a bo u t Ni ne

veh and B abylo n as any Cas tili an co nq u i s tador

,

h ave as ked the A ztec s o r the M ay as ab o u t the s e

r e mai ns o f a n e a r lier civiliz ation .

The traditio ns agr ee in r ep re s e n ti n g N a ch an or -

Xib alb a the r uin s of which now go by the n ame

,
 H OL OP H R AS T J G S P E E CH . 1 53

of Pal enq ue as h aving bee n overthrown by the

,

ri s i ng emp ire of Tul an Bu t this emp ire in its .

,

tu rn w as s ubj ected to s o me i nflu ence s not now

, ,

ascert ain able th at c au s ed a gener al mi gr atio n o f

,

the pop ul atio n i n three directio ns no rthward to ,

M exico so u thw ar d to G u atem al a and e as twar d to

, ,

Yuc at an These r aces l ater bec ame r espectively

.
, ,

the N ah u a n atio ns the G u ate m al an Q u ich es and

, ,

the M ay as T ulh é the ancie nt c apital of Tul an

.
, ,

fell i nto r u ins — the rui n s that now go by the name

,

o f C o p an .

The N ahu a n ation s incl ud e am ong m any others , ,

the Toltec s the C hichi m ec s and the A ztecs who

, , ,

succ essively ruled i n the pl ate au of A n ahu ac .

The Q uich es and M ayas i ncl u de the C o co me s ,

the T utul Z i ns the Itz as the Tzend als and the

, , ,

Cak c h iq ue ls .

The rui ns th at be ar witn es s to the mo s t ancient

as well as t h e highest civiliz atio n are those in the

s o u the r n region s at Palenq u e C op a n U x mal

, , , ,

Chi chen Itz a and m any other pl ace s long b u r ied

-

, ,

i n the d en s e tropic al fo r e s ts .

Th e mo s t s triki n g N ah u a rui ns are the pyr am id s

o f C holu l a Xochic alco and Teotih u ac an
,
The , .

Toltec s ar e esp eci ally id entified with C holul a ; and

the Aztec s with Tenochtitl an now M exico , .

The ad ob e Casas G r andes of C hih u ahu a the ,

Cas a G r ande o f the Gil a i n A rizon a th e s tone ,

p ueblo s o f New M exico and the s tr u cture s of ,

the cli ff dwellers i n the gre at c ano ns furni s h an

-
,

architecture o f a wholly di fferent typ e from th at

 1 54 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

of M exico Central Americ a and Yuc atan ; nor i s

, ,

the r e evidence of any connection in an ci ent time s

between the two civili z atio ns .

The gre at structu re s of the mou nd b uild e r s of -

the M i ss i s s ippi v alley a gain s ee m to h ave been

, ,

wholly di fferent fr o m either of these ; and there is

no tr ace o f any connecti on with the civiliz ations
o f the W e s t They we r e an a g r i cult u r al p eople
. ,

de s troyed by the hu nti n g tribes So might the .

C hi n ese civiliz atio n h ave peri s hed age s ago h ad ,

the H nns b ut com e down with force enough to

bre ak thro u gh the G re at W all .

T aki ng u p firs t the m ost anci ent r u in s in the

gre at civilized ar e a let u s s e e the ch ar acter of
,

the cultu r e r e ached by their b u ilde r s Tho s e at .

Pale n qu e c alled by th at n ame fro m a modern

,

vill age ne ar by are s i tu ated in d en s e wood s in

,

the Pi edmo n t regio n of Chi ap as As I h ave said .

,

they are s uppo s ed to be the re m ai ns of N a—ch an

or Xib alb a Vo tan s c apital H ere are pyr amid s
,
’
.
,

p al ace s figu r e s i n r elief with str ange he ad d r e s ses

, ,
-

and r eced ing b r ows co rrid ors st ai rw ay s and above

, , , ,

all ,the re m ark able tablet of the cro s s with i ts ,

prie s tly fi g u r es and nu me r o u s hie r oglyphs The s e .

ar e all de s c r i bed an d deli n e ated i n the tr avel s of

Step hens and Catherwood and more recently i n ,

the work of D é si ré C h ar n ay .

Those at Cop an ne ar the mod ern vill a ge of O co

,

cingo s uppo s ed to r epre s ent the ancie n t Tulh a the

, ,

c apital of Tu l an con s ist of temples of thick s tone

,

wall s pyr amid s col u mn ar statues coloss al he ads

, , , ,

and mysterious hieroglyp hs .

 H OL OP A’R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 55

In Yuc atan there ar e over fo r ty r u i n ed citie s i n

th e fo r e s ts amo n g the m U xm al K ab ah N o h p at
, , , ,

L ab na C hiche n Itz a M ay ap an I z ame l T ulo o m

,
-

, , , ,

and C oz u mel A s it is a s tr e amle ss l and pe r h ap s

.
,

th e mo s t r e m ark able fe atu r e in th e ancie nt civi

l iz atio n w as the co ns tr uction of i nn u m e r able u
j g
s h ap ed ci s te r ns at the bottom of p aved pond s as
,

well as of gre at ci s te r ns bene ath the b u ildi ng s .

S ome o f the s e po nd s s till r e m ai n i n u s e ; and it

w as o n ly in co ns e q u e n ce of an u n u s ually d ry

s e as o n th a t the s ec r et o f thei r lo n g r ete ntio n o f

w ate r w as di s cove r ed The r e ar e al s o i n v as t

.
,

n u mb e r s tr un c ated py ramid s te mple s m ass ive

, , ,

s to ne ho u s e s of my s terio u s d e s tin atio n lo n g low , , ,

n arrow and flat roofed To the s e r e m ai ns mu s t

,
-
.

b e added colo s s al im age s and once more the in ,

s c r u t able hie r o glyph s W he n the s e are o nce d e

.

cip he r ed and t rans l ated we s h all k now s o methi n g

,

m ore d efi n ite about the s e v ani s hed civiliz atio ns .

The ide ntity o f the hie r oglyphic ch a r acte r s at

Pal e nq u e Cop an and U xm al p r ove s a co m mo n
, ,

o r i gi n fo r thei r civiliz atio ns B u t N a ch an w as

.
-

p r ob a bly olde r th an th e citie s of Y u c atan fo r the ,

Sp ani ard s fo u nd the M ayas s till occupying s o m e

at le as t o f the Yu c at a n citi e s for p u r po s e s of
wo r s hip thou gh no t of r e s idenc e
, .

I n Yuc at a n all the b u ilding s r e s t u p on ar tifici al

mo u nd s The inn er w all s ar e often p ai nted The
. .

hu m an face s repre s e nted h ave the forehe ad fl at

tened and recedi n g The r ar ity of idol s co ntras ts
.

s trikingly with the multitud e o f them at C op an .

 1 56 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The c arvings are ce rt ai nly wo n d erful for a r ace

th at u s ed o nly s to n e imple m e nts Th at they h ad .

n o t eve n r i s en to the C opp e r age is evid ent for ,

eve n the s wo rd s i n the pictu r e s ar e woode n s word s

with s h arp piece s of ob s idi an s e t i nto them fo r min g ,

a s pecie s of to m a h awk .

The s e race s it is e asy to se e were r u led by a

, ,

powe r fu l p r ie s thood who u r ged the m o n to m i ghty

,

wo r k s a nd the n r egu l ated th e i r live s by m i nu te

r u le s fo r co nd u ct and the ob s e r v a n ce of a s ple ndid

ce r e m o n i al s y s te m It s ee m s to m e th at in thi s
.

fo r m of develop m e nt we c an r eco g n ize the i ns ti nct

o f the race th at fo u nd ed Ch ald man a n d E t r u s c an

begi nni ngs of civiliz ation .

T u r n i ng to M exico we fi nd in the State of

,

O aj ac a the r u in s o f Mitl a a cit y of the Z ap otec s

, ,

w ith s to ne p al ace s the i nte r io rs o r n am e nted with

,

m o s ai c s in v ar ied and g ra cefu l p atte r ns I n the .

State of Ve r a Cr uz ar e m any s to n e py ram id s with

s tep s o r s t ai r way s I n the pl a te au of A nah u ac the
,

r e main s o f the a n cient civiliz atio n co ns i s t p r i nci

p ally o f two r e m ar k able py ramid s O ne is the .

fa mo u s py r amid of C hol u l a mo r e th an twice as ,

l ar ge at the b as e as th at o f Kh u fu n e ar G izeh in
E gypt tho u gh m u ch le s s lofty th a n th a t m i ghty
,

s t r u ct u r e The o the r is the py ram id of Xochic alco

.
,

b u ilt o f granite and h avi n g s culpt u r ed on th e s ides

, , ,

fig u re s th at are s e ated c r o s s legged The py ram id

-

o f C holul a o nce h ad a te m ple o n th e top o f it .

To the s e m u s t be added the H ou s e s of the S u n and

Moo n o r the py ramid s o f Teotihu ac an I n the
, .
 H OL OP IJ R AS T I C S P E E CH 1 57

city of M exico — the ancie nt Tenochtitl an —we r e

d u g up in the Pl az a M ay or the A ztec Calend ar
Stone the s o —
, ca lled S ac r ifi c ial Sto n e and the ,

hideo u s idol T e o y ao miq u i the godd e s s of d e ath

, , .

The A ztec wo rs hip w as exceedi n gly bloody and

c r u el At the s a me time i t m us t be r e m ar ked th at
.

the r eli gio u s rite s o f thi s r ace we r e s i ng u l arly like

tho s e of the B u dd hi s ts They pr acti s ed b ap ti s m
.
,

circ u m ci s io n r eli gio u s blood letting fas ti ng c o n

,
-

, ,

fe s s io n p en ance s i nce ns e wavi n g

, ,
They h ad
-
.

p r ie s ts of di ffe r e nt r ank s ve s tal vi r gin s and v ar io u s

, ,

religio u s o r de rs U nlike the B u ddhi s ts b u t lik e

.
,

the w o r s hipp e r s o f M oloch they o ffe r ed h u man ,

s a c r ifice s tho us and s in a ye ar and h ad c an nib al

, ,

fe as ts in honor o f thei r god of w ar .

The r e m ai ns of the civilized Pe r uvi ans at Cu zco

a nd el s ewhere o n the pl ate a u of the A nd e s ar e of

g r e at i ntere s t B ut as the r e ar e n o hie r oglyph s to

.

b e fo u nd a mo n g the m the s e m on u me n ts do no t
,

c o ncern u s s o ne ar ly as tho s e of Chi ap as G uate mal a

.
, ,

an d Y u c at an .

There are ar o u n d Lake Titic a c a m as s ive m o n o

lithic monu me nts th at ar e s u ppo s ed by s o m e to
an ted ate the age of the I n c as s howi n g the exi s t ,

enc e o f an e ar lier civiliz ati on the antiq u ity of ,

which it is imp o ss ib le to as ce r tai n .

The Q u ich ua l an gu age p r ev ailed ove r m o r e th an

twenty d eg r ee s o f l atitu d e It w as however wholly
.
, ,

a l and empire th at the I n c as r u led fo r the n ative s ,

o f the s o u the r n co nti nent never i nve n ted any saili n g

c r aft hi gher i n s tr u ct u re th an a s i mple r aft They .
,
1 58 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

on their continent did the wo r k of the R o m an s o n

,

the p ar t of the e as te rn co nti ne n t co nq u e r ed by the m .

Th ey co ns tr u cted b r idge s c au s ew ay s and exten

, ,

s ive highw ay s p aved with s t one s and s h ad ed by

'
row s o f tr ee s . The Cara o ne of the Q u ic h tl a
,

tr ibe s m an u factu r ed ar ti s tic wo r k s in c as t gold and

,

al s o i n s t r u m e n ts o f b r onze They ob s e r ved too

.
, ,

the b egi nn i n g of the s ol s tice s o n lo fty p i ll ars o f

s to n e . The Q u ich uas even s u cceed ed in p ar tly
civilizi n g the A rau c ani ans .

The l an g u age s of the civilized r ace s of A m e r i ca

ar e mo r e fu lly co n s ide r ed i n the A pp endix .
 H OL ORH R AS T LG S P E E OH. 1 59

B l ck
a
‘
f e et
C re e
M o ntagnai
M icm c a
O tt wa a
Ab ki
e na
P s m q oddy
as a a u

—Algonki n

k
D a o ta
Ch ah ta M usk o ki
-

—W est, I ndian
 C H A PT E R XI .

L AN GU AGE S O F T H E B AN T U T R I BE S .

T HE ge nu ine Neg r o of A fr i c a h as b e e n a h ar d
“

n ut to c r ack both fo r eth n ologi s t a nd p hilologi s t .

To wh at extent he h as bee n i nfl u enc ed in the lo n g ,

age s th at ar e p as t by the H a mi tic E gyp ti an and

,

B er be r by the h al f H am itic h alf Se m i ti c A r ab or

,
-

,
-

by the A ry an Po r tu g u e s e it is i mpo s s ible to s ay

, .

O f him s elf he h as we m ay b e s u r e o r i gin ated no

, ,

fo r m of civiliz atio n .

So m ethi n g h as bee n al r e ady s aid o f th e G r ebo

di alect which w as s elected as one o f the lowe s t
,

typ e am o ng the l ang u age s s p oke n by Neg r o

tr ibe s .

The to ng u e s s p oke n by the B antu tr ibe s how ,

eve r are of m u ch hi ghe r typ e and are r e mark able

, ,

fo r thei r m elody a nd fo r sy s te m atic fo r m atio n o f a

ve ry pec u li ar ki nd .

The ar e a cove r ed by the t r ibe s who s pe ak the s e

B ant u l an gu age s extend s n o r th and n o r the as t i nto
the Nile b as i n e nci r cli n g th e whole of L ake
,

Victo r i a Ny anz a It s t r etche s to th e s o u th as far

.

as C ap e C olo ny It extend s ac r o ss the conti n ent

.

fr om oce an to oce a n The t ri be s are exceedi ngly

.
 L AN G UA GE S OF THE E AN T U T RI B E S . 1 61

nu mero u s a nd very v aried in type and the r e are ,

as m any d i fferent di alects of the B ant u s p eech as

there ar e t r ib e s .

The s e t r ibe s po ss e ss lingui s ti c u nity but di ffe r ,

g r e atly fro m o ne an othe r not o nly in p hy s ic al

a p pe ara n ce b ut i n s oci al u sage s as well
,
M ost o f .

the B antu s h ave a typ e unlike th at o f the N eg ro

prope r in co mplexio n fe atu re s s h ape of the s k ull , , ,

a nd be ar ing They are s uppo s ed to r ep r e s e nt a

.

blend ing o f the H i my arite A r ab with the o r igin al

N eg r o s tock B ut in the Congo b as in no p u r e
.

type s are fo u nd and the r e is eve ry g r ad atio n fr o m

,

th e higher B antu to the lowe s t Negr o typ e Thi s .

is the n atur al r e s u lt of age s of i nte r mixtu r e c au s ed

by trib al mi g ratio ns s l ave hu n ts and the p ractice ,
-

o f exogam o u s m arr i age .

Tho s e in the extr eme s o u th of the co nti nent

di ffer widely fro m thei r i mm edi ate n eighbo rs the ,

Kh oi Kho in (H ottentots ) and the v ar io u s p igmy

‘
'
’
-

t r i be s the San (B u s h m e n ) o f S o u th A fr ic a the

, ,

D oko s of K a ffa the Akk a of the W elle R ive r a nd

, ,

the O b ongo of th e O gowe b as i n .

A mong the le adi ng B antu t r ibe s m ay b e men

tio ne d the W a— S uk u m a and the W a Zi nz a of the -

L ake r egio n ; the T u — Sh ilo nge the B a— Ng al a the , ,

E u B a ngh i the B a Teke the W a B u m a and the B a

-

,
-

,
-

Fiot of the C o n go regio n ; the Z u l u s the Ba S u to ,

-

the B e Ch u ana and the B a Kal ah ar i o f S outh

-

,
-

A fric a ; and the W a S angar a and the W a Poko mo -

-

of E as t Afric a B a B a Wa and other form s ar e

.
, , ,

th e v ar io u s p r efixe s fo r the t r ib al n am e There .

1 1
 1 62 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

ar e very m any othe r s be s i de s tho s e alre ady n am ed ,

for in s tance the B a Ki s k the B a F arami the Ba

,
-

,
-

Kund u the B a M b u k u the B a—

,
L ong the B a Koko
-

, ,
-

the Ba Noko the B a P u ko the Ba K ale the B a

-

,
-

,
-

Lolo the B a Be m b a th e Ba—

,
L u b a the M a F und u
-

, ,
-

the W a G and a who we ar clothe s the W a Nyoro

-

, ,
-

who ar e at the s am e s tage of c iviliz ation and the ,

W a N an d a
-
.

F r om ti m e to ti m e ki n gdo ms of co nsid er able ,

exte n t tho ugh of n o long d u r atio n h ave b een

, ,

fo r med among the s e B antu tr ib e s .

I h ave t aken a s the r ep r e s e ntative of the B antu

speech the tong u e o f the Mpo ngwe who c all ,

them s elve s Ay o go o r the W i s e This l angu age , .

w as s p oken on the Gaboo n at the ti me th at the

R ev D r J L ei ghto n W il s o n w as missi on ary in
. . .

th at region A n ar ticle p ubl is h ed by him in the

.

”
So uthern Presbyte r i an R eview fo r J anu ary 1 8 6 3 , ,

give s an i nte r e s ti n g acc o u n t o f thi s l an gu age which ,

he pr aises as rem ar k able fo r b e au ty and eleg ance ,

for its cle ar and d i s ti nct e n u n ci atio ns fo r its com ,

p le te cl ass ific atio n and s ys tem a ti c and philo s ophic

ar r a ngement its in fl e c tiv e power an d its c ap acity
, ,

for exp ansio n .

The Gaboo n e m ptie s into the A tl antic j ust u nder

the equ ator Mpongwe w as at th at ti me s p oken
.

along its b anks an d a l s o a lo n g the se aco as t to a

di s t ance of two hu n d r ed mile s s o uth o f th e equ ator

and for ab ou t the s am e di s t anc e in the interior .

A somewh at det ailed accou n t of the Mp ong we

l angu age will b e fo u nd i n the App endix With its .
 L AN G UA GE S OF T HE H AN T U T RI B E S . 1 63

gene r al a ggl u tin ative and holophr as tic typ e and its
p ec u li ar left h anded i nflecti on it m ay fai rly be co n
-

s id e r e d a s a s t age betwee n the to n g u e s of the yel

l o w r ace and tho s e of the white r ace .

I n the s e B antu l ang u a ge s as h as alre ady bee n ,

s a id B a o r Wa is the ge n e ra l p r efix fo r the t r ib a l

,

n am e s The u s u al prefix for the i ndivid u al me m

.

b er of the tr ib e is M a while L e is the p r efix for the

,

ter r ito ry Se fo r the l angu age and U m fo r a r ive r

, , .

Thu s the r ive rs on the e as te r n co as t s o u th of

,

D e lago a B ay are U m k o manz i U m z u ti U m ku s i

-

,
-

,
-

U m v o l o s i U m h lutane U m l azi U m—
-

,
-

gab ab a U m
,
-

, ,

k amaz i U m tenta ,
-
.
 CHA PTE R XII .

H AM IT I C SPE EC H .

IN the Q u ate r n ary p e r i od all of A fr ic a n o r th o f

the S ah ara — which w as then a se a co n necti n g
the A tl antic with the I ndi an O ce an — w as a p ar t
of E u r ope I n thi s r egio n no w d ivid ed by the
.
,

M edite rran e an S e a ar o s e the H am itic r ace the

, ,

e ar lie s t b ran ch of the g r e at white family to inaugu

r ate civiliz atio n.

Thi s r ace b elo ngs th en h i s to r ic ally to the we s t

, ,

e r n p ar t s o f A s i a,
the n o r the r n p ar ts of A fr ic a ,

and the s o uthe r n p ar t s o f E u r op e tho u gh e ar ly

,

s u ppl a nted in the M edite rra ne an ar e a of E u rop e

by v ar io u s A ry an r ace s wi th who s e blo o d thei r

,

o w n b ec a m e m i n gled .

The r e is ev ide nce of the p r e s e nce o f a H amitic

r ace a mo n g the e ar ly civilize rs of the Ch ald a e an

emp i r e The s o u the r n A rab s and th e Ph oe ni ci ans

.

of Sido n we r e al s o of H am iti c blo od I t w as thi s .

r ace th at c r e ated the wo nde r fu l c iviliz atio n o f

E gypt tho u gh r ece nt r e s e ar ch p oi nt s to the like
,

lih o o d o f the de r iv atio n o f the beg inn i n g s o f

E gypti an civiliz ation fr om the l an d o f A kk ad .

U nde r the na m e o f Be r be r o r L iby a n i t w as a

, ,
 H AM I T I C S P E E CH . 1 65

H a mitic r ace th at occupied all th at p art o f Afr ic a

lyi n g north o f the g r e at de s e r t The G u anche s .

fo u nd in the Ca n ar y I s l and s by the No rm an ad

ve nturer who co nqu ered the m u nde r the p atr on age
of Sp ai n were blo nd H am ite s D r Brinton s ays
, . .

th at he h as s ee n q uite as noble blond s among the

“
K abyle s (the A rab ic for t r ibe s of the Dju rju ra
as i n D enm ar k The s e are p u re blooded d e s ce nd
.
-

a n t s o f the an cie nt H amitic lo r d s of No r th A fr ic a .

To the R o m a n s they we r e k now n as N u midi an s ,

M au r it ani a n s G e t u lians and L iby an s

, . .

The id entity in for m o f the s k u ll s o f the s e

I maz igh e n or Berber s
, m any of who s e t r ibe s ar e
,

fair h ai r ed and bl u e eyed with yellow be ar d s

- -

, ,

with tho s e o f the Ibe r i ans o f s outhwe s te r n E u r op e

prove s th at the l atter we r e al s o H amitic The .

Sp a ni s h Bi s c ay ans who n o do ubt r et ai n s o m e of

,

the blood o f the an cie nt Ibe ri an s o f Sp ai n and

Po r tu gal are b elieved to h ave once s p oken a
,

H a miti c to ngue The l angu age they now s pe ak

.

w as i m po s ed u po n them by the F r e n ch B as q u e s ,

or r athe r th e an ce s to rs o f the French B as q u e s ,

who in s o m e w ay ac q u i r ed do m i n io n ove r the m .

The B asqu e l an gu age is not H am itic b u t h as its ,

ne ar e s t affi n iti e s in the tongu e o f the ancie nt

Akk ad i of C h ald aea a nd tho s e of the modern
,

t r ibe s o f th e U ral A ltaic r egion It is ce r tainly

-
.

a tongu e o f the yellow r ace the e ar lie s t o f all

,

civilize rs .

No t o nly are the I beri an s now cl ass ed as

b ut the s ame view is held al s o of

H a mitic ,
1 66 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

tho s e s h ad o wy Pel as gi ans who o nce s eemed so

el u s ive an eleme nt in the cl as s ific atio n of th e
e ar ly race s of s o u the r n E u r op e C o m p ar ative .

anth r op ology s how s th at the Pel as gic b as i s of

both the H elle nic and the Italic s tock w as a
H a mit ic race The p r ob ab ility is th at they we r e
.

in s o u the r n E u r op e befo r e the M edite rran e an

exi s ted and wh ile wh at is n o w N o r th A fr ic a w as
s till a par t of E u r op e .

S mall is the evidence o f a ny i n fl u enc e exe rted

d ir ectly by th is H amitic i nfu s io n i nto the blood
o f the H elle n ic an d the It alic A ry ans u po n the

G r eek and L ati n to ng u e s Still as the u lti mate

.
,

c o lo r i ng of tho u ght m u s t h ave owed s o meth in g

to the s e H am ite s it is well to look a l ittle m o r e
,

clo s ely i nto the s e r i e s o f r ace m ig r atio ns in the

e ar ly hi s to r y of E ur op e .

The e arlie s t i nh ab itants of E u r ope the p eople ,

o f the R o u gh Sto n e A ge left no t r ace s beh ind

,

the m u po n which any co nj ect u r e as to thei r race

c a n be b as ed . The s k ull s fo u nd at O l m o at I s ol a ,

del L i r i at Me n to n e in the G e noe s e R ivie ra and

, ,

in s o m e o f the c ave s o f S ic ily o nce s u p po s ed to

.

b e o f thi s r ace a r e n o w believed to be o f the

,

p eople o f the Poli s hed Sto n e Age The s e s k u ll s .

are lo n g . The h u m an bo ne s fo u nd in th e r efus e

he ap s ar e s o b r oke n fo r the p u rpo s e o f ext r acti n g
the m arr ow as to le a d to the belie f th a t the r ace
w as a ddicted to c a n n ib al is m Thei r ch ief food
.
,

howeve r co ns i s ted of the s m all wild ho rs e s wh ich

,

then r o amed ove r the co nti ne nt in i m me ns e he r d s .

 H AM / T LC S P E E CH .
1 67

This r ace w as prob ably Tu r ani an and may h ave ,

bee n r el ated to the French B asq u e s lyi n g to thei r

we s tw ard a nd to the L app s and Fi nn s n o w c o n
,

fi ned to the ext r e m e no r th B u t nothi ng po s itive .

c an as yet be ass erted in r eg ar d to thei r eth n ic

a ffinitie s .

It w as the n ext race i n the o r de r of ti me th at

w as H am itic —the r ace co mmo nly c alled by the
,

hi s to r ic G r eek s Pel as gic I n the e arly p e r iod

.
,

b efo r e the co m ing of the A rya ns thei r d r e ss c o n ,

s i s ted of s ki n s s titched togethe r with n eedle s of

bo n e They o r n am e n ted the ms elve s w ith b race

.

l et s o f s hell s and u s ed r e d oxide o f i r o n fo r p ai nt

,

i ng or tattooi n g their bodie s They we r e white .

,

b u t fo r the mo s t p ar t s w a r thy with olive co mplex ,

io ns and bl ack c u rly h ai r They we re s traight .

j awed w ith ve rti c al p r ofile and l ar ge faci al angle

, .

Thei r nas al bo ne s we r e narr ow and thei r s k u ll s ,

ve ry lo ng I n s tatu r e they were s ho r t It m ay

. .

be th at they we r e s o m ewh at m i n gled in blood

with the race th at h ad p r eceded the m Thei r d e .

s c e nd a nt s m ay s till be r ecogn ized all ove r we s te r n

E u r op e fr o m D o neg al Galw ay and Ke rry in

, , ,

I r el and and fr o m the H eb r ide s Yo r k s hi r e W ale s

, , , ,

an d So m e rs et in Gr e at B r it ai n to the s o u th o f ,

F r a nce Italy Si cily Co rs ic a and S ar di ni a The

, , , ,
.

Sp ani s h Bi s c ay ans and the Be rbe r s of No r th A fric a

p e r h ap s s how u s the race u nm ixed I n It aly .
,

they b u ilt the w all s of Co rto na and R us e llze ; in

G r eece tho s e o f M y k e n ze a nd Ti ry ns
, They .

fo r m ed at l e as t an ele m ent in the m ake up of the

.
-
1 68 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

E t r usc an ce — a r ace it is p r ob able chi efly o f

ra , , ,

blood aki n to the A k k adi and p o s s ibly to the

tribe s o f the L o w G e r m an s tock .

I n s o m e p ar ts of E u r op e the Pel as gi an s we r e
fo llowed by a r o und —he ad ed r a ce o f s ho r t s t at u r e ,

Lapp s a nd F ir ms in the n o r th L i g u r ia ns in the ,

s o u th . The s e we r e of the yellow r ace a r ace th at ,

b u rs t s o o fte n into E u r op e fr o m the g r e a t A s i an

pl ate au I n s o u the a s te r n E u r op e the Pel a s gi ans
.

we r e followed by A r y an s the Italo G r eek tr ib e s ,

-

The s e s o u the r n A ry ans we r e t all Thei r s k u ll s .

h ad the ve r tic al i ndex betwee n 7 0 an d 7 5 Thei r .

li fe w as at fi r s t p as to ral They own ed the dog .

,

the ox and the s heep They h ad i n ve nted the

, .

c anoe and the o x —wagon They lived s o m eti m e s .

in c ave s s o m eti m e s in cl ay pl as te r ed h u t s ; and

,
-

they s oo n ac q u i r ed the u s e o f b r o n ze p r ob ably ,

fr o m thei r t radi n g n eighbo r s the Ph oe n ici ans , .

They bec am e the lo r d s of the Pel as gi c H am ite s ,

witho u t r ooti ng the m o u t j u s t as m any age s l ater ,

the No r m an s m as te r ed the S as s e n ac h of G r e at
B r ita i n Th at s omewh at b r illi ant civiliz ati on of
.

ki n gs and n oble s de s c r ib ed in H o m e r s l ay s and

,
’

atte s ted by the r e mai ns u n e ar th ed by D r S c h lie .

m ann do e s no t s ee m to h ave b ee n of i nd i ge no u s
,

g r owth b u t to h ave co m e fr o m H ittite Ph oenici an

, , ,

a nd E gypt ian s o u r ce s i n C r ete Cyp r u s and A s i a, ,

M i no r .

D i ffic u lt as it is to see as yet wh at i mp r e ss the

H am itic p op u l ation m ade u p o n the Sp eech of
their Ach ai an mas te r s in the o ne p eni ns u l a and
 H AM I T I C SP E E CH . 1 69

of thei r Italic m as te rs in the othe r they m us t h ave ,

i nfl u e n ced to s ome exte n t the fo r m ation of hi s to r ic

G r eek a nd L ati n It is p r ob able th at in the
.
,

w e s te r n l and s over r u n by the Kelts Pel as gic ,

s p eech al s o m odi fied the Keltic tongu e s .

Befo r e they we r e me r ged i n to the s e hi s toric

r ace s, we h ave gli mp s e s of them in the r eco r d s
o n E gypti a n monu ment s ; fo r tho u gh o f the same ,

blood they i nv aded E gypt a gai n and ag ai n I n

, .

the r eign o f Seti I we fi nd the s e afar i n g Pel as gi ans

.

m aki ng a co mb ined d e s c e nt upo n E gypt The .

Sh ar d ana or peop le of S ar di ni a and the T u ir sh a

, , ,

o r E t r u s c a ns we r e the chi ef o f the s e i nv adi ng

,

tr ibe s They fo r m ed an alli anc e with the L ibyan s

.
,

H amite s like the ms elve s B ut the yo u n g R a m e s s u

.
,

who r ei g n ed as h is fathe r s colle ag u e d e fe a ted ’

the m utte r ly The c u r iou s s e q u el of the b attle

.

is th at h e en r olled the c aptive Sh ar d ana in h is

r oy al g u ar d s . It is p r ob able th at whe n l ater ,

o n R ame s s u m ad e w ar on the Khit a o r H ittite s

, , ,

tho s e My s i ans Lyci ans D ar d ans and T r oj ans

, , ,

fr o m A s i a M i no r who ar e named as al lie s in the

,

co n feder ated a rray o f the Khita we r e all lar gely ,

H amitic in bloo d The s e L ev anti n e ene m ie s of

.

E gypt we r e b e ate n at K ade s h o n the O r onte s .

Th u s R ame s s u r e s cu ed the fr u it fu l l an d o f the

Nile fr o m all d anger o f being ove rr u n by the m o r e
b ar b ar o u s ki nd r ed o f its r u le rs .

I n the reig n o f M eneptah R ame s s u s s o n the

’

, ,

Pel as gi an s ag ai n i n alli ance with the Liby ans

,
,

i nv ad ed E gyp t once m o r e The alli e s of th e

.
1 70 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

L iby ans o n thi s o cc as io n we r e the Sh ar d an a o r ,

S ardini ans the Sh ak alas h a o r S ik e ls the L eku

, , , ,

or L yci an s the T u irs h a o r E t r us c ans a nd the

, , ,

A k aiu sh a o r A ch ai ans — as will be ob s e rved

, ,

m i ngled Pel as gi ans and H ellene s The E gypti an .

n ame fo r the L iby ans them s elve s w as R eb u The .

alli e s we r e defe ated in a g r e at b a ttle in the D elt a .

I n the t im e of R am e ss u I I I ano the r r aid w as .

,

m ad e o n E gypt by the m ariti m e t r ib e s of E u r ope

a nd A s i a Mi n o r The s e we r e T aanau T ak k ar u
.
, ,

T u ir s h a W as h as h a S h ak alas h a L ek a and Pe
, , , ,

le s ta Thi s ti m e the r aide r s attacked both by

.

l and and s e a The s e nam e s are s u ppo s ed to an

.

s we r to the h is to r i c n am e s o f the D a nao i T e u k r o i , ,

E t r u s c ans O s c ans S ik e ls L u koi and Phili s ti n e s

, , , , ,

ag ai n a m ixtu r e of H am ite s and A ry ans The .

E gypti an ar my a nd fl eet defe a ted th e m The r e .

w as s till anothe r i nv as ion of th e ki nd which li ke ,

wi s e failed .

Befo r e le avi n g th e s u bj ect o f the s e H am ite s o f

Eu r op e who s e civiliz atio n h as bee n s o ov er l aid by
,

th at o f the Ary ans in eve n hi s to r ic tim e s as to be

al mo s t w holly ob s c u r ed the r e ad e r s atte n tio n m u s t
’

be c alled to a hop efu l ci r c u m s ta nce in r egar d to

the E t r u s c an m y s te r y .

U nt il the d is cove ry l ately m ade in E gyp t by

,

P r o fe s s o r K rall o f an anc ie nt E t r u s c an book o n

,

li n e n wo u nd abo u t the m u m m y o f a wo m an s ho r t ,

li n e s of i ns c r iptio n s in E tr us c an c h aracte r s co ns ti
t u te d all th at w a s k now n o f thei r l an g u a ge W hen .

thi s book h as bee n decip he r ed s o m ethi n g d efi nite ,

 H AM I T I C S P E E CH . 1 71

may b e asc erta ined abou t both peop le and lan

g u a ge eve n if the book s ho u ld tu r n o ut to be o nly
,

a ri t u al like the E gypti an

“
Book of the D e ad ” .

U p to thi s ti m e eve ry atte mpt to co m p ar e E tr u s

c a n with k n own l an g u a ge s h a s failed o f s u cce ss
,

m a i nly o n acco u n t of p au city o f m ate r i al W o rd s .

“ ” “ “
like Ela n SKRE d au ghte r p a z a wife ” '

, so n , , , , ,
'
“
an d a w l , ye ar h ave no known analogu e s i n
,

othe r to n g u e s in s p ite of the p r ovoking s ugges

, 3

tiv e ne ss in the like ne ss to the E ngli s h “ cl a n de ,

rived fr o m G aelic 6 161 7272 child r e n and to the, ,

E n gli s h s ex de rived fr o m the L atin SCa

, the ,

d i s tinctio n b etwee n mal e and fe male while p zz z a ” ’

s u gge s t s the p i zz a /Zia s y s te m of i nte r m arr i a ge o f

th e H aw a ii ans whic h al s o p r ev ailed amo n g the

,

T im a the E t r u s c an J u p ite r m ay
’

a ncient B r ito ns .
, ,

h ave bee n p r i mar ily the god o f tin (in L atin s ta n ,

mt m ) ; and Cap r a thei r J u n o the godde ss o f

, ,

copp er (in L a ti n o q am the m etal s th at m ade

) , ,

the civiliz ation of the B r o n ze A ge p o s s ibl e B u t .

both the s e wo r d s they may h ave got fr o m the

Ph oenici ans the chi e f t rad e r s in the s e m etal s All
, .

the n am e s fo r copp e r i n th e M edite rrane an ar e a

c ertai nly c am e fr o m the i s l and of Cyp r u s whethe r ,

the meta l g ave n am e to th e i s l and o r the i s l and to

the m etal .

The g r e at H am itic civiliz atio n w as th at o f E gyp t ,

lo n g co ns ide r ed the e ar lie s t of all the civiliz atio ns .

I ts hi s to r y is s o well k nown th at I n eed o nly

s p e ak o f it s p r ob abl e o r igi n and of the wide s wee p

of its ar e a o f i n fl u e n ce whe n at its he ight .

 1 72 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

E gy p t w as fi r s t s ettled by s ep arate cl a n s ruled

at

by thei r chiefs c alled in afte r ti m e H o r s h e s u

, ,

o r followe r s o f H o r The s e chi efs we r e al r e ady

.

b u ilde rs of te m ple s to loc al god s ar o u nd whi ch the ,

tow ns g r o u ped them s elve s M e na w as the fi r s t .

Ph araoh H e welded togethe r the s ep ar ate cl ans

.

i nto a ho m oge neo u s m o n ar chy H is city w as Te n i .

in u ppe r E gyp t n e ar the m od e r n Gir ge h ; b u t l ater

,

he we nt n o r thw ar d. and fo u nded M e m p hi s at no ,

g r e a t di s tan ce fr o m the m od e r n C ai r o o nly o n the ,

othe r s ide of the Nile By th r owi n g u p a g r e at .

dyke he al s o t u r n ed the c o u rs e of the m ighty

,

r ive r s o as to
p u t h is c a p ital b etwee n the r iver a nd
the d e s e r t It is evid e nt fr o m th is g r e at e n gi nee r
.

ing fe a t th at the r ac e w as al r e a dy o r g a nized for

c ivil iz atio n .

The next gr e at nam e in E gypti a n hi s to ry is th at

o f Kh u fu ,o f the fo u r th dy n as ty fa mo us as the ,

b u ilde r o f the G r e a t Py r am id Thi s v as t m as s of .

s to n e cove r s twice the ar e a of the l ar ge s t b u ildi n g

in the m ode r n wo r ld It face s th e poi nts o f the

.

co mp ass ; a nd the m e as u r e m e nts o f all its p ar ts

s how wo n de r fu l j u s t n e s s o f p r opo r tio n The b u ilder .

o f the s eco n d py r am id at G iz eh w as K h afr a the ,

s u cce s s o r o f Kh u fu The th ir d py ram id in the

.

cl u s te r w as b u ilt by M e nk e r a The r e s pective .

he ights of the s e th r ee py ramid s ar e 4 8 0 feet 44 7 ,

feet and 2 1 8 feet

, .

Six h u nd r ed ye ars l a te r Pepi M e rir a o f the , ,

s ixth dy n as ty e m e r ge s fr o m the ge n e ral ob s c u r ity

,

of the i nte rveni n g Ph araoh s I t is p o ss i ble th at .

 H A M I T / C S P E E CH . 1 73

there we r e m any b r e ak s i n the continuity of thi s

H a miti c civiliz a ti o n on the Nile s uch as th at well ,

know n and p r olo n ged o ne c au s ed by the i nv as io n

“
of the S hep he r d Kings The s e we r e a m ingled
.

ho s t o f alli e s app ar ently o f v ari o us r ace s ; and it

,

h as b ee n pl au s ibly co nject u r ed tha t they we re

H ittite s. They po u red down fro m the r egio ns of
the E as t i nto the r ich v alley of the N ile and s u c ,

c e e de d i n m a s teri n g the D elt a Their c apital w as .

at S an o r Z o an tho u gh their p r i n ce s lived al s o at

,

B u b a s t is. I n proce ss of ti m e they were d r ive n o ut

by the Theb an p r i nce s M e anti me they h ad wel
.

co m ed and s ettled in the e as te r n l and s of E gypt

the Semi tic ho u s e o f I s r ael It h as bee n l ately .

di s cove red th at the Ph arao h who ex alted Jo s eph to

the p o s t of p r ime mini s te r w as n amed R a ian -

U nd e r the r u le of T h o th me s II I and a g ai n .
, ,

u nde r th at o f R am e s s u II the s way of E gypt ex

.
,

te n ded over th e e as te r n M edite rr ane an ove r all o f ,

A s i a we s t of the E u ph r ate s and p r ob ably ove r all ,

o f e as tern A fr i c a ly in g above the G r e at Lake s .

Th e r ange of th at typ e of s peech of which the

E gypti an w as the m odel m u s t therefo r e at o ne
ti me h ave b e en very gre at .

The s o n of R ame ss u I I w as M e nep tah H e is . .

b elieved to h ave bee n the Ph arao h of the E xod u s .

G rad ually d ec ayi n g the E gypti a n empi r e s till

,

l as ted fo r s o m e s eve n cent u r i e s after the ti m e o f

R a me s s u I I tho u gh r u led d u r i n g a p ar t o f th at
.
,

time by ki n g s o f an E thiop i an dynas ty and al s o ,

by ki n gs who we r e t r ib utary to the mi ghty r u lers

o f As s yri a .
1 74 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G U A G E .

A t l a s t the Pe r s i an Ca mby s e s ove r threw eve n

,

thi s p r ete n ce of indepe nd e n t nati on ality W he n .

the M acedo ni an A lex ande r w as o n h is m ar ch to

m as te r the Pers i an e mpi r e he vi s ited E gypt and
, ,

r eceived its ack n owled g m e n t o f s u bj ection ; and i t

w as u n de r the r u le of the G r eek Ptole m ie s th at

tho s e i ns c r iptio ns we r e r eco r d ed which h ave e n

a bled u s to r e ad the an ci e n t E gypti an hieroglyph s .

W he n the F r enc h expeditio n u n de r N ap ol eo n

Bo nap ar te w as in E gypt the r e w as fo u n d in the
,

D elta of the Nil e a s l ab of b as alt covered with ,

th r ee i ns c r ip tio ns o ne i n Gr eek o n e in the ancie nt

, ,

hi e r o glyph s and o ne in the cu r r e n t s c r ipt c alled

,

e ncho r i al or de m oti c Bei n g fo u n d ne ar R o s etta

.
,

i t h as always s ince bo rn e the n ame o f the R o s etta

Stone .

Thi s threefo ld i n s c r iptio n w as at o nce l aid s iege

to by the s chol ar s of E u r op e Silve s tr e de S acy.

s u gge s ted th at the m o s t as s ail able p oi n t s m u s t be

looked fo r i n the p r ope r nam e s If the s e we r e .

o nce c aptu r ed it wo u ld not b e h ar d to m as te r the

,

rest . O f cou r s e the G r eek text help ed to point

o u t whe r e th e p r ope r n a m e s wo u ld be likely to

co m e in the E gypti an texts .

I t w as fo u n d too th at the p rop e r n a me s in the

, ,

hie r oglyp hic text were fe nc ed r o u nd by wh at the

F r e nch s chol ars c alled a Ca r to zz C/z o A k e r b l ad .

m ad e s o m e p r ogre s s i n d eciphe r i n g the p r ope r

n am e s D r Tho m as Yo u n g d i s cove r ed the de r i
. .

v ation of the e n chori al fr om the s acred ch ar acte rs .

H e al s o divined the phonetic p ri nciple i n the

 H A M I T I C S P E E CH 1 75

hiero glyp h s and at l as t l aid the fou nd ation s of a

,

hieroglyp hic syll ab ar y Thi s he b as ed u po n h is

.

s tudy of the c a rto u che s of Ptole my an d Be r e n ike .

B ut he e rr ed in the v al u e s as s ig ned to s o m e o f the

c h ar acte rs At thi s poi nt C h amp ollio n who h ad
. ,

bee n p u zzli n g like a dog th at h as lo s t the s c e nt ,

’
to ok u p the wo r k ag ai n with the aid of Yo u ng s
’
s u gge s tio ns extended Yo u n g s di s cove r ie s and
, ,

r e ad so m a ny o f t he i ns c r iptio ns th at he h as
bo r n e o ff the c r edit of h av in g bee n the fir s t to
”
li ft the my s tic veil of I s i s .

The E gypti ans li ke the othe r H a mitic r ace s

, ,

we r e of the Ca u c as i an typ e The face w as ov al ;

.

the fo r ehe ad s m all and r eti r i ng b u t well s h ap ed ; ,

the eye s l ar ge lo n g and as a r u le bl ack ; the n o s e

, ,

r athe r lo n g a nd with a s li ght bridge ; the m o u th

exp r e s s ive with fu ll lip s and white and r egu l ar

,

teeth ; the c hi n s mall and r o u nd ; the cheek

bo n e s a little p r o mi n e n t ; the h ai r lo ng full c r i s p , , ,

a n d u s u ally bl ack The s ki n o f the m e n w as d ar k

.

b r o w n ; th a t of the wo m e n v ar ied fr o m olive to

pi nk fl e s h —color in di ffe r ent p e r s o ns .

They beli eved in o ne G o d tho u gh wo rs hippi n g ,

m any ; the H am itic r u li n g cl ass h av in g b r o u ght

with the m the fi rs t co nceptio n and the T u r ani an o r ,

Nig r iti a n m as s e s r et ai n i ng thei r o ri gi nal p o ly th e

is m o r r athe r wo rs h ip o f loc al fetiche s L a te r R a .
, ,

the S ungod bec am e the c entr e of the p opul ar

,

my thologic al sy s te m .

The l angu age w as u ndo u btedly in the m ai n , ,

th at of the mod e r n Ko p ts which h as its elf ce as ed

,
 1 76 T H E S T OR Y OP L AN G UA GE .

to be spoke n fo r more th a n tw o c entu r i e s I ndeed .

,

it w as by m e ans of the Ko p tic to ng u e p r e s e r ved ,

i n the reco r d s of Ko ptic C hri s ti anity th at the old ,

i ns cription s we r e tran s l ated .

M any r oots are co m m o n to thi s and the Semitic

l angu age s . Between the H amitic and Se m itic
to n gue s the r e is no t o nly identity in the c ase o f
” “ ”
a few wo r d s like those fo r w ater m onth , and ,

s ome of the n u mer al s b u t the r e a r e a l s o some

,

r e s embl ance s in gram m ar Fo r i ns ta n ce the fo r

.
,

m ation of the feminine by me ans o f a z p r efixed

o r affixed is o n e of the s e A nothe r is the fo r m a
.

tion of the c au s ative by m e a n s o f S A no the r is

‘
.

the simil ar ity i n the p r efixe s and s u flix e s of the

te ns e s and in the p er s o nal p r o no u n .

I f it be tr u e as mod e r n re s e ar ch d aily m ake s

,

mo r e p rob able th at both H amitic C hald aea and

,

H amitic Ara bi a were clo s ely co nn ected i n pre

hi s toric time s with the r i s e o f civiliz ati on i n E gypt ,

thi s will acco u nt l argely for the li ke ness in lan

g u age between the H amitic and S e m i ti c s tock s of
this p art of the wo rld Str iki n gly di ff eren t as the
.

two r aces we r e i n thei r tend e nci e s the H amiti c ,

being e ar ly p rone to s ettled li fe in cities with

a gricu ltu r al e n e r gies p r o mp t to s u pp o rt thei r
young co m m uniti es and the Se m iti c lon g ad
,

dicted to the n om adic and p as to r al li fe they yet ,

lived for m any age s i n clo s e proxi mity i n all the

r egio n s o f s o u thwe s te r n A s i a a
nd no d o u bt m u ch
,

of thei r li n gu i s tic d evelop ment w as p ractic ally

identic al It is ind eed so h ard to s ep ar ate the m
.
, ,
 H AM I T I C SP EE CH 1 77

at a c ertai n stage of their growth th at I find i t ,

c o nvenient to tr e at of the civiliz atio n and l angu age

of s o u thern Arabi a in the ch apter o n Semitic
To ng u e s altho ugh I am gre atly i ncli ned to believe
,

th at the s e were in the m ain H amitic .

The r e are s o m e s triki n g d i fference s between the

l angu age of the hieroglyp hs and th at of the Ko p ts .

The old E gyp ti an add s the p o s s e ss ive p ronomin al

c h ar acter s to the no un s (as do al s o the Sy r o —A r abi c
tongu e s ) while the Ko p tic prefixe s them Thus :
, .

K op tic
’

E gyp tia n E nglzS/z

She re i -
my so n P -
a sh e r
-
e
Sh er e k th y (m ) so n P e
e k sh e r
- -
-
.

Sher e t -
th y (f.
) so n P e t sher e
- -

Sh e r e ph h is so n P eph shere
- -
-

Sh ere — s h er so n P es shere
- -

She r e -
n o u r so n P en sh e re
- -

Sh er e tn -

your so n P eten sh e re
- -

Sh er e -
sn th e ir so n P o n sh e re
- -

The P in the Ko p tic is the article t/z e .

So al s o in th e ve rb the old E gypti an adds the

, ,

p rono m in al p e rs on al c h ar acter s while Ko p tic pre ,

fixe s them . Thus

E nglz S/z
'

E gyp tia n

T -
ci I give
T k -

(o r) t thou give st
T f -
he give s
T -

s sh e gives

T -
n we give

T -
tu ye give
they give
12
1 78 T H E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

The s p oke n l an gu age of anci ent E gyp t s eem s

to h ave o r ig inally con s i s ted of m o n o syll abl e s .

The s e we r e in p r oce s s of ti m e a ggregated i nto

bilite ral and tr ilite r al r oots The r e we r e two .

m ai n di alects th a t of U pp e r a nd th at of L ower
,

E gypt M any Se m itic w o r d s we r e i nt r od u c ed

.

d u r in g the n in etee nth dy nas ty the ki n gs o f thi s ,

dy n as ty h a vi n g m ade m any p olitic al m a r r i age s

with Se m itic p r i n ce ss e s .

A n exte ns ive E gypti a n li te rat u r e h as co m e

down to u s c ar ved o n the wa ll s of te mple s and
,

to mb s and w r itte n u p o n p apy r u s r oll s c o fli ne d

,

with the m u mm ie s B u t it is no t co ntin u o u s ; .

an d while it is e m i n e n tly i nte r e s ti ng o n acco u n t

,

of the g r e at m ass of i nfo r m atio n we d e r ive fr o m

it the r e is no s u ch ar ti s tic m e r i t abo u t it as th at
,

wh ic h we fi n d in any o f the g r e a t li te r atu r e s of the

wo rld p r od u ced by ra ce s gi fted with di s ti n ction in
s tyle .

The be s t k n own s ep ar ate wo r k s ar e Th e Book of

-

the D e ad a wo nde r fu lly el abo rate r it u al and The

, ,

Poe m of Pe ntau r de s c r ibi n g the vi cto r y w o n by

”
,

R am e s s u I I at K ad e s h o n the O r o n te s o ve r the
.

Kh ita Both o f the s e wo r k s ar e l ar gely d r awn on

.

by E be r s in h is delightfu l r o m an ce of U ar d a de ,
"

p ic t in g l ife in a ncie nt E gyp t u n de r the c o n q u e r i ng

Ph araoh s .

No m e n tio n h as as yet bee n m ade of the g r e at

p ec u li ar ity o f the langii age Thi s co ns i s ts in the .

fact th at as in the c as e of the T u r a ni an tong u e s

,
,

the r oot of the wo r d r e m ai ns u nch an ged The .

 H A M I T / C SP E E CH . 1 79

du al and plur al are formed by affi xes The c as es .

of no u ns are di s cri mi n ated by pr e posi ti o ns ; the

tenses of verb s by p re fix ing form s of the ab s tr act
,

“ ”
au xili ary verbs th at m e a n to be or by affixi ng ,

to the verb al roots the p r o no u ns a k t f S 71 m , , , , , ,

ton s en preced ed by prep o s i tion s

, , .

It wi ll thus b e s een that the s peech of the an

c ient E gypti ans s ta nd s c u r iou s ly rel ated to ve ry
di fferent tongu e s I ts m o n o s yll abic character al
.

li es it to the tongu e s o f Chi na and I ndo Chin a -

.

The fix ity of its r oo ts r e m i n d s u s of the tongues

of S iberi a centr al A s i a and so u thern Ind i a I ts
, , .

gr amm ar and its voc ab ulary b oth h ave po ints of

affi nity w ith the Se m itic tong u e s of Ar abi a and

Syri a Evid e ntly it w as ar r e s ted at an e arly p eriod

.

i n its develop ment by the co ns e r v ative forces o f

civiliz atio n .

It h as alre ady bee n s ai d th at the M in ae an tongue ,

sp oken i n southe r n A r abi a befo r e the S ab a an w as ,

i n all likelihood H am itic .

The Gall as who c all them s elves O r omo s pe ak

, ,

in five di alects a tongu e th at h as been cl assed p ro

vision ally as H amitic I t h as m any poi nts o f r e
.

sembl ance to neighbo r i n g Se m itic tongu e s and ,

there are trac e s of gra mm atic al likeness to B asqu e .

H A M I T I C T O N G U ES .

Sid oni n
a Egy tian b
Be r er, I b e rian P l gi M i n
e as an naea ll
Ga a

g r 0? or (p ob bly) (p ob bly)
r a r a (p ob bly)
r a
R ot u Liby an B is cy
a an

I
Koptic
 CH A PT E R XII I .

S E M IT I C S PEE C H .

AT th e begi nni ng of thi s ce nt u ry we knew littl e

mo r e of Semitic liter at u r e th an w h a t w as c o n
t ain e d in the an ci e nt H eb r ew Sc r ip t u r e s a nd in

th at body of A r abic lite rat u r e which g r ew up afte r

the e ra o f M oh ammed .

A v as t mass of i ns c r iptio n s d u g u p and d eci

,

ph e r e d h as added g r e atly to o u r k n owled ge

, Bott a .

and L ay ar d b r o u ght to view fr o m b u r i ed Nineveh

m any r e m ai ns of A s s y r i a n doc u m e nts A r na u d

.
,

H al evy a nd o th e r s b r o u ght a w ay copie s of the

,

H i my ar itic in s c r iptio ns i n Ye m e n . B ar th ele my

a n d R e n an s t u di ed the Phoenici a n i ns c r iptio ns of

Ty r e and Sid o n and of the L eb ano n R e na n e m .

bodied the s e l n th at n oble m o nu m e nt o f h is s chol

“
ars h ip the
, C o r p us S e m itic ar u m I nsc r ip tio n u m .

The S e m itic l ang u age s co mp r i s e : I The an .

cie nt Ch ald man o r B abylo n i an s p oken in the

,

ki ngdo m o n the Pe rs i an G u lf fo u nded by th e

Ak k adi eve n b e fo r e A kk ad a nd S u m i r we r e m as
,

t e re d by the A r ab s of the Sy r i an and A ra bi a n

d e s e r t s : a to n gu e aki n to A rabi c ; 2 The Ass y r.

ian s poken by th at b ran ch of the s ame Se m itic

,

r a ce which at an e ar ly pe r iod s ettled th e u pp e r

 SEMI T I C SP E E CH 1 81

p art of th e M e s opo tam i an v alley and fo u nded

N i n e veh K al ah and Ass hur ; 3 The Ar am ai c
, , .
,

s p oken as the pop ul ar di alect all ove r Me s op o

t ami a and Sy r i a and at a l ater pe r iod in P ale s tine

, ,

i t i ncl u d e s the Jewi s h Aram aic Sy r i ac N ab ata an

-

, , ,

a nd Pal m r it e ; 4 The H eb r ew which incl u de s

y .
, ,

b e s id e s the H eb rew pro per s poke n by the peopl e

o f I s r ael the Ph oe nici an Canaan ite E do m ite M O
, , , ,

a bit e an d Pu n ic o r Carth agi n i an and w as in e ar ly

, , ,

d ay s the to n gu e c ur r e n t th r o u gho ut the Pale s tini an

r egi o n b ei n g the Se m itic co as t di alect ; 5 The
,
-
.

A rabic s p oke n at fir s t in A r ab i a o nly b ut by

, ,

the co n q ue s ts o f the S arac en s a nd the t rade r o u te s -

o f the A rab s exte nd ed ove r a l ar ge p ar t o f As i a

a nd A fr ic a as well as fo r m o r e th an s eve n c e n
,

t u r ie s ove r Sp ai n ; 6 The S ab ze an its elf p receded

.
,

by an e ar lie r d ialect the M in ze an s poke n i n p r e

, ,

hi s to r i c time s in s o u the rn A ra bi a : the Min aean

w as p r ob ably H a m itic ; 7 The E thiopic o r G eez .
, ,

c ar r i ed by S ab aean co n q ue s t i nto Abys s i ni a and

s till s poken the r e R el ated to thi s l as t b u t p e r
.
,

h aps e q u ally rel ated to H a mitic to n g u e s is the ,

A m h ari c al s o s p oken in A bys s i ni a

,
.

The Semitic r ace s fi r s t app e ar hi s to r ic ally i n the

g r e at de s e r t regio n cove ri n g A r abi a and exte ndi ng
to the bo r d e r o f the M e s op ot ami an r ive r v alleys .

The A rab Bedo u i n s of the d e s e r t and the A rab

p i ra te s o f th e Pe r s i a n Gu lf by gr adu al e n c r o ach
ments i n the ve ry d aw n o f hi s to r y m as tered the
, ,

civiliz atio n whic h the Tur ani an p eople o f A kk ad

h ad e s t abli s hed at th e mo u th s of the Ti gri s and
1 82 TH E S T OR Y OP L A N G UA GE .

the E u phr ate s H o w long they r uled i n the Ch al

.

d as an l and it is no t yet p o ss ible to say ; b u t they

,

h ad bee n r ule rs ove r U r o f the Ch a ld ee s fo r s o m e

ge n e ratio ns whe n A b ram obeyed the c all of J e
hov ah to co m e o u t of th at l and at le as t 20 00 B C ,
. .

They h ad lo n g s i n ce ma de thei r l an gu age th at of

the people of the co u r t and o f lite ratu r e s o th at
, , ,

the old T u rani an to ng u e of th e p eopl e o f S u mi r

and Akk ad h ad beco m e a d e a d l an g u age c u lti ,

v at e d by the p r i e s ts a lo n e .

The S emitic to n g u e s are di ffe r e nt d i alects r athe r

th an r el ated l an g u age s They h ave the s e ch ar ac
.

te r is tic m ar k s : th e p r edo m i nan ce of t r ic o ns o na ntal

r oot s ,
a s i mil ar ity in the fo r m atio n of n o u n a nd

ve r b s te ms r e s e mbl an ce in the fo r m s of the p er s o

,

n al p r o no u n s and in thei r u s e r e s e m bl an ce in thei r

,

n ote of ti me in the ve r b s a nd in th ei r s y s te m fq r

the inte r ch ange of vowel s and l ike n e ss in the o r d e r

,

a nd co ns t r u ctio n of s ente n ce s as well as in the ,

me r e voc ab u l ary .

They m ay be divid ed co nve ni e ntly i nto two

g r o u p s the n o r the r n a nd the s o u the r n the m e m
, ,

be r s of e ach h avi n g a clo s e r affi n ity to o ne another

th an to a ny of the othe r g r o up The n o r the r n .

gr o up will co m p r i s e the C anaani te o r H eb r ew ,

Ph ce nic ian the A ram aic and the C h ald ae a n or

, , ,

A s sy r i a n ; th e s o u the r n will co mp r i s e the A rabic ,

the S ab ae an and the E thi opic The C h ald aean

, .

w as b u t the s o u the r n a nd old e r fo r m of the

Ass yri an .R em ai n s of both ar e fo u nd i n the

cu neifo r m i ns c r iptio n s The s e i n s criptio n s were
.
 S E M I T I C S P E E CH .
1 83

m ad e by m arking the cl ay of the bricks while

moi s t with a s tick or bit o f metal sinki ng th e im ,

p leme n t d eeply at o ne e nd and le aving the m ar k

n ar r ower and fai nter at th e other Thi s wed ge .

”
sh p e i s exp ressed by the word cu nei form fro m
a
,

L ati n czmeus ”
, a wed ge and f or ma
, s h ap e , .

The tr an s l atio n of the c u neifo r m sig ns i n mod ern

ti me s w as m ad e p o ss ible by the fact th at when the ,

Per s i ans co n quered Ass y r i a and B abyloni a they ,

adop ted thi s mode of w r iting A v as e now in the

.
,

Lo uv r e at P aris cont ai nin g a Per s i a n and an

,

E gypti an in s crip tio n side by s ide co nfi r med c e r ,

tai n gu es s e s at ce r tai n combi n a tions as the na me s

of D a ri u s and Xerxes Thus w as furni s hed a key
.

to the cu neiform s yll ab ary .

B ut far gre ate r prog r ess w as m ad e whe n the

ex am in ation of the rock i n s cription at B ehi s tun
the a ncie n t Bagistana i n Med ia i n Pe rs i an ,

Med i a n and Assy r i an e nabled s cho l ars to co mp are

,

the three l angu age s i n the same s ymbolic fo r m s .

The tongue of the Ch ald a ans of Semitic r ace

was more n e arly r el ated to H ebrew th an to A ra
m ai c I t w as al most free however fro m gutt u rals
.
, , ,

and h ad b u t slight traces of the an ci e n t p erfect

ten s e I n one p ar tic ul ar its ag r eement w as r ather

.

with a tongu e o f the so u thern gr o up th an wi th its

s i s te r ton gues of the no r th L ike th e E thiopi c it
.
,

h ad no articl e . The H ebrew Ph oenici an gr o up -

and th e Ar abi c agreed i n h avi n g a p refixed definite

article . The S ab aean s p oken in the extr eme s outh

,

we s t o f the A r ab i an peni n s ul a expre ss ed the arti

,
 1 84 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

cle by me a n s of a su fli x e d n ; the A r am ai c sp oken ,

in Mesopot ami a and Sy r i a also u s ed a s u ffi x fo r

,
’

the article b u t i n s te ad of a it w as a
,
.

The be s t authoritie s a g r e e th at the p r im al se at

of the Ara b race which s eem s to h ave been the
,

b as i s of all the Semitic family w as o n the extreme ,

s outhwe s te r n point of the A r abi an p e n i n s u l a ne ar

A d en F r o m thi s poi nt i t sp re ad n o r thward a nd

.

we s tw ard ove r Yem en H adram au t and O m an

‘
, , .

Th is sectio n o f the r ace h ad close afli nitie s with the

H a mitic r ace s of Afric a I nd eed it m ay h ave bee n
.
,

in blood r ather H amitic th an Semitic and its r e ,

l ation to the genuine Se m i tic Ar ab m ay h ave been

m e r ely the fact of its i mp ar ting to h im the ge r ms
of civiliz atio n The Se mitic A rab h as always
.

cl aimed de s c e n t from I s h m ael and the r efo r e fr o m

,

the Abrah am ic stock th at dwelt among the

C h aldee s .

Tho s e tr ibes th at swept s till far the r northwar d

and fir s t s ettled i n the c ivilized l and of the Akk adi
,

to colo n i ze A s syri a l ate r on the extr e m e no r th

, , ,

and the s ho r e s of the L ev a nt o n the west kept ,

thei r Semitic blood p u r e r th an the A r ab o f th e

s o u th .

L ong be fo r e the age of M oh am m ed there w as a ,

c u ltu re see m ingly i ndi geno u s i n the l and of

, ,

Yemen the ancient n am e of which w as S ab a o r

,
,

Sheb a Tho u gh the i n s c r iptio ns c alled H i my ar iti c

.

d ate only fr o m the time of Ch r ist far ol d er S ab azan ,

i ns cripti on s h ave been fou n d comp ar atively a s ho rt

,

ti me ago ; and o ne di alect of the S ab ee an to ng u e ,

 SE M I T I C S P E E CH . 1 85

the M i n aean i s now beli eved to belong to a pe riod

,

mo r e ancient still th an the time of S ab a an gr e at

n e ss the M inze ans h avi n g in fac t ruled all A r abi a
, ,

u n til s up er s ed ed by the S ab aeans .

The M in aean i nsc r ip tio ns are fo u nd chiefly in

H a dr a m aut e ast of Ye m e n
, R ese arches m a de by .

D o u ghty E utin g H u b e r and Gl aser p r ove the

, , ,

g r e at antiquity of the M ina an kingdom The .

S ab ae an ki ngdo m w as flo u r ishing i n the eighth

c ent u ry b efo re C h r i s t whe n S argon ruled As sy r i a
, .

The vi s i t of i ts queen to Solomon takes u s b ack

s till fa rther ; th at i n te r e s ting event goe s b a ck to

the te nt h century before C h rist .

’
I t w as long before thi s th at M a in the l and of ,

the M in ae an s w as a gre at p ower i n the s o u th It

, .

h as b ee n asc ertained th a t p r i est ki ng s p r eceded -

the s ec ul ar rulers of S ab a S uch w as J eth r o the .

,

fathe r—in law o f M o s e s S u c h w as M elchizedek

-

.
,

th e fr i e n d of A br ah am M uller found the nam e s

.

of thi r ty— ’
three kings of M a i n i n in scriptions copied
fr o m the neighbo r hood o f Teim a in no r ther n
A rabi a o n th e ro ad to D am as cus
, The Min aean .

alph abet is older th a n the Ph oenici an and i t is ,

now believed to be de m o ns t r able th at the Ph oeni

c ian w as de r ived from i t .

The civiliz atio n o f Yemen h ad its b asi s in the

tr ade with I nd i a and C eylon on the e as t and with
Sy r i a and M esop otami a on the north D o u btle ss .

there w as al s o an e arly t rad e with the e as te r n co ast

o f A fr ic a W hen the M inmans were overth r own
.

by the S ab aean s the ki n gdo m o f Sheb a bec am e

,
1 86 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

pe r h ap s eve n g r e ater th an its p r ed ec e ss o r h ad eve r

bee n It held s w ay ove r an exte ns ive d o m ai n in
.

A fr ic a as well as i n A s i a It l as ted fr o m abo ut

.

the te nth ce nt u ry befo r e C h r i s t — p e r h ap s fr o m a

m u ch e ar li e r p e r iod — to withi n a ce nt u r y of the
C h r i s ti a n e r a whe n it w as s u p e r s ed ed by the r u le
,

o f the H o me r ite s of H i my ar who s e kingd o m l as ted,

to the s ixth c e ntu ry afte r C h r i s t s ho r tly afte r .

which time the ge ni us o f M oh amm ed gave a s till

wide r s w ay to the A r abi an race The i ns c r iption s .

give the n ame s o f mo r e th an fo r ty—fi v e S ab ae an

ki n gs .

A bys s i ni a w as p eopled fr o m the S ab ma n l and ,

and A k s um s ee ms at o ne ti me to h ave bee n

adopted as the S ab aea n c apit al I n th e r eign o f
.

the R o m an empe r o r Con s t anti u s at the begi n n ing ,

o f the fo u r th ce n t u r y the ki n g o f A k s fi m w as al s o
,

ki n g o f the H o m e r ite s of Ye m e n o f the E th io ,

pi ans o f the S ab ar ite s a nd o f the B o nz aite s o r

, , ,

Ble m m ye s H is n am e in the G r eek fo r m in which

.
,

we fi nd it w as Ae iz anas H e w as add r e ss ed by
, .

C on s tanti u s with a n u r ge nt r e q u e s t no t to h ar bo r
A th anas i u s w h o m the R o m an e mp e r o r w as then
,

p e rs ec u ti n g I n the s ixth ce nt u ry the H i my ar ite

.

ki ng app ar e ntly r u l in g then o nly in A rabi a w as

, ,

ove r th r ow n by D h u—N u as ki n g o f A k s um ; and

’

Ye me n bec am e s u bj ect fo r a ti m e to A by ss i ni a .

B ut b efo r e the clo s e of th e cent u r y th i s p owe r w as

i n its t u r n overth r ow n by Pe rs i an a dve nt u r e rs .

A bo u t the middle of the ni nete e n th cent u r y th e

explorer Ar nau d di s cove r ed the anci e n t M ar iab ,
 S E M I T I C SP E E CH . 1 87

the r oy al c ity o f the Sab a ans an d copied fi fty s ix ,

-

i ns c ri ptio n s S u b s e q u e nt exp lo r e r s c hi ef a mong

.
,

who m w as J o s ep h H a l evy obtained cop ie s o f ,

m any m o r e The alp h abet o f the s e i n s c r iptio ns

.

is aki n to the E thiopic The l an gu age is So u th

.

Se m itic fo r m i ng a link b etween the No r th A rabic

,

a nd the E thiopic .

Both the Mi n ae an and the S ab aean ar e clo s ely

r el ated to the A rabic b ut ar e evidently mo r e ,

p r i m itive .

The E thi op ic Aby s s i ni an o r G eez w as the lan

, ,

gu age o f the anc ie nt ki n gdo m of A k s um k nown ,

to the G r eek geog raphe rs as A ux ume I ts e ar ly .

conditio n is to be gathe r ed al mo s t excl u s ively

fr o m i ns c r ip ti on s L ate r it w as u s ed in th e G eez
.
,

ver s io n of the Bible and i n theolo gic al tran s l ation s

fr o m the G r eek I t c e as ed to be s poke n abo u t
.

o n e tho u s and ye ar s ago A s u s ed i n the m an u

.

s c r ip t s tho u gh r el ated to the S ab a an it is m o r e

, ,

mod e r n in its develop m ent th an the Arab ic I t .

h as lo s t s o m e i n fl ect io ns of the e ar lie r Se m itic

typ e an d h as al s o lo s t the p as s ive voice
,
It .

c h ange s as pi rated d e n tal s into s ibil ants I t h as .

n o defi n ite ar ti cle b u t is ve ry r i ch in p ar ticle s

,
.

I t r e s e m bl e s the Aram aic in its fr eedo m as to the

o rd e r of wo r d s i n the s entence a nd i n the e as e ,

with which it joi ns s e n te n ce s together .

‘
The Tigr é di alect s ee ms to be a m ode r n d e
s c e nd a nt of Geez A n othe r d i alect s poken in
th at r egi o n T igrm a is the Ti g ré modified by
, ,

A mh ar i c . The E thiopic wo rd s a Oa me aning ,

1 88 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

me n , is an evide nc e of the S ab ae an d e s cent

of the r ace .

A m h ar ic h as diverged widely fr o m the gene r al

Se m itic typ e I ts voc ab u l ar y is l ar gely al ien
. ,

p r ob ably H ami tic The o r d e r of wo r d s is s o m e

.

ti m e s j u s t the r eve rs e o f the S e m itic o r d e r The .

ve r b co me s aft e r the s u bj ect ; the genitive co m e s

be fo r e the n o u n it l imits ; the attr ib u tive rel ative
c l au s e co m e s befo r e it s s u b s t a ntive The l an g u a ge
.

h as the a ir of h avi n g been o n ce a Se m itic to n g u e

and h av in g u n de r go n e t ran s fo r m a tio n by its adop

tio n as the s p eech o f H am iti c t r ibe s It r ank s .

n ext to A rabic in the n u m be r of p e r s o ns who

s p e ak it .It h as bee n o nly ve ry r ece n tly p u t to

lite rar y u s e .

P as s ing n o w to the no r the r n p ar t o f Ar abi a ,

we co m e to the g r e at lite rary tong u e of the A rab

r ace s o wid ely di ffu s ed by co n q u e s t a nd r elig iou s
,

z e aL

The p ur e s t A r abic is s poke n in Nej d ; b ut it

di ffe rs little fr o m th at u s ed in any of the l and s to
which the ar m s o f the S ara ce n s p e n et rated .

M et r ic al po e ms e mbelli s hed with r hy m e as well

,

as p ayi n g s t r ict atte n tion to q u a ntity exi s t in g r e at ,

nu mb e rs d ati n g b ack to two ce n t u r ie s b e fo r e

,

M oh ammed O f co u r s e tho s e s till r ecited by th e

.

pop u l ar m i ns t r el s co nfo r m l ar gely to the p r o nu n

c iat io n of the r e gio n i n whi ch they fi nd the ir
a udie nc e .

Be s ide s th e r o m ance s of w ar and adventu r e like ,

tho s e of A ntar (Se r e e t Antar ) the r e are co unt

’ ’

,
 S E M I T I C S P E E CH 1 89

le ss ode s love s ongs elegie s and ethic al p oem s

,
-

, , .

Th e reg u l ar ity o f the metr e and r hyme s in the

p oe m s is a p r oof th at the s am e l an gu age i n the
m ai n w as s poke n all over the A r abi an ar e a fr om a
ve ry e ar ly p e r iod .

I n the te n th cent u ry ap pe a r ed “ The Bo ok of

”
S o n gs by A b u F araj o f I s p ah an an anthology of
-

A rab p oet s with b r ief biog r aphi e s of the autho rs .

P r o s e lite ratu r e begi n s with the Ko ran and h as ,

alw ay s ret ai n ed the flo r id h alf r hyth m ic al s tyle in

,
-

whic h th at lega cy of Mo h am m ed s to the race and ’

the l an gu age is couched .

The Ko r an m ad e the l ang uage s ac r ed as well as

cl as s ic I n it as ti m e we n t o n and as the race
.
, ,

c ame in co n tact with the literat u re s of o the r r ace s ,

were co mpo s ed vol u mi no u s c hronicle s a nd wo rk s

o f s ci ence a nd p hilo s o p hy Am ong th e gr e ate s t
.

of the s e l as t we r e the work s o f Avice nn a in the E ast

a nd tho s e o f Ave rr o e s in the W e s t A t a time .

whe n we s te r n E u rop e h ad no m od e r n l ite r atu r e

a nd h ad b eco m e igno ra nt of the t r e as u re s of the

a n ci ent lite ra ture s of G r eece a nd R o m e whe n ,

even the s chool s of Co n s tanti n ople h ad a tas te o nly

fo r theolo gi c al d i s cu s s io ns the r e w as hi gh inte lle c
,

tu al cu ltu r e am o ng the M o s lem s fro m Cordov a to

I s p ah an. A bo ut the eleve nth c entu ry th at inco m
— “
p ar able tre as u r e ho u s e of t ale s The Tho u sand
,

N i ghts and a Ni ght (E lf Leyleh w a L eyleh ) w as

” -

prod uced .

The A rabic l angu age is r ich i n voc ab ul ary ,

thou gh p erh ap s s ome d ed uctio n s ho uld be m ad e

1 90 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UAGE .

from the estim ate ge n e rally formed of its copio u s

ne ss from the fact th a t m a ny o f its wo rd s a re but
,

poetic al and pe r i ph r as tic de s c r iptio ns rather th an

n am e s W e mi ght j u s t as well take the expres
.

“ ” ”
s ions wh ale s p ath and s w a n ro ad u sed i n
’ -

“
the p oetry of I n flected E n gli s h fo r the s e a as ,

s ep ara te syno nym s .

Ar abic is al s o r ich in gra m m atic al fo rms Po s i .

tio nal gr a mm ar howeve r pl ays s o l arge a p art

, ,

in the constru ctio n of s e n te n ce s th at the c ase ,

endings are co mp aratively u n i mp o r tant S ubj ect .

and obj ect o cc u py in ge n e ral fixed p ositi o ns ; and

, ,

the genitive alway s follow s the n o u n i t limits In .

th e l angu age of the people the ancient termin a ,

tion s tho ugh writte n are n o t nece ss arily pro

, ,

no u nce d I n thi s r e s p ect it r e s embles Mod ern

.

F r ench T here are now m a ny v arying di alects

. .

P assi ng still far the r n o r thw ar d we come to the ,

gre at Can aanite family be s t k n own to u s by th e ,

H ebrew Bible its gr e ate s t liter ary prod uction

, ,

constituti ng in re ality a lib r ary of ve r y v a ried liter

atu re Thi s tongu e however whether we c hoose
.
, ,

to c all it H eb r ew or Ph aenic ian Can aanite o r ,

E do mite w as s poken by all the Pa le s tini an p eople s

, .

Ph oenici an Phili s ti n e A malekite and I s raelite

, , , ,

all spoke v arietie s of the s a m e s e a co as t di alect .

The Ph oenici an s c ar r i ed the s am e ton g u e to T ar

s hi s h and Kittim th at is to C ilici a n T ar s u s and to
, ,

Cypru s and we s twar d to thei r Sicili an and Sp anish

,

and A fric an settl eme n t s The H eb r e w r ac e too .

, ,

we mu s t remember incl u d ed be s id e s I s r ael M o ab

, , , ,
 S E M T TTC S P E E CH . 1 91

E d o m Am mon
, even the Bed oui n t r ibe s s p r u ng
, and

fro m I s h m ael tho u gh the s e l as t m i n gli ng w ith the

, ,

other A r ab s bec am e mo r e definitely di ffe r e nti ated

,

fr o m I s r ael in p r o ce ss of ti m e .

B u t fr o m a ve r y e ar ly pe r iod thi s s p eech th r e at

ened to give w ay befo r e the e nc r o a ch me nts o f the
A r a m aic of Sy r i a a nd Me s opotam i a The e s tab .

l is h m e nt of the ki n gdo m o f I s r ael and J u d ah and ,

the g r owth of the sac r ed lite rat u r e in the s e l and s ,

a lo ne prevented an e a r lie r yieldi n g o f the H eb r ew

to n g u e to the s e e nc r o ac h m e nts The downfall of .

t h e ki n gd o m of I s ra el b r o u ght with i t th at of the

H eb r ew to n g u e as a s p oke n l a n g u age in the whole

r egio n beyo nd the li ttle ki n gdo m of J u d a h The .

G alilze ans were the e arlie s t in the s e p ar ts to adop t

the A r am aic Pr o fe s s o r M u rray who s e Se mi tic
.
,

le ar ni n g ill u mined the lectu r e r oo m s of the J oh ns -

H opki n s U n ive rs ity o nly to o b r iefly q u ote s the ,

T al m u d to s how th at the di ffe r e n ce am o u nted

m ai nly to a ce r tai n s lovenline ss of p r o nu n ci atio n .

It w as i m po ss ible to u nd e rs t an d a ce r tain
Ga lil a a n who c a me to the J e r u s ale m m ar ket to
p u rch as e s o m ethi n g whether he d e s i r ed to h ave
,

Iz a mdr an as s Ea mo n wi ne a ma r s o m e wool
’ ’ ’

‘
, , , , ,

o r z mm r a l a mb al l p r o n o u n ced p r eci s ely the

'
’

,
a ,

s a me i n h is p atoi s It is thi s thi ck p r o n u n ci ation

.
,

a l mo s t a b r o g u e which is the p oi n t in the bet ray al

,

”
o f Peter by h is s p eech .

A s a s poke n di alect the H eb r ew b ec am e exti n ct ,

o uts ide o f J ud ah in the s eve n th ce nt ury befo r e the

,

C h r i s ti an e r a ; and in the s econd ce nt u r y before

C hri s t it b ec am e exti nct even in J ud ma .
1 92 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

L ike L ati n , it w as u s ed as a p u r ely liter ary

to n gu e fo r m any c entu r i e s after it ce as ed to be
s poke n . The p r eci s e s i mil ar ity of the gramm ati
c al fo r m r u nn i n g th r o u gh
,
w r iti n gs th at cove r a
pe r iod o f m o r e th an two tho u s and ye ar s is fully,

acco u n ted fo r by the fact th at we do n o t h ave

the H eb r ew s ac r ed book s in thei r o r igi nal fo r m .

They co m e to u s as S emitic s chol ar s tell u s in

, ,

the lit ur g ic al s h ape i nto which fo r p u r po s e s o f

wo rs hip they we r e c as t by ce r tain p r ofe ss o rs in
the U nive rs ity of Tibe r i as in G alilee ab o u t the s ixth
ce nt ur y o f o u r e ra The p ar tic u l ar fo r m of the lan
.

g u age o f the O ld Te s t am e nt is th u s m o r e m ode r n

th an th at o f the G r eek of the N ew Te s tame nt .

The B ible doe s n o t give u s the p r o nu nci atio n

of anci e nt H eb r ew the vowel p oi nt s h aving bee n in
.

s e r te d by the J ewi s h R abbi s to s how how the text

s ho u ld be r e ad in the s ole m n ch ant of the s yn agog u e .

A fte r the fa ll o f J e r us ale m H eb r ew w as r evived

,

in thei r s chool s by the R a bbi s . Thi s H eb r ew of

the s chool s as r el ated to th at of th e Bible b e ar s
, ,

s o m ewh at the c h ar acte r o f the L ati n of the

School me n co m p ar ed with th at o f the R o man
e m pi r e. The l ate r H eb r ew s hows the likene ss
to thi s ar tifici al L ati n s till mo r e s tro ngly th an the
l an g u age o f the M i s h na .

The sy ntax o f H eb r ew is ve ry p r i m itive S e n .

te nc e s are ge ne rally li nked togethe r s im ply by the

co nj u nctio n and The fact th at in the ve r b the

n ote of ti m e is co n fi n ed to p as t a nd p r e s e n t m ake s

i t di ffic ult fo r the tho u ght to be exp r e s s ed with

 S E M I T I C S P E E CH .
193

d e fi nite ne s s The l angu age w as i n adeq u ate to

.

the exp r e ss io n o f s cie ntific fact o r philo s op hic

s p ec u l atio n with an
y d egree of p r eci s io n The
voc ab u l ar y w as ve ry li m ited far i nfe r io r to th at ,

o f th e A ra bic even when we t ake i n to acco u nt ,

the fact th at we k n ow the H eb rew o n ly by its

lite ra ture while A r abic is s till a livi ng to ng u e
, .

So m e poi nts of d i ffe r e n ce fr om Ary an to n g u e s

may b e me ntio ned he r e as helpi n g to fix in o u r ,

mi nd s the p ro pe r pl ac e o f thi s gro u p

I The ve r b al inflectio n di s ti ng u i s he s gende r
. .

2 The r e is a co ale s cence o f ar ticle and p r epo

.

s itio u with the no u n which co ns titute s a s o r t of ,

i niti al i nflec tio n th at fo r m s a p e r fect contr as t to

th e ter m i nal i nflectio n o f the A ry an to n gue s .

“
Thu s bos/z oleb me a n s , d ark n e s s ;
“ ”
and d arkne ss ; b a the d ar k ne s s ;
’ “
w la and to the d ar k ne s s .

O r igi n ally the r e w a s te r m i nal i n flectio n fo r c as e s

in H eb r ew as well as in A s s y r i a n and A rabic ;
,

b ut thi s h as bee n lo s t in H eb r ew The th r ee .

c as e s i n A ss y r i an and A rabi c are th u s ill u s trated

by D r H ar p e r
.

As sy r ia n . Assy r ia n .

N madattu
.
, tribute . matu, co untry .

G . madat ti, o f tr ib ute . mé ti, o f co u ntry

A mad atta, “ tribute ”

mé ta, “ co untr
. .
y .

Ar a bic . Ar a bic .

“ th e k itéibu n, “a b oo k
”
N . al kitabu -

,
book . .

G . al kitabi-

,
o f th e bo o k kité bin, of a bo o k .

”
A . al -
k ité b a the bo ok k ité ban, a bo o k .
1 94 T TI E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

But fo r ge nde r and n u mbe r the r e is term in al

i nfl ectio n in H eb r ew ; and like G r eek H eb r ew , ,

h as th r ee n u m be r s s i n g ul a r d u al and pl u ra l , , , .

The r e is al s o a co ale s ce n ce o f ve r b and p r o

n omi n al obj ect which re m i nd s o n e of the s a me
,

u s age in I t a l ian It is r e ally a s o r t of aggluti

.

n atio n .

3 I n the genitive r el atio n it is the wo r d li m ited

.
,

a n d not the li m iti n g wo r d as i n G r eek L a ti n a nd , , ,

G e r m an th at s u ffe r s c h a nge tho u gh in H eb r ew

, ,

thi s ch ange is p r od u ced s i mply by a s ho r te n i ng

of the vowel s of the wo r d li m ited Th u s H eb r ew .
,

“ — “ ” ”
s ay s face s o f aby ss n o t fac e s o f aby s s ,
-

4 M o s t wo r d s as in F r e nch are a cce n ted o n

.
, ,

the l as t syll able .

Ph oenici an o r P u nic the m ar iti m e s i s te r of H e

, ,

b r ew is k nown o nly th r o u gh i ns c r iptio ns

, The .

g r e at colo nie s o f Sido n Ty r e and A r v ad e s pe , , ,

c ially K ad e s h o n the O ce a n — the G ad e s of the ,

cl ass ic s the Cadiz o f the m od e r ns

, T a rs hi s h , ,

the Sicili an Sel a M o ty a and Pan o r m o s o f the , ,

G old e n Shell the A fr ic a n Car th a ge H ipp o a nd

, , ,

U tic a l ike the ir p ar e nt citie s h ave left n o lite ra

, ,

tu r e .

The g r a mm ar o f the di alect is n e ar ly th at of

H eb r ew a nd the co ns o nant s ar e th e s am e as tho s e
,

of H eb r ew The voc a b ul ary too is al mo s t id e n

.
, ,

tic al O ne n otewo r thy fact is poi nted o ut by

.

co mp arative p hilolo gi s ts : m any of the Phoe n ici an

wo r d s are tho s e which i n H eb r ew are p ec u li ar to
poet ry B ut it m u s t b e reme mbe r ed th at the la n
.
 S E M I T I C S P E E CH .
1 95

gu age cf i nsc r ip ti o ns as well as th at of p oetry

, ,

is ap t to be arch aic .

To the s e two d i alects H ebrew and Ph oe n ici an

, ,

A ram a ic is n e arly r el ated As h as been s aid it

.
,

w a s fr o m ti m e im m e m o r i al the l ang u age o f Sem

ite s in Me s opotam i a and Sy r i a and at a l ate r ,

p e r io d it di s pl aced H eb r ew in Pale s tine In the .

Pe rs i a n p e r iod it w as th e o ffici al l ang u age of the

p r ovi n ce s we s t o f the E u ph r ate s The chie f me n
.

o f J u d a h u s ed it to co mm u nic ate with the A s s y

r i an s o r r a the r wi s hed to do s o
, Fo r whe n T ar
.

ta n R ab sari s and R ab s h akeh we r e s e nt by the

, ,

King of Ass y r i a ag ai n s t Ki ng H ezeki ah R ab ,

s h ak e h g ave h is m as te r s m e ss a ge to the s e r v ant s

’

“ ” ’
of the King o f J u d ah in the J ews l an g u age .

The n said E li aki m the s o n o f H ilki ah and ,

Sheb n a and J o ah u nto R ab s h akeh Sp e ak I p ray

, , , ,

thee to thy s e rv a nts i n the Sy r i an l an g uage ; fo r

,

’
we u nd e rs tand it : and talk not with u s in the J ew s
l an gu age i n the e ar s of the p eople th at ar e o n the
”
w all .

B ut thi s ill s uited the p olicy of the Assyri an

e nvoy ; and R ab s h akeh s tood and c r ied with a
’
10 i voic e in the J ews l an guage s o th at the ,

p eopl e m i ght he ar and u nd e rs tand th e h au ghty

me ssage o f h is m as te r .

The e ar li e r rem ai n s o f thi s Sy r i a n o r A r amaic

to n gu e co n s i s t of i ns criptio ns on s e al s and gem s .

Tho s e b ook s in the Bibl e in which it is u s ed s how

its s tate a mong the J ews of Pale s tine S ome fo r m s .

then fou nd i n it afterw ard di sapp e ared ; for in

1 96 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

s at nce the fo r m atio n o f the p ass ive by i nte r n al

,

vowel ch ange a nd the c au s ative with b a i ns te ad of

-

with a The i ns c r ipti o ns o f Palmyr a and on the

.

N ab ataean coi ns s how th at the s am e to n g u e w as

s poken i n D am as c u s and i n P al my r a .

The N ab ataeans altho u gh they s poke A ram aic , ,

we r e tru e A rab s They belo n ged to the bo r de r.

l an d betwee n Sy r ia and A rab ia s tr etch ing fr o m ,

the E u p h rate s to the R e d S e a They we r e pow .

e r fu l abo u t the fo u r th ce n t u ry befo r e C h r i s t at ,

wh ich t im e Petra the fo r me r c apit al o f the E d o m

,

ite s bec a m e thei r chief s t r o nghold

,
I n e ar li er .

age s they h ad bee n n o m ad ic and h ad t r aded i n ,

my rr h and s pice s fr o m Ye m e n and i n bit u me n ,

fr o m the D e ad S e a the l atte r ar ticle bei n g in ,

gr e at de m and fo r u s e in the p r ep aratio n of m u m

mie s in E gypt They s u cceeded to the co mm e r ce
.

of E dom and we r e m as te rs of D am as c u s in the

,

ti m e of Ch r i s t h av in g lo n g s i nce beco m e to a
,

gr e at exte nt s ettled and agr ic u ltu r al B u t e v e ntu .

ally thei r p owe r w as de s t r oyed by T raj an s c a

’

p
t u r e o f Pet ra .

A mo ng the J ew s afte r the B abylo ni an Captivity , ,

the r e adi ng of the Bible w as alway s followed by an

“
o ral Za rg zmz o r t r ans l atio n in the n atu r e of a
, ,
”

p ar aph r as e i nto A ram aic th at bei n g the l an g u age

, ,

of the m as s e s The s e tar g u ms we r e afte r wa rd

.

i n B abylo ni a r ed u ced to w r iti n g The B ab y lo

, .

ni an and the M a nd ae a n di alects v a r ied s o m ewh at

fr o m tho s e o f Pale s ti ne .

A t E d e s sa both the O ld Te s t am ent a nd the

,
 S E M I T I C S P E E CH 197

N ew we r e tr an s l a ted i nto the Ar am aic ; and the

di a lect thu s given li te r ary fo r m c am e to b e c alled
Sy r i ac A n exten s ive lite ratu r e w as prod u ced in
.

it and i t b ec a m e ve ry pop ul ar amo n g the Sy ri an s

,

of the Pe r s ian E mp i r e W hen the M o s lem s co n

.

qu e r ed the l an d s i n which they were s p oken all ,

the A r amaic d i alects we r e u lti m ately s uppl anted

by A ra bi c A r am ai c di alects howeve r s till s u r
.
, ,

v iv e d i n the mo u n t ai n r egio n s of M e s opot am i a a nd

K u r d i s tan a m o n g Ch r i s ti ans and J ews They h ave .

beco m e s o mewh at an alytic in s tr u ctu r e and h ave ,

adopted i nto thei r voc ab ul ar ie s m any A r abic ,

K u r di s h and T u r ki s h word s
, .

The S am ar itan tr ans l atio n o f the Pe ntate u ch

s how s the A r am ai c in o n e o f its n u me r o u s loc al

di alects .

A ra m ai c is poo r e r i n vowel s th an H eb r ew It .

is s u pe r io r to it howeve r in its powe r of l inki n g

, ,

s e n te n ce s togethe r as it h as m a ny co nj u nction s
,

and a dve r b s to exp r e ss s l ight m odific atio ns o f

m e ani n g I t h as al s o gr e ate r freedom as r egard s
.

the o r d e r of wo rd s in a s ente nce .

Th e Se m itic tongu e s h ave h ad a g r e at infl u

ence o n A ry a n to n g u e s as far r e m oved fr o m one
a no ther as the m od e r n Pe r s i a n in the E as t a n d

the Sp an i s h in the W e s t The voc ab ul ary of both

.

the s e l a ng u age s is l ar gely d rawn fr o m A rabic .

M any H eb r ew i dio m s to o as well as H eb r ew

, ,

word s h ave t ake n r oo t in all the tong u e s o f

,

m o dern E u rop e .
 CH A PTE R XIV .

T H E ARY AN T O N GU E S .

T HE pri m al r ace fro m which the H indoo and

the E nglish m an alike are s pru ng the r ace th at ,

midw ay i n its c areer of exp an s ion prod u ced both

Pe r s i ans and Greek s the ra ce th at h as mas te r ed
,

E u r op e and A meric a and rule s all the co as ts o f

,

A fr ic a and A ustr ali a as well as the no r th and

,

the s o u th of Asi a w as u ntil recently believed

,

b y ethnologi s ts to h ave h ad its ho m e in the

fertile B actri an l and j us t no r th of the gre at mo un
tai n r ange of the H indoo Koo s h -

The trend of opi nion am ongs t anthropologi s ts

now s tr o n gly favo rs the view th at the A ryans
ori gi na ted i n E u rop e As however the evidence
.
, ,

d erived fr om l angu age s till supports the older

theo ry I sh all h old to it as the more te nable
, ,

fro m my poi nt o f view and tr ac e their mi gra tions

,

fro m th a t ce ntr al foc u s as h as heretofo r e been

,

c u s to m ary
.

Pro tected by the mo u n tain w all at thei r b ack ,

the d e s ert o n the we s t th e P amir pl ate au o n the

,

e as t and o n the north by th e river O xu s p r ob a

, ,

bly i n e arly ages a v as tly s tronger and swi fter

stre a m th an it is no w the s e e arly A ry ans led
,
200 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

both a p as to r al and an agr ic ult ural lllfe fo r m any

ge n e ratio ns For a lo n g l ap s e of age s they h ad
.
,

n o i n ce n t ive to b u ild citi e s a nd no m otive for

,

i ss u i n g fo r th to e ng age in the co nq u e s t o f othe r

r ace s . H ad they t ake n any o f tho s e s tep s which
h as te n the arr iv al of civiliz atio n thei r l an g u age
,

co u ld n eve r h ave d evelop ed i n to the co m p lex

s y s te m o f i n flectio n s which it m a nife s tly r e a ched

be fo r e the p ar ti ng o f the di ffe r e n t b ranch e s o f the /

family .

The cli m ate of the an cie nt A ry an l and is and ,

p r ob ably h as alway s bee n m ild in s u mm e r and

,

s eve r e in w inte r . A vigo r o u s ra ce fi n di n g the ,

all u vi al l and s fr u i tfu l u nde r c u lt ur e wo u ld be ,

likely to p r o s p e r be ne ath s u ch a s ky j u s t en o u gh
to l abo r and be co n te n t .

H e r e they li nge r ed the n lo n g e n o u gh to de

, ,

v e lo
p th ei r l a ng u a ge to a s t age beyo nd the r e ach
o f fat al s t ag natio n th r o u gh the p r e s tige o f lite rar y

exp r e ss io n .

I n the c as e of m any othe r r ace s as we h ave ,

s ee n thi s ce s s atio n o f develop m e nt h ad bee n the

,

i nv ar i a ble r e s ult o f too e ar ly c e ntraliz a tio n to o ,

r apid a n evol u tio n o f natio nal l ife The Chi ne s e

.

a nd the r ace s of the I n d o Chi ne s e p e ni ns u l a

-

all ,

of M o ngol ian type h ad fo u nded civiliz atio ns th at

,

we r e po s s ibly ho ary with age whe n the A ry ans

we r e s till w ande r i ng tow ar d their fu t ur e ho m e s .

B u t the l ang ua ge s of the s e p r em at u r ely active

r ace s h ave fo r m any ce n t u r i e s been at the s ame

s t age of arre s ted develop m ent whic h thei r p r eco

 S E M I T I C S P E E CH . 20 1

c i o ns civiliz atio n nec e ss arily bro u ght ab o ut They .

are s ti ll al mo s t wholly mo n o s yll abi c .

Th e like le ss o n is tau ght u s el s ewhe r e The .

e m pi r e s fo und ed by mi n gled race s at the he ad .

o f the Pe r s i a n G ulf o n the e aste r n s ho r e s of

,

the L ev a nt and on the lower w ate r s of the Nile

, ,

we r e mo s t likely the o u tco m e o f p r olonged r ace

s t r u ggles th at g ave both r a ce and l ang u age s ome

need ed d i s cipli n e and c u ltu re b e fo r e th e fin al c o n

s u m m atio n . A s hum a n na tu r e is c o n s tituted w ar ,

i s no le ss nece s sary th an pe a ce to the p r og r e s s o f

a r a ce a n d c o n s e q u ently to the p rogre s s o f m an
,

kind A t all events we fi nd the p r o m i n ent typ e

.
,

o f l a ngu age a m o n g the C h ald a e an s o f both A kk ad

and S em itic e mp i r e s a mo ng the H ittite s o r

,

C anaa nite s and thei r ne ar k ind r ed the Sid oni an ,

Ph oenici ans and amo n g the E gypti ans m ai nly

, ,

a ggl uti n ative with an i ncre asi ngly l arge s h are

,

o f i ntern al inflectio n as the r ace s i mp r oved in

cu lt u r e and c am e in co ntact with othe r r ace s .

Bu t h ad thei r adv a nce to civiliz atio n been po s t

p o n ed fo r s ome centu r i e s they wo u ld n o d o u bt
,

h ave ente r ed u p o n it with a l angu age of s till

g r e ate r c ap acity The H eb r ews A rab s and
. , ,

Sy r i ans for in s tanc e who we r e l ater in develop

, ,

ment th a n the Akk ad i the H ittite s and the E gy p

, ,

ti a n s p r e s e nt in their tong u e a m ar ked adv ance

,

u po n the s peech of the old er civiliz a tion s i n the

p erc entage of in fl e c tio nal el eme nt .

In the m idl an d of As i a t he n g r ew u p i nto the

, ,

heritage o f a p owe r fu l engine ry o f tho u ght th at

20 2 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

A ry a n ce fr o m who s e loi n s we r e to s p r i ng the

ra

gr e at te ache r s of the world i n politic s art lite r a , ,

t u r e and s cie n ce and the mo s t active mi ss io n ar ie s

, ,

of th at d ivi ne r c u ltu e r — r eligio u s t th

r u — whi ch
they we r e the ms elve s to le ar n fr om Se m itic m as te r s .

The r e in tho s e As i a n highl and s w as m o u ld ed the

, ,

ge ni u s th at w as to p r od u ce in far di s tant l an d s the

Ili ad and the O dys s ey the Ved as o f I ndi a and ,

the Shah n am eh o f Pe rs i a the E dd as of the N o rs e

-

m e n the Gu d r u n the Lay of the N ibel u n g s the

, , ,

Beow u l f the R o mau nt of R ol and the A r th u r i an

, ,

tale s and the Keltic M a bi nogi on The r e w as b e

,
.

gu n th at s peech which in v aryi ng fo r ms th r obb ed

n e w tho u ght s i nto li fe c r e ati ng the wo r k s of Ph e id
,

ias as well as tho s e o f Sophocle s the p aved w ay ,

of A ppi u s Cl au di u s no l e ss th an the s o n g o f Ve r gil ,

the G othic c athed r al s Of Ch r i s tian E u r op e and the

l ay s of D ante the p r i nti ng—p r e s s the r ailway th e
, , ,

s te a ms hip the teleg raph the telepho n e the elec

, , ,

tr ic li ght alo n g w ith the pl ay s of Sh ake s p e ar e and

,

the r ep u blic of the U nited State s o f A m e r i c a .

O ne g r o u p o f the A ry a n fa mily co n q u e r ed a nd
civil ized I ndi a and C eylo n The to n gu e they s poke .

in the d ay o f thei r g r e at ne ss w as S ans k r it ; a nd we

h ave al r e ady s ee n how m u ch we owe to it in the
n a m e o f l an g u age a n d ety m ology .

A nothe r g r o u p did no t s t ray ve ry far fr o m the

B actr i an home and in p r oce ss of time fo u nded the
,

gre at Pe rs i an e mp i r e on the r u i ns o f th e A s s yr i an ,

the M ed e the Lydi an and the l ate r B abylo ni an

, , .

C iviliz atio n owe s m uch to thi s p eople fo r they ,

 THE AR YAN T ON G UE S .
20 3

c o n s olid ated m any b ar b ar i an t r ibe s u nde r thei r

wi s e r u le ; a nd thei r e mpi r e s too d as a b u lwar k
betwee n the fie r c e nom ad s of e as t and n o r th and
th e civili zi n g r ac e s ar o u nd the M edite rr ane an At .

a l ate r d ay ,it is tr u e they we r e a fo r m id able

,

th r e at to the r i s ing civiliz ati o n of the H elle nic

r ace and hence to the develop me n t of the p r i n
,

c ip le s of civil libe r ty W he n the M acedo ni an

.

A lex a nd e r co nquered the m thei r wo r k fo r th at

,

a ge w as do ne ; an d the di s ti nctive m i s s ion of the

H elle nic ra ce beg a n to be acco mpl is hed at the

ve ry m o m e n t when its fr eedo m as a s e r ie s of s ep a
r ate p oliti c al o r g an iz a tio n s c ame defi n itely to a n

end .

I n both the s e b ra nche s of the A ry an r ace how ,

ever we s e e wo nd e r fu l vitality Twice h as hi s to ry

, .

b een c alled upon to n ote the r ege ne ratio n of the

Pe rs i an peop le and both ti me s the r e s u lt w as
,

b r o u ght abo u t by the p r e a ching o f a n ati o nal

religio n I n the thi r d centu r y afte r s ix ce nt u r ie s
.
,

of bo nd age th e Pe rs i an s ove r th r ew the Par thi an

,

dy n as ty the n r ul ing ove r the m r e s to r ed the M a ,

~

gi a n r eligi on and s e t u p A r de s hi r as their native

,

ki n g the fi r s t o f the S as s an id dy n as ty I n the fi f

,
.

te e nth c e n t u r y a gai n afte r ei ght h u nd r ed ye ar s of

,

A r ab i an r u le Shi a h Moh a m m ed a ni s m m ad e a s u c
,

c e ss fu l r evolt and I s hm a el e s t abli s hed the ind e

,

p e n d e n c e o f the Pe r s i an s once m o r e W hile A ra .

bic r e m ai ned th e tongu e o f r eligio n and s cience ,

the Pe r s i a n l angu age and lite ratu r e r evived for

full exp re ss io n i n p o etry hi s tory and polite inter
, ,
204 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

co u rs e U n de r the p at r on age o f the G h aznevid

.

p r i nce M ah mo ud Fe r d o us i s an g the old tale s o f

,

h is l and ; and whe n H indo s t an w as co nq u ered it

, ,

w as a Pe r s i an lite rat u re th a t it r ec eived a lo n g with

the A rabi an r eligion .

A s to the H elle nic r ace it c a n h ar dly b e s aid

,

th at its to ng u e and the c u ltu r e its lite ratu r e em

bodi ed h ave eve r long l ain do r m an t E agerly .

s t u died by the R o m an s a fte r thei r co n q u e s t of

G r eece G r eek and G r eek ar ts e nd ed by r e s u m ing

,

co mplete po s s e s s i on of th e old l and s in the e as t

o f E u r op e and in the we s t of As i a ; and whe n in

1 4 53 the l as t Pal aio lo go s fell s wo r d in h a n d they

, ,

fled to we s te r n E u r op e and b r o u ght abo u t the r e

the g r e at R eviv al of A r ts and L e ar n i n g The .

G r eek r ace its elf after le ss th an fo u r c e n t u r ie s o f

,

s u bj ect io n to the T u r k r o s e a nd r ecove r ed its in

,

depende n ce W he n the T u rk is fi nally d r iven o u t

.

o f E u r ope and A s i a Mino r all the p r ec ed e nt s o f

,

h is to ry de mand th at G r eece s h all r ec ove r h e r old

he r itage It is the t r u e s ol u tio n o f the long de
.
-

b ated E aste rn q u e s ti o n I ntellectu ally the b r ight

.

e st r a ce th at the wo r ld h as k n ow n i t h as b een in ,

the p as t of i mm e ns e s e r vice to the h u m an family .

It g ave to th e l and s of the L ev ant a fit l an gu age

in which to fo r m u l a te the g r e at doct r i n e s o f Ch r i s
tianity , a nd with it th at co m m u nity o f i nte r e s ts

which s o g re atly facilitated the p r e achi ng of the

go s pel To its own s te r n co nq u e r o r s the R o m an
.
,

co ns olid ato rs of civiliz atio n i t g ave a tas te fo r,

mental c u ltu re and fo r art .

 THE AR YAN T ON G UE S .
20 5

The R om an s in their tu rn org an ized law and

, ,

orde r th r ou gh the whole v as t ar e a o f thei r r u l e -

and i n s pite o f freq u ent

, pe rs ecutio n in the n am e
of i mpe r i al s ancti ty re ally m ad e r e ady the h arve s t
,

fo r tho s e C h r i s ti an apo s tle s to r e ap ag ai n s t who s e

faith thei r p e r s ec u tio n s were s o v ai n ly aimed .

The A ry an g r oup th at travelled farthe s t — the

Kelts — s ee m to h ave m in gled with the E us k a
r i an s to o r e a dily i n m a ny p ar t s o f E u rop e to r e
, ,

t ai n thei r i ndivid u ality as a r ace tho u gh they ,

s h r ewdly t r i ed R o m a n co u r age and p ati e n ce befo r e

they yi eld ed to R o m an law They ce r tai nly gave

.

thei r l an gu age and race — n am e to tho s e E u s k ar i ans

of I r el an d a nd of the H eb r ide s who are no w c alled

“
d ar k Kelts and to th e m ixed race of Ke ltib e
r i an s i n the S p an i s h pe n i n s u l a .

The I be r i ans o f B r itai n we r e co nq ue r ed by the

G oid elic Kelts who s e to ngu e s t ill s u rvive s in
,

the di fferent fo r m s of E r s e M anx and Gaeli c, , .

The next w ave of Keltic mi g ratio n w as th at of the

B rytho n ic Kelts who co n q u e r ed as far as C o r n
,

wall and W ale s A fte r them c ame a wave of

.

Belgi c Kelts who h ad r e ached the li n e of the

,

Seve r n by the ti me the R o mans c am e i nto B rit ain .

F ro m th at B r iti s h b ranch of th e r ac e which fl ed

fr o m th e fac e of th e co nq u ering S ass e n ach i nto
Bretag n e ,
thei r t raditio n s and thei r l angua ge
p o i n t to thei r d e s cent fr o m the B rytho nic Kelts ,

all medi e v al E u r op e le ar ned the r i ch s to r e o f

legend s th at gathe r ed aro u nd the n ame of A r th u r

Pend rago n .
20 6 TH E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

A nothe r body of the sa me

B riti s h s tock th e ,

r e m n ant th at s o lo n g i n the m o u nt ai n s of W a le s
, ,

held at b ay the E ngli s h r ace eve n whe n it w as ,

r ei n fo r ced by No r m an e n e r gy e nr ic hed the lite r a

,

t u r e of the wo rld with tho s e w ild b u t l u s tr ous

tale s c alled the M abi nogio n .

The Scots c ar r i ed aw ay with th e m fr o m I r el and

i nto the C aledo ni an l and afte r war d n am ed fo r
the m a g r o u p of l ay s attr ib u ted to O s s i an fra g ,

me nts of which lo ng s u rvived to fo r m s o m e b as i s

,

a t le as t fo r the lite r ar y i m p o s t u r e of M acp he r s o n ,

which o nce h ad s u ch vog u e in E u rop e .

The Te u to nic g r o up p r e ss i ng o n the foots tep s

of the Kelts and o cc u pyi ng no r the rn and m iddle
E u r op e afte r h aving forced the Kelts fo r w ar d to
,

the we ste r n co as ts we r e o nly fo r a ti m e kep t

,

b ack fr o m the Medite r r ane an ar e a by the fo r

t r e s s s tu dded fr o nti e r li ne of the R o m an s They
-

fi nally swept ove r eve r y l an d of we s te r n E u r op e

a nd n o r the r n A fr ic a fo u nded n ew ki n gdo ms and
, ,

i n he r ited s o me p ar t of the civiliz atio n s till p o s

s e s s ed by the R o m an empi re in it s decli n e They .

le ar n ed the L ati n to n gu e wi th s u ch ch an ge s as
thei r voc al o r g ans and m e ntal p r efe r e n ce s fo r ced
u po n it a nd , ,in p r oce ss of ti m e by the cl as h of ,

thei r o w n s ys te m of infl ectio ns w ith th at of the

L ati n b r oke it to pi ece s and left it to the ge n e ra
, ,

tio ns o f the tenth and eleve nth ce nt u r ie s a dis

me mbe r ed and ch aotic m as s d e s ti ned in time to,

c ry s t allize u nco ns cio u s ly i nto ne w fo r ms .

Some of the s e Te u tonic t ri be s s ettled in the

 T HE AR YAN T ON G UE S . 20 7

m idl and of E u rop e and never acq u ired m o r e

,

th a n a s li ght ti nctu r e o f L ati n c ultu r e W h at .

littl e they go t w as g ai ned fr o m the m o nas tic e s

t ab lis h me n ts withi n thei r bo r d e r s and fro m inte r

c o u rse with the L o mb ar d citie s and the Proven c al

tr o u b ado u r s .

O the rs p a ss ed over to the mo s t r e m ote o f the

old R om an p o s s e ss io n s m ade the ms elve s a home
,

th e r e and in l ater d ays afte r w hole s ome m ixt ur e

, ,

with the blo od of othe r A ry an race s b u ilt ne w ,

empire s i n A m e r ic a Afr ic a Au s trali a and I ndi a

, , , ,

— th e Ind i a th at the ir S an s k r it s p e aki n g co u s i ns

-

h ad co nqu e r ed so m any a ge s ago b ut h ad lo s t to ,

othe r r ace s a gai n and a gai n bec aus e alo n e among ,

Ary a n s the H i ndo o s m ad e no p olitic al p r og r e s s

,
.

L as t of all fr o m the B a ct r i an hive c am e the ,

Benj a mi n of the family the Sl av Se r b o r W e nd

, , ,
.

Fo r a ge s h e held the e a s t of E u r op e with h is ,

b itte r b r other the G e r m an o n o ne s id e and T a

, , ,

t ar ho r d e s everywhe r e el s e ar o u nd h im I t is .

o nly l ately th at h is d ay h as be gu n to come H e .

is s trivi n g to s u ppl an t the int r ud i ng T u r k in s o u th

e as te r n E urope and i n A s i a he is p r e ss i ng b ack
,

u po n h is a nci e nt li n e of m ar ch The r e he h as .

l
a r ae dy re a ch ed the old B a ct r i a n ho m e is faci n g ,

C nahi on the e a s t a nd E ngl a nd s colo n ie s o n the

o th a n d s eem s to be r e ady to cl aim A s i a a s

s u ,

r i ghtfully h is .

S uch ar e th e r ace s th at as s o on as they we r e

,

equ ipp ed with an el as tic l ang u age an i ns t r u me nt ,

o f th ou ght re ally adeq u ate to the high u s e s they

20 8 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

we r e d e s ti n ed to m ake of it we n t o u t fr o m the ,

B act r i an ho m e of th eA ry an s s o u thwar d and we s t

w ar d in s e ar ch o f adve ntu re s .

Thei r g rowth w as S low b ut s olid ; thei r r ace

c h aracte r w as fo r m ed u nd e r favo ra ble a u s pice s
fo r the develop m e n t o f s i m ple a nd n oble t rait s ;
the envi r o n m e nt help ed the evol u tio n of he a lthy
m i nd s and bodie s a nd the p r od u ctio n of fl exible
, ,

fr ee and exp r e s s ive l an gu age s

,
.

Now when and why d id they le ave the father

,

l and ? The whe n and wh y m us t be wholly ma tte r

o f c o nj ect u r e ; b u t the r e is at le as t a r el a tive w b ea .

L ang u age its elf give s evide nce th a t the we s te r n

A r y ans r e m a i ned togethe r for a t ime a fte r p ar t
in g with thei r e as te r n b r eth r e n A fte r th e Kelts .
,

who fi rs t of the A ry an s p as s ed ove r the E u r ope an

ar e a a nd in doi n g s o le ft the r ive rs w ith wh a t are
,

s u b s t an ti ally n am e s of thei r b e s tow al the r e c am e ,

i nto E u ro p e tw o gr e at divi s io ns o f the A r y an

fam ily O ne of the s e s ettled in the no r th of
.

E u r ope di ffe r e nti ati n g at a l ate r p e r iod i nto

,

L etts Sl av s a nd Te u to ns
, ,
The othe r s ettled in
.

the s o u th i ncl u s ive p r ob ably of As ia M i no r d if

, ,

fe r e ntiatin g in p r oc e s s o f ti me i nto Illy r i ans ,

H elle n e s and Itali ans , A ll o f the s e we s tw ar d

.

mig r ating A ry ans are p roved by the id e ntity o f ,

c e rt ai n wo r d s co m m o n to the m b u t no t to the ,

e as te r n A ry ans to h ave p r acti s ed agr ic u lt u r e

,

s o m ewhe r e o n thei r we s tw ar d r o u te befo r e thei r

s ep aration b ut afte r p ar ti ng with th e A r y an s of
,

the E as t H ence it is cle ar th at they r e ached

.
 T H E AR YAN T ON G UE S . 209

E urop e fa r dv anced beyo n d the s avage state I t

a .

mu st be r e m embered too th at we h ave evidence

, ,

of th e alli anc e o f the A kaiush a o r A ch ai ans the , ,

le adin g H ellenic r ac e of the H eroic A ge with ,

E u rope a n r a ces of the H amitic stock in a m ar i

ti me de s cent o n E gyp t d u r ing the rei gn of M e ne p
t ah the s o n of the gre at co nqueror R amess u I I
, , .

Th ey m ay therefore be safely said to h ave b ee n

well e s tabli s hed i n H ell as before 1 3 00 B C The .

l ater r aid m ad e in the ti m e of R ame ss u I I I gives

, .
,

u s the n am e s of D anaans T e uk rians and Ly kians , , ,

all o f wh ic h are famili ar to us i n the work s of

H o m er If the M ed e s of Sus a we r e A ry ans as

.
,

R awli n s o n thinks the evidence of l an gu age i ndi

c ates at a d ate which m u s t be fixed s o mewhere
,

b efo re 22 8 6 B C they we r e alre ady as far s outh as

. .
,

the Ch ald az an r egion W e may be s u r e then th at

.
, ,

th e we s te r n A ry an s h ad alre ady p arted fr om thei r

e as te rn breth r en ; and we h ave a p e r iod of nine
centu rie s to allow fo r their gr ad u al migratio n
westward and the e s tabli s hment of a p ar t of thei r
,

b and s i n s o u thern E urop e It is certai n th at they .

must h ave moved away fro m northe r n As i a before

the As syri an ki ngs b ec ame powerful .

The Kelts wheth er th r o u gh admixtu r e o f some

,

o f them with E usk ari ans o n th e we s t o r with

Te u tons o n the e ast or with W end s who ao , ,

c o mp ani ed them o n thei r m arch d evel oped two ,

d isti nct and Well m arked typ e s of r ace and l an

-

gu age the Gadhelic and Kymric Th at br anc h

,
.

o f the former whi ch su r vived as E r s e w as spoken

14
210 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

in I r el and and with v ar i atio n s a mo n g the H igh

, ,

l and cl ans o f Scotl and and in the I s le o f M an

, .

The Ky m ric belo n ged to W ale s Co r nwall and , ,

B r etag ne The Kelts of Gal ati a in A s i a Mi no r

.
,

s till a fai r h ai r ed an d fai r fac ed r ace am o ng r ace s

- -

o f ve ry d iffe r e nt typ e ; the G au l s of n o r the r n It aly

a nd of the G all ia co n q u e r ed by C ms ar ; the Bel

gi ans o f G alli a ; and the H elveti ans o f the l and we

n o w c all Switze r l a nd are all b eli eved fr om the
, ,

evide nce o f s u ch t race s of thei r l an gu age s as ex is t ,

to h ave s poke n to ng u e s aki n to the Ky m r ic o f

W ale s and C o r nw all .

Whe reve r the ir blood h as m i n gled with th at

of the l ate r s ettli n g Te u to n it h as i mp ar ted to h is
-

s lowe r n at u r e a fe r v id glow of feel in g a fi r e and ,

i mpetu o s ity in acti on and a ge ne r o u s ar do r o f

,

s p i r it
,
which h ave h ad m u ch to d o w ith the
m aki ng o f th at n oble hi s to ry wh ich Sp ai n F ran ce , ,

and E n gl and h ave c o nt r ib u ted to fo r m s i nce the

r u i n o f the old R o m an wo r ld .

B u t o f Keltic lite rat u r e the r e are only the few

trace s al r e ady m entio n ed ; and m any Keltic dia
l ects h ave wholly ce as ed to b e s poke n The wi t .
,

h um o r and elo q u e n ce of the r ace howeve r h ave

, , ,

fo u nd ample exp r e s s io n i n E n gli s h F r e nch and , ,

Sp ani s h lite ratu r e s .

A s to the H elleni c s h ar e in the ed u c ation of the

wo rld we all know s o m ethi n g o f the i mm en s e debt
,

which the whole fr am ewo r k o f o u r civ il iz atio n

owe s to th at wo nd e r fu l rac e The ar t of a r ace .

th at tau ght the wo r ld the v al u e of j u st p r op o r ti on ,

 T HE AR YA N T ON G UE S . 21 1

‘
the b e auty o f form and th e exquisite perfection of
,

temp e ran ce ; the literatu r e that h as su m med up i n

its elf th e be s t in every ki n d ; the p olitic al e x p e ri
e nce wh ic h exh au s ted all th at co uld b e te s ted i n
state s s o s m all we r e all of them bu t s o m any
,

d ifferent expres s ions o f a tho u ght d r illed to cle an

stren gth and u tmo s t s u pplene ss by the r ichest
l angu a ge th at the world h as ever k n own T h e .

riche s t l an gu age — thi s is the verdict of all co m

p etent s chol ars I n s u btlety i n s u gge s tiveness in
.
, ,

co mp ass i n d i alectic v ar iety w ith allowed liter ary

,

uses in m any sid ed g race and ve r s atility it excels

,
-

al l to n g u e s I ts exq u i s ite flexibility as comp ared

.

with the ri gidity o f its s i s ter idiom Latin h as , ,

alw ay s s truck even the m e r e s t ty r o It is ad apted .

to all s tyle s and s ubjects to p hilo s ophic abstr ae,

tio ns and to lyric rh ap s ody to th e elo q u e n ce of ,

D emo s the ne s and to the u n affected n ar rative of

Xenop ho n to the ide ali s tic rheto r ic o f Pl ato and
,

to the s ati r ic h u mor o f A ri s toph anes and L uci an ,

to H o m e r s gr and l ine and to the go ss ip ing ton e of

'

H erodot u s The dithy rambic of Pind ar and the

.

sweet s i m plicity o f Theocritu s are alike at home

in th e bo s o m o f this el as tic sp eech .

I n its be s t age it w as o f all liter ary tong u es the

,

p u rest b ei ng almost wh olly u n ad ulter ated by words

,

dr awn fr o m b arb ari c to ngu e s I t po ss e ss ed p er .

fec t p honetic h armony avoiding as it did the ,

p redo m i nanc e o f c on s o na nts so ch ar acteri s tic o f

L atin . R ichness and v ar i ety of s o und we r e se
c ured by it s ab u nd ance o f d ip hthongs I ts s ystem .
21 2 T HE S T OR Y OF L A J VG U A GE .

of accent di s ti nct fro m q u a ntity and yet h ar mo

,

n iz in
g with it g ave a v ari ed
,
mod u l atio n to the

r hyth m o f the s e n te nc e an d yet avoi ded the s i n g

s o ng of tho s e l an g u age s in which the s y s te m o f

to ne s is p r edo m i n an t I ts fr eedo m fr o m p o s itio n al

.

g r am m ar added to thi s c ap acity fo r r hyth mi c

c ade nce The co mplete n e s s o f the ve rb al infl e c
.

tio n m ade the exp r e ss io n of v ar io u s s h ad e s of

m e ani ng po ss i b le s o th at both p r eci s ion a nd te r s e
,

n e ss we r e at the co mm an d of a good w r ite r A .

p ec u li ar deli c acy w as i m p ar ted to th e s e ns e by the

n ice u se o f p ar ticle s to thi s d ay s o u n t r an s l at a ble
, .

Th us as ide fr o m the excelle nce o f the l an g uage

,

as an u np aralleled med iu m fo r tho u ght a nd fo r

s o c ial i nte r cou rs e it h as s peci al cl ai ms up o n the

,

reg ard of the philologi s t I ts d elic ate r efi ne m e nts

.

of i nfl ectio n its li ght g r ace i n the t ryin g te s t of

,

el abo rate c o mp o s itio n of wo r d s its p r olo n ged ,

pe r iod of active life and its p r e s e r v ati o n o f v ar io u s

,

di alects in lite rary fo r m are co n s ide ratio ns which,

m u st need s give i t g r e at v alu e in the eye s of a

s t u de nt of l an g u a ge .

Th at Pel as gic eleme nt which w as o nc e s u pp o s ed

,

to h ave b ee n the e ar li e s t depo s it o f A ry an blood

in the two e as te r n p e ni ns u l as of the M edite rrane an ,

I h ave al r e ady p r o no u nced to h ave been H am i tic .

Th at gr e at i nl and s e a w as a H am itic l ake befo r e

it b ec am e Ph oe nici an G r eek C ar th a gi ni a n or
, , ,

R om an . I t is po ss i ble th at the Illy r i an t r ibe s

may h ave bee n the l ate r r ep r e s e nt ative of thi s
H amitic p op ul atio n after the H elle ni c and Itali c
,
 THE AR YAN T ON G UE S .
21 3

r ac e s h ad ab s o r bed thei r b r eth r en in the two p e n

i n s ul as B u t p r ovi s io n ally at le as t the ancie nt
.
, ,

I llyri an s are r anked as aki n to the H elle n e s o n

the e as t and the Itali an s o n the we s t and as the r e ,

fo r e o f A ry an blood .

The m od er n r ep r e s e ntative o f thi s an ci e n t Illy

r i a n s tock is the A lb a ni an r ace who s e l an gu age
,

is c a lled the Skipet ar .

The Italic fam ily c o mp r i s ing the O s c an U m

, ,

b r i an and L ati n ra ce s a n d u lti m ately ab s o r bi n g

, ,

the E t r u s c a n s the Kelts abo u t the Po and the

, ,

G r eek s of the s o u th g r ew u nde r the fin al d o mi na

, ,

ti o n o f R o me to be th e u ni fying element o f the

,

wo r ld .

P ractic al qu aliti e s o f a hi gh order the gifts o f ,

i ndo m it able e n e r gy a nd o f ad mi r able m ili tary o r

ganiz a tio n the ge n i u s fo r r ule the m as te r ly g ras p
, ,

o f all tho s e p r i n ciple s th at co ntr ol the con s e r v atio n

of law and s y s te m s ec u r ed fo r thi s rac e no t only
,

the e mp i r e o f the wo r ld for m any centu r i e s b u t , ,

in a dd itio n to th at an i m pe r i s h able infl u e nce o n

,

s oci ety even a fter the fall of the empire th at it h ad

r e ar ed .

The l an gu age w as a fit in s tru ment for th e r ace .

F ar r ar j u s tly s ay s :

T he l anguage o f the Ital ic famil y c ant boast o f

t h e subtle grace h ar mo ny and fi nis h o f G reek any
, , ,

mo r e than its an cie nt l ite ratur e c an be pl ace d in c o m

p ar iso n w i th t h at o f the H elle ne s T h e L atin ve rb .
,

as an i nstrume nt fo r the e x pr e ssio n o f accurate t h ough t ,

is imme nsely i nfe rio r to the G reek It be ars t h e stamp .

21 4 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

o f such obvi o us de fects as a loss o f the ao rist and o f ,

th e p e rfe ct partic iple ac tive T h e ab se nce o f an a rticle

.

is anoth er mark o f infe rio rity ; and pe rhap s fro m th e,

rud e contact o f some abo riginal l anguage Latin lo st ,

"
mo r e and more its o r iginal flexibil ity .

M a c au l ay s p e ak s with even gre ater emph as i s of

its d efects :

We c annot th at its voc ab ul ary is mise rably

but th ink
p o o r and its me chanism defic ient both in p o w e r and
,

p re c ision T h e want o f a defi nite ar ti cle and o f a

.
,

d is tinction b etween th e preterite and the aorist tens es ,

ar e two de fe cts w hic h are alone sufficient to p l ace

it below any othe r l anguage w ith w hich we ar e
acqu aint ed I n its mo st flo urishing er a it w as re
.

p r o ac h e d with p ov erty o f ex p ressio n C ice ro inde ed

.
, ,

was ind uce d by his patr iotic fe e l ings to d e ny th e c h arge .

But th e perpetual rec urrence o f Greek wo rds in h is

mo st h urrie d and familiar lette rs and th e fre que nt use
,

w h ic h h e is compe lled to make o f the m in sp ite o f ,

all h is exer t ions to avoid the m in h is ph ilos o hical

p
w o rk s fully prove that e ve n th is
, gre at master o f t h e
Latin to ngu e felt the evil wh ich he l abo red t o co nce al
fro m o th er s ” .

B u t,with all the s e d efects the Latin tong u e w as

,

p r e e mi ne ntly the l an gu a ge of law ; and i n its

-

infl u enc e u pon the legis l ation o f l a nd s th at no

R o m an ever saw as well as in the form ative p r i n
,

c ip le s th at i t furni s hed to th e mode r n R o m an ce

l an g ua ge s Latin h as h ad a v ast d e al to d o wi th
,

the modern p rogre ss o f the world Add to the .

fo r ce s which i t h as s e t a nd kep t i n motio n the fact

th at its r ule of the n ation s m ade a g r e at lin g u i s ti c
 TH E AR YAN T ON G UE S . 21 5

highw ay for the firs t pre achi ng of C h ri s ti a nity ,

and we ar e a ble to fo r m s o m e conceptio n of the

i m me n s e weight of the l angu age as a factor in the

’
wo r ld s hi s to ry .

F r o m the L atin of the l ate r e mpi r e as alre ady ,

noted th r o u gh the e ffo r ts of the G e r man inv ade rs

,

to artic u l ate the wo r d s of the to n gu e o f civili

z at io n , g r ew i n to life g rad u ally P r Ov e ngal O ld ,

F r e n ch C atal an Cas tili an Po r tu g u e s e It ali an

, , , , ,

the di alect o f the Gri s on s and W all achi an Pro , .

ve n gal and O ld F r ench both o f which h ad a t race

,

of i n flectio n in the fo r m of tw o d i s ti n ct c as e s for

no u ns we r e s u p e r s ed ed in the whole ar e a of wh at
, ,

u lti m ately bec a me th e kingdo m o f F r an ce by the ,

F r enc h tongu e C atal an and C as tili an m e r ged

.

i nto Sp ani s h W all achi an s poke n by th at body

.
,

o f d e s ce n d an t s of R o m a n s oldie rs s ettled in D aci a

who s till c all the ms elve s R o mans is divided i nto ,

two di alects by the r ive r D an u be R o ma ns ch .

,

s p oken in the Swi ss c a n to n of the G r i s o n s is al s o ,

divided i nto tw o di alects o ne of wh ich — th at ,

u s ed i n the E ng adine — is c alled by tho s e who

sp e a k i t L adi n .

The Te u to n s L etts and Sl av s h eld together

, ,

fo r a ti me i n thei r m i g ra tio n i n to n o r the r n ce nt r al , ,

a nd e as tern E u rop e j u s t as the Kelts h ad kept

,

fo r a ti me wi th tho s e A r y an s who fi nally s ettled

in the s o uth o f E u r op e ; j u s t as the Itali ans ,

Illyri an s and H ellene s after the p as s age o f the

, ,

Kelts we s tw ard lo n g r e m a ined to gether i n thei r

,

s low we s tw ar d m ovement .
21 6 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

The Te u to n s p re ss ing di r ectly o n the heel s of

,

the Kelts bec a me s eve r ed after thei r arr iv al in

, ,

E u r ope i nto two cle arly m ar ked divi s io n s — the

, ,

n o r the r n o r s e a bo ar d an d the s o u the r n o r i nl and

ra ce s . The no r the r n inh abited at an e ar ly p e r iod

the Sc andi navi an pe nin s u l a D e nm ar k and the , ,

i s l and s and s h o r e s of the B altic and the No r th Se a .

They s poke d ialects th at h ave s i nce b ee n cl ass i

fi e d as P l a it D o a l s ob o r L o w G e r man , .

W hethe r b e fo r e o r afte r thei r r e s ide n ce in the s e

’

n o r the r n r egio n s it is n o t e as y to s ay ; b u t the

,

G oth s who we r e ce r t ai nly of the L o w G e r m an

,

ki nd r ed and are fo u nd hi s to r ic ally in the r egio n

o f the B altic a s well as in th at o f the D an u be ,

we r e the fi rs t to h ave thei r l ang uage th r own i nto

lite rary fo r m .

Be fo r e thei r s p eech w as wholly lo s t to hi s to ry

in the s o u th o f E u r ope by the p as s i n g of the e as t
a nd we s t G oth s i n to the I t ali an a nd Sp ani s h
pe n
in s u l as it w as p r e s e rved fo r the u s e o f p h ilo lo
,

gi s ts in o ur ti m e by its us e in the B ible of V u lfila ,

be s t k n own by the L ati nized fo r m of h is n am e ,

U l filas Thi s m an us c r ipt w r itte n in s ilve r lette r s

.
,

o n a gold gro u nd is no w in the U nive rs ity o f

,

U p s al a .

The G oth s we r e the e ar lie s t of the Te u to n ic

t r ibe s to co m e in co ntact with the R o m an E m p i r e
a t the ti me o f it s dec ay to ove r r u n it and to b e , ,

co m e ab s o r bed in the p o pu l atio ns ove r who m they

e s tabli s hed ki ngdo ms .

The other L o w Germ an t r ibe s among them the ,

 THE AR YA N T ON G UE S .
21 7

G oth s of Sc andin avi a s poke a s i mil ar l ang uage to

,

the M oes o G othic of Vulfi la Th at s poke n in Sc an

-
.

d inav ia h a s co m e down to u s as the O ld No rs e ,

b ei n g p r e s e rved by its u s e in the E dd as co mp iled

by the colony in I cel and F r o m thi s to n g u e in .

the co u rs e of ce n tu r ie s s p rang m ode r n Swedi s h ,

D a n i s h and N o rwegi an
, .

G e r m an eve n as no w w r i tte n and s poke n h as

,
-

m any p oi nts of clo s e r e s e m bl ance to G r eek in

g ramm atic al s tr u ct u r e B ut the G othic b r anch of
.

the G e r m an to n g u e w as in thi s r e s pect s till clo s e r

to G r eek i n as m u c h as i t r etai ned the d ua l n u mbe r
, ,

the m iddle voice fo r ve r b s and the r ed u plic ation o f

,

the p e r fect te n s e .

G othic a s a s poken l ang u age pe r i s hed o nly

, , ,

s erving i n its l as t mo m e nt s the p u rp o s e of affecti n g

th e develop m ent of the I tali an Sp ani s h Pr o v e ngal , , ,

and Po r t u g u e s e to n g u e s ; b u t the G e r m an S p oke n

by s u c h of the othe r G er m an t r ibe s as did no t

p e netrate i n to the R o m an E mpi r e w as no t affected
by R o m an i n fl u ence s u ntil m u ch l ate r in its hi s to ry .

The H i gh G e r m an s p ok en by the i nl a nd t r ibe s

, ,

bec a me in the co u r s e of ti m e di s tinctively G e r m an ,

a s the to ngu e of the G e r m an n atio n The L o w .

G e r ma n in co ns eq u e n ce o f the m i xt u r e of the s e a
,

bo ar d r ace s with othe r r ace s di ffe r e nti ated i nto ,

E ngli s h D utch F r i e s i an a nd oth e r l a ng u age s

, , , .

H i gh G e r ma n is the s p eech of the G e r m a n

E mpi r e and of the r u ling ra ce i n the A u s t r o
H u n g ar i a n E mpi r e L u the r s Bibl e h avi n g in the
'

sixteenth c e n tu r y m ad e th e s p eech of c ultiv ated

21 8 T H E S T OR Y OP L AN G UA GE .

circles in the No r th G e r m any of h is time th e

a ccepted type fo r l ater gener ation s A t an e arli er .

pe r iod the S u abian di alect h ad b een the l angu age

of lite rat u r e and of the cou rts .

L o w G e r m a n bec a me divided i nto Frie s i a n and

S axon the fo r m e r being s till the pop u l ar s peec h of
,

the s e abo ar d citi es and the Po me r a ni an co as t .

S axon develop ed into th r ee di s ti nct b ranche s the ,

O ld S axo n o f the conti n e n t the I nflected E ngli s h

,

of the tr ibe s th at co nq uered Britain and the s p eec h ,

o f tho s e H oll a nder s who m for a few gener atio ns

,

b ack we h ave b een c alli n g D utch th us r ese r vi ng

, ,

for them the na me th at r e ally belongs to the whole

G erm an family o ur s elve s included
, .

The r ace s th at use the s e l angu a ge s h ave not

o nly o r igi nated new fo rm s o f civiliz atio n p r od u ced ,

S ple ndi d lite r a t u re s colo n ized the far the s t co r n e r s

,
'

of the e ar th extend ed i n every di r ecti on the

,

d om ain of s ci ence and the tr i u mph of m ind ove r

the forces of n ature b ut they al s o r epre s ent an
,

e n e r gy m o r e v al u able th an all othe r s : they h ave

r e s c u ed C h r i s ti an tr u th fr om the s m othe r i n g en

v e lo
p e of s u p e r s tition They are now the foremo s t
.

races o f the wo rld ,and their org an ized h u m a nitie s

give a golde n pro mise to the future of the h u m an

fa mily .

The very na me o f the Sl av s p oi nts to the wofu l

hi s tory o f their p as t co n tact with thei r we s te r n
b r othe rs si nce we owe to th at r ace n a me the wo r d
,
-

s l a ve as well as the wo r d so
, rf the l a tter co m i n g
,

fr om the Se r vi an br anc h of the r ace throu gh the ,

 THE AR YAN T ON G UE S . 219

L ati n ser o us I n the d awn of thei r E u rop e a n life

.

th e Sl av s h ad a h ard time lyi n g as they d id b e ,

twee n th e I talo H ellene s and the Teuto ns on the

-

we s t and the M o n gol horde s o n the e as t The name .

Sl av i ncl u d e s Bohe m i an s Pole s R u s s i an s Illy ri an s , , ,

of the S e r b and C r o at type and Bulgari ans , .

I ntr i n s ic ally as well as on acco un t of the antiq

,

u ity of its lite r atu r e as co m p ar ed with th at o f

any

othe r Sl av r ace Bo he mi an r ank s fi rs t a m o n g the

,

Sl av l an gu age s The r ace i ts elf c all s thi s tong u e

.

C e s ky .

The ill u s tr i o u s n ame s of its lite rat u r e fr o m the ,

m ar ty r H u s s to the mo r e m od e rn C z e lak o u s k i
, , ,

Koll ar S c h afar ik H ank a P alack y are little m o r e

, , , ,

th an n ame s to u s ; b ut they ar e n otable am ong

thei r G e r m an neighb o r s .

The l an gu age is r ic h in ro ot wo r d s in fl exi -

b ility in p r eci s io n
,
—if we except its s c a nty s to r e
,

o f ten s e fo r m s -

an d in v ar iety of i nflection
, .

A mo n g its c h ar acte r i s tic s ar e the g r e at fr e q u ency

of the s o u nd s C12 and and is the ab s e nce of the
ar ticle ; the s y s tem atic di ffe r e n ti atio n i n d ecle n s ion

fo r n a m e s o f a n i mate a nd i nan i mate obj ect s ; the

u se of a p ec u li a r p o s s e s s ive adj ective fo r m de r iv -

able fr o m nou n s o f the ani mate cl ass ; and the

u s e of a s p eci al ve r b al fo r m to exp r e s s h abit u al

actio n .

The R u s s i an l an g u a ge h as o nly l ately give n

s ign s of lite rar y vi go r The te ndency am o n g o u r
.

lite r ary c r iti c s h as b ee n to ove r p rai s e the wo r k s o f

‘
‘
R u ss i a n noveli s ts Tol s to i e s p eci ally r eceivi n g a
,
2 20 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

s h ar e o f l au d atio n th at the next ge n e ratio n wil l

s u r ely p r o n o u n ce to h ave bee n h ar dly h is d u e .

The Lettic b ranch of the A ry ans s o n e ar ly ,

r el a ted to the Sl avic th at it is u s u al to cl as s the m

togethe r u nder the ge n e r al te r m We/z a io is a ’

,

s m all ho u s ehold . The m o s t i mpo r tant me m be r o f

i t is the Lith u ani an I ts i s ol atio n h as p r e s e r ved
.

thi s old s p eech al mo s t u nch an ged th r o u gh m any

ce ntu r ie s
. Thi s fact h as g ive n the l ang u age a
v al u e in the eye s o f philolog is t s wholly o u t o f p r o
p o r tio n to the hi s to r ic i mpo r tance of the r ace It .

is s till s p oke n o n ly in a s m all di s tr ict o n the s o u th

e as t co r ne r of the B altic .

L e t u s no w b r iefly m ar k the m ig ratio ns of the

A ry ans o f A s i a . The I r ani an and I n di an t r ibe s
who we r e le ft b ehi n d whe n the m ore adve n t u r o u s
m e mb e rs of the fam ily p as s ed w e s tw ar d and n o r th
w ar d we r e s till at the p as to ral s tage o f develop
,

m e n t at the ti m e of th is s ep ar atio n O f the .

I ra nian p ar t of thi s body o f A s i atic A ry ans the ,

Pe rs i ans h ave p r oved to b e the mo s t vital a nd

pe rs i s te nt typ e Thei r anci e n t l a ng u age h as le ft
.

r e m a ins in the c u neifo r m i ns c r iptio ns of the

A ch ae m e nid dy nas ty di s cove r ed by m od e r n ex
,

p lo re rs in the r u ins o f Pe rs ep oli s A ki n to the

.

Pe rs i ans we r e the B act ri ans who s e to ngu e

, th e ~

Z e nd — w as n e arly r el ated to S ans k r it and is p re ,

s e r ved in the A ve s t a the s ac r ed book of the

,

Z o r o as t r i an faith s till r eve r e nced by the P ar s ee s

,

o f B o m b ay , who fled to I ndi a to e s c ap e fr o m

M oh ammed an p e r s ec utio n in thei r own l and .
 T TI E AR YAN T ON G UE S .
22 1

The r e is al s o a ve rs io n of the A ve s ta w r i tten in

Pe hlev i a d i alect of Pe rs i an c u r r e nt in the tim e o f
,

the S ass an id dy nas ty .

The M ede s and the A r me n i ans who m ay be ,

r eg ar d ed as Pe rs i an s o f the n o r th lo ng s u bj ect to

A ss y r i an s w ay and to co nta ct with the w ande r i ng

T u ran i an tr i be s we r e al s o I rani an A ry ans To
, .

the m m ay b e add ed the K u r d s and the native s o f

a little d is t r ict i n the Ca uc as u s Mo u n t ai ns who s e

di alect is called O s s etic .

The H i ndoo s p r ob ably r em ai n ed long with their

I ran i a n b r othe rs afte r the mi g r atio n of the we s te r n
A ry a ns . The M ed e s Pe r s ians B actr i ans and A r
, , ,

m e nia ns m oved n o r thw ar d the l as t nam ed s ettl in g

,
-

in the l a nd th at h as eve r s i nce b ee n k n own by

the ir r ac e — n am e ; the B a ct r i a ns howeve r p ass ing
, ,

p r o b ably n o g r e at di s tance aw ay fr o m the c radle

of the Arya n r ace The H i nd oo s m oved s o u th
.

war d and in the co u r s e of age s ove r ran I ndi a and

,

C eylo n .

T u r n i n g b a ck n o w to the Pe r s i ans who alo ne of ,

the I rani an s tock c r e ated a s e r ie s of e mp i r e s and

kept alive their s e ns e of race —ide n tity and thei r
memo r ie s of lite r ary activity let u s se e wh at
,

c ou r s e of d evelop me nt th ei r l ang u a ge took .

By the time th at the S as s anid dy nas ty s u cceeded

i n ove r throwi ng the P ar thi an E mp i r e — which w as
in the thi rd ce nt u ry the anci e nt Ze nd an d Pe rs i an ,

c r owded with S e m itic wo r d s and fr eed fr o m m any

o f its i n flecti o ns h ad d evelop ed into wh at w as p rao
,

tic ally a new l angu age Thi s w as c alled Pehlevi or

. ,
222 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

H uzvar e s h N ext i n the o r de r of develop me nt c ame

.

a to ng u e the P arsee wh ich s c hol ar s reg ar d as the

, ,

trans itio n fr o m ancie n t Pe rs i an to mod ern Pe r s i an .

The m o s t elega nt of the l angu ages now spoke n

in A s ia is this m od e rn Pe rs i a n It hold s eve ry .

where amon g Mo s le m s the pl ace th at w as held in

E u r op e by the F r ench l an g u age thro u gho u t the
r eig n of L o u is XIV I ts s tructure is to the old
.

Z e n d and A c h a me nian to ng u e s wh at th at of F r ench

is to L a ti n o r th a t o f M od e r n E ngli s h to the old
I n flected E ngli s h At the s am e time it is as r ich
.
,

in A rabi c word s as E n gli s h is in word s of F r e n ch

o r La ti n d e r iv ation Its lite ra tu r e too is e s p eci ally
.
, ,

r ich in poetry Fe rd o u s i S ad i H afiz and Dj ami

.
, , ,

fo r m a rem ar k able se r i e s o f gifted po ets .

The S an s krit s poke n by th e ancie n t H i ndoo s

,

and m ad e the vehicle fo r a cop io u s liter at u r e h as , ,

in the lo ng co u r s e of a ge s like all the old i n flected ,

l an gu age s b een d eco m po s ed i n to a n u m be r o f

,

m ode r n di al ec ts Tho u gh like Latin a d e ad lan

.
, ,

gu age it is s till s tudied in the n ative school s of the

,

B rah mans .

Betwee n the mode r n di alects and the an cie n t

S ans k r it c ame the P r ak r i t and th at di alect of
Prak r it the Pa
. ,
th which w as c arried by the B ud
,

dhi s ts i nto C eylon and F ar ther Indi a The m od e r n .

di alects are nu me r o u s b u t m ay be gene r ally cl as s ed

,

u nde r the n ame s o f Be n gal i H ind i M ah ra tti and , , ,

Cingh ale s e O ne v ariety o f th e H indi the U r d u

.
,

o r H i nd u s tan i is crowded with Ar abic and Pe r s i an

,

wo r d s bro u ght i n by the Moh ammed an co nqu e r o r s .

 THE AR YAN T OIVG U E S .
22 3

O ne I ndi a n d i alect h as bee n c arri ed into al mo s t

every l and o f the civilized wo r ld by th at s tr ange
r ac e o f w ande r e r s who m we c all Gyp s ie s They .

c all the m s elve s and thei r l angu age R o m any .

The na m e s of s o m e of the e ar n e s t s tu d e n ts of the

A ry an to n g u e s to who m the s cience of l angu age is
i ndebted m ay fi tly be give n he r e A mo n g the .

mo s t emi n e n t are Jolly Sch midt Lu d w i g H e y , , ,

m ann L o ttne r F ic k A s coli Pezzi H avet P ictet

, , , , , , ,

I— I e ar n D e C o u l a nge s The s e me n h ave r eco n

'

, .

s t r u cted the old A r y a n voc ab u l ar y a nd by the , ,

li ght th u s S hed u p o n u s age s the ve ry li fe of the ,

p r i m itive Ary ans Pictet h as s how n wh at m i n e ral s

.

and pl an t s wh at ani m al s w ild and do m e s tic ated

, , ,

we r e know n to the m ; how they b u ilt and fur ni s hed

thei r ho u s e s ; wh at tool s a nd we apo ns they u s ed ;
wh at they ate and d r ank ; how they we r e clothed ;
wh at thei r views of p r op e r ty we r e ; how thei r fam ily
w as co ns t r u cted ; a nd wh at w as the n at u r e o f thei r

c o s m ogo ny and mytholo gy .

The t r u e s en s e of a s i ngle wo r d will often th r ow

a flood o f li ght u po n s o m e di s ti n ctive c u s to m o r

l aw th a t i t mi ght othe r wi s e p uzzle u s to acco u nt

,

for Th u s whe n we know th at va r ri a the S ans k r it

.
, ,

” “ ”
wo r d fo r c as te li te r ally me ans colo r we are
, ,

led at o n c e to th e c o nvictio n th at the w hole s oci al

s y s tem of c as te s w as o ri gi na lly i nt r od u ced to dis

c r i m in ate b e tw ee n the co n q u e r ed r ace s the mixed ,

r ac e s and the p u r e blood ed inv ad e r and to p u t a

,
-

s top fo r ever to the mi s cegen atio n th at h ad too

l o ng go ne o n i n the l a nd .
 2 24 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The r e are m any hi s to r i c r ace s h ar d to p l ace .

A m o ng them are no t a few of tho s e th a t ar e

c e r tainly A ry an b ut we c an not s ay d efinitely to
,

wh at b r an ch of the A ry an fa mily they belo n g I t .

is p o s s ible fo r ex am ple th at s eve ral of tho s e r ace s

, , ,

e arly e s tabl is hed amo n g Kelts or l ate r am o n g , ,

Te u to ns in the we s te r n p ar t o f E u r op e we r e
, ,

We nd s .

The Vé ne di s ettled no r th of the V is t u l a at the

,

tim e th at the Van d a li o r V and al s d w elt o n the other

, ,

s ide of th a t r ive r we r e a l m o s t ce r tai n ly of W e ndic

, , ,

blood .The Ven eti whipp ed by Ce s ar in the ,

s e afi gh t o ff the co as t of B r ittany ; the V eneti ,

d w elli ng o n the s ho r e s o f the A d r i ati c and d e s ti n ed

to beco m e fo u nde r s o f Ve nice ; and the Vand al s
who e s tabli s hed in n o r the r n A fr ic a afte r m any
,

wand e r i n gs swept the M edite r ran e a n as co rs ai rs

,

in the fifth ce nt u r y m ay all h ave be e n W e nd s

, .

The o ne wo r d f a th er will s e r ve to S how the

kin s hip o f the A ry ans I n S a ns k r it it is p iz‘ r i ; in
.

Ze n d p a il a r : in Pe r s i an pa a er ; i n L ati n p a ler :
, ,
’

—
,

in G r eek p a ter ; in E rs e a th a ir ; i n G othi c o a ta r ;

,

in G e r m an wa ter ; in S axo n f a ea’er ; in D u tch

, ,
l
, , ,

D an is h and Swed i s h f a a er ; in It ali a n a nd Sp a n

, ,
’

in Fr e nc h p ere B ut in Bo he m i a n it , .

‘
is oze o an d we h ave to look to othe r wo r d s s u ch
,

as br a tr
“ ” ”
b othe
r r
, a nd s s tr
e a s i s te r
, to s how , ,

the A ry an ki n s hip .
T HE AR YA N T ON G UE S . 22 5

Ol d High G e rma n
M l
idd e Hi gh Ge rman
H igh Ge rman

I
Go th c
i

G e’ ma“
A nglo Sa-
xo n
Fr ie t ian

‘
Sa xo n
D k
{
a ns

Sw e d e
N o rsk
-

Le t tic-

W . S l v ic
a

{ c
Cz e h
P l bia
'

o a n
 CH APTE R XV

L AT I N .

T H ROU GH the wo nde r fu l c ap aci ty for organiz a

tion and for rul e o f the race th at s p oke it the L ati n
,

l angu age h as h ad a s u pr e m acy i n E urop e o f v ario us

kinds and d egr ee s fo r ove r tw o tho us and ye ars .

As a spoken to n g u e a nd as t h e b as is of all ed uc a
tion it h as conti nued to hold its lo fty p l ace down
,

to o ur own ti m e Afte r the fo r m atio n of those

.

l angu age s th at are r ightly c alled its d au ghter s it ,

s till rem ained the u n ive rs al lite r ar y tongu e for all

s e r iou s s tudie s th r o u gh a lo n g p e r iod o f wh at is

even r anked as mode r n hi s to ry I t w as the vehicle

.

cho s en by D e s c ar te s fo r h is p hilo s ophic al sp e cu

l atio ns and by L i n nae u s fo r h is n at u r al hi s tory .

It was the to n gue in whi ch S al mas ius attacked and

M ilton defended the E ngli s h p eople when they
tried and exec uted thei r ki n g I t is to day the
.
-

o fli cial l angu age of the C h u r ch of R o me as it w as

,

i n the age of Te r tulli an .

I h ave q u oted the opi ni o n of M ac aul ay o n the

infe riority of Lati n as a l ite rary i n s tru ment A .

better schol ar o ur gifted e ss ayi s t H u gh S Leg ar é

, , .
,

sp e aks to the s ame e ffect i n a p assage i n which he

,
 LA T I N .
22 7

neve r thele ss extol s it as emph atic ally the l angu age

of law .

“ R o man l ite rature says he “pro p e rl y so c all ed is -

, , , ,

in co mpar iso n o f G re ek o r o ur o wn Engl ish absol utely ,

me an . T h e ve ry l anguage ex cep t in th e matte r o f ,

p olitic s and law w h e re it is ric h er eve n th an th e G re e k

, ,

is th e p oo re s t o f all —w ith out flex ib ility v ar ie ty o r

, , ,

co p io usne ss It is inde e d imp re ssed w ith th e maj es ty

.
, ,

w hic h be lo ngs to do minion and su pe r io rity long e stab

lish e d and d irected by a grave wisdo m and th e l o ve o f
orde r and c ivilizatio n .

It h ad al s o another c ap acity which w as fully

d eveloped in its s ub s e q u e n t u s e by m e n o f lette r s
as well as by j u ri s co ns u lt s — a c ap ac ity pe r h ap s ,

i ncomp atibl e with the fie ry s pi r it o f poetry the ,

p r ofo u nd r e ach of philo s ophy o r the l ight to u ch ,

an d ex q ui s ite g race of pe r fect co m edy I me an its .

c ap acity for r heto r ic al fi ni s h I n thi s art D e .

,

Q u i ncey cl ai ms for R o m an lite ratu r e a s ingul ar

e —
emi nence ; and he attr ib ute s its excelle nce i n
p r

thi s r e s pect to the s i newy co m p actne s s o f the

L ati n to n g u e H e poi nts e s peci ally to Livy O vid
.
, ,

the two Plinys Lu c an Petr oni us A r biter Q u i n

, , ,

tili an and above all the two Senec as as m ar ked

, , , ,

i ns ta nce s of s u pe r io r ity i n rheto r ic al bu r ni s h and

co m p r e s s io n .

W e s h all se e as we go on how the l angu age w as

s o fo r med as to lend it s elf r e adily to the s e p r actic al

a n d as i t we r e s oci al u s e s rathe r th an to ide al and

, , ,

i ndivid u al flights of ge n i u s .

It mu s t h ave r e q u ired m any ge ner ation s of re s i

228 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

de nce or w andering o n E u r ope an s oi l fo r the

A ch ai an the L at in the U m b r i an and the Keltic
, , ,

to n gu e s to ac q u i r e the di s ti nct i n divid ua lity th at

is app arent whe n they co m e with in the k e n o f
hi s to r y .

The Itali an r ace s th at fo und thei r w ay i nto the

mid m o s t p eni ns u l a of the Medite rr an e an and the r e ,

s u ppl anted wh at w as p r ob ably a H am itic r ac e we r e ,

divided at fir s t i nto the two b ranch s tock s of L ati ns -

a n d U m b r i a n s the l a tter i n cl ud in g t hei r s o uthe r n

,

o ffs hoots the M ars i ans a nd the S amnite s

, .

The L ati n L e ag u e with A lb a fo r thei r chi e f city

, ,

held ce ntral Italy the E tr u s c an p owe r o n the n o r th

,

and the H elle nic co mm u nitie s o n the s o u th lo n g

p r eve n ting any exp ans ion i n eithe r di r ectio n I n .

p r oce s s o f ti m e howeve r the bo rder city of R o m e

, , ,

e ar ly of m ixed E tr us c an S abi n e and L ati n p o p u , ,

l ation gai ned the s u p r e ma cy ove r the L e ag u e o n ce

,

held by Alb a and p u s hed the L ati n po w er i n to a

,

m u ch wide r ar e a The L atin s s tr u ggli n g fo r e q u al

.

r ight s in the e nl ar ged do m ai n R o m e ove r th r ew ,

thei r ar m ie s an d di s s olved the L e ag u e The L ati n

, .

l an g uage s u rvived the fall of the r ace ; b u t R ome

w as he ncefo r th to be s ol e mi s tre ss S he co n s oli .

d ated the Itali ans and the n m as te r ed s u cce s s ively

the pe ni ns u l a and the whole Med ite r r ane an ar e a ,

b ut not u ntil s h e h ad ab s o r bed th e civiliz a tio ns of

th e E tr us c ans and of the H elle ni c ci tie s in the
s o uth.

The e ar lie r c ult u r e commo n to the whol e A ry an

,

fam ily which the It ali ans h ad b r o u ght with them

,
 LA T I N . 229

fro m As i a is e as ily e s t abli s hed by the ide nti ty o f

,

a l ar ge voc ab u l ar y of fam ily r el atio n s of r eligio u s ,

i de as o f dome s tic ated a nim al s of n u me ral s of

, , ,

m et al s o f ho us eb u ildi ng of s hipbuildi n g o f cloth

, , ,

ing i n S ans k r it G r eek and L ati n

, ,
The s ame
, .

evid e nce o f l angu age atte s ts the k nowledge o f

agric u lt u r e by the H e ll e no — Italic s tock and i ndeed
by all the we s te r n A ryans be fo r e their s ep ar atio n .

Both m arr i a ge and the fo u ndi ng of citie s were

c eleb r ated with r ite s connected with the p u rs u it
o f ag r icultu r e The s e tr ibe s too h ad al r e ady
.
, ,

c h an ged de s cent in the gems or cl an from the , ,

fe m ale li n e to the m ale while the E t r u s c ans , ,

thou gh mo r e adva nced i n s ome poi nts we r e ,

i n thi s r e s p ect s till at the e ar li e r s t age o f

develop m ent .

The con s e r va ti s m of the R om an s thei r reve r ,

ence fo r au tho r ity fo r law and fo r the State

, , so ,

s t r on gly in cont ras t with the H elle ni c fr eed om of

thought ,s ee m s to h ave bee n de r ived fr o m the

E t r u s c an ele m e nt in their n atio nal s tr uct ur e It is .

tr u e that i n the s e re s p ects as in many other s the , ,

R o m ans s t r o n gly r e s e m bl ed the Lace d z m o nians ;

b u t I h ave lo n g h ad d o u bt s as to the p u r ity o f the
H elle ni c bloo d in th e D o r i a n i nv ade r s of the Pelo

p o n ne s o s The r e are good re as on s fo r as s u ming

.

th at there was a s tr ong infu s io n of H amitic blood

in their vei ns There were Pel as gi an s whe r e they
.

c am e fr o m .

A ll a ntiqu ity b eli eved the R om an p eople to be

comp o s ed as h as al r e ady bee n s tated of three
, ,
23 0 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

di s tinct r ace s — the E tr u s c an the L ati n and th e

, , ,

S abine . Sever al o f th e g enres o r cl an s in the , ,

third R om an tribe the L uceres we r e E trusc an

, ,
.

M o mms e n is veheme nt aga inst thei r h aving owed

a nything to the E t r u s c a ns much le s s a l ar ge s h a re
,

of their blood But Mo m m s en is he r e opp o s ed by

.

a better tho u gh an e ar li e r a uthority h is illust r io u s ,

co u ntrym an Ni ebu h r
, .

There c an be no do u bt th at the l angu age d r ew

m ost l ar gely fro m the Lati n ele m e nt ; but the
war like S abi n e and the ceremo n io u s E tru s c an
s eem to h ave given a s t r o n ger stamp to th e mo ra l

temp er of the race th an the Latin whose supe r i ,

o r ity in ge n tile o r ganiz atio n and at fi r st i n the

b acking obtai ned fro m the c anton s of the Le ag u e ,

i ns u red the p r ev alence of h is to ng u e Nieb uh r .

believed th at R ome w as at one time the c apital of

“ ”
a powerfu l E tru s c an st ate The r e m ai ns s ays
.
,

R eclu s, of anci e nt citie s cyclope an w all s b u ri al

, ,

g ro u nd s u r ns v ase s and o r n aments p r ove th at o n

, , ,

the right b ank o f th e Tiber the E tr u s c a ns were at

”
le as t as stro n g as the Itali a n s It is certain to o .
, ,

th at the T ar q ui n s we re an E trusc an dyn asty I t .

w as the T ar q u in s w h o fi r s t gave the pleb ei a n

d e nizens s o m e rights as citizens enrollin g the m ,

in the army and do u bling the Sen ate by recru its

,

fr om th e we althy pleb ei ans .

A ll the evidence goe s to s how th at i n the ori gi

nal s t ate the S abines fo r med th e w arr ior c as te ;

the E tru s c a n s the p r i e s tly ; while the Lati ns b e

, ,

s ides b eing l e aders in w ar were th e h usb andmen ,

 LA T / M 23 1

of p atrici an blood The exp u l s io n of the T arq u in s

.

m e ant the tr i u mp h of the L ati ns as the futu r e

m as te r s of the s tate B ut the co mplex ele me nts
.

r e m ai ned i n the blood o f the R o m an r ace a nd

,

m ad e them di ffe r thro u gh all the ir hi s tory fr o m

thei r D o ri an ki nd r ed who m they s o s t r o ngly re
,

s e mbled in s o m e p arti c ul ars The war like s pi rit

.

a nd the fr u g al m ann e rs of their S abi n e a n ce s tor s

were no le ss ch ar acteri s tic o f the m e n of the e arly

r ep ublic th an th e t as te for a g r ic u lt u r e th at c am e

to them fr om thei r Lati n fo r efathers ; while the

tog a p r re te x ta the c u r ule c h ai r the fas ce s o f the
, ,

licto r s the s tately tr i um ph and the my s te r i e s of

, ,

au gu r a nd po nti ff we r e all d e r ived fr o m the ma

je s tic ce r emo ni al O b s erv a nce s of the E t r u s c an s .

“
I ndeed the ve ry word ce r e mo ny (e e morz ia )
,

c am e fr o m the anci ent E tr u s c an city of C ze re .

St rabo s s tate m ent th at thi s city w as fo u n ded by

'

Pel as gi ans fr o m The ss aly poi nts to the H amitic

element in the blo od o f the E tr us c ans if the p r e s ,

ent vi ew of the mo s t adv anced eth nologi s ts as to

the H ami tic o r igi n of the Pel as gi ans be well
e s tabli s hed .

The L ati ns who fu r ni s hed the L ati n l angu age

,

not only wi th its n am e b u t u ndo u btedly al s o with

,

m u ch the l ar ge r p ar t o f its voc abul ary a nd with its

fu nd ame ntal s tr u ctu r e ar e c on s id e r ed by e th no lo
,

gi s t s as h avi ng bee n at o ne ti m e m o re widely ex

tended th an we find the m at the d awn of hi s to ry .

B ut i n Camp ani a and el s ewhe r e in s outhe rn Italy ,

they were m as tered e arly by the c iviliz ation of

23 2 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

H ellenic colo n ie s In th at ve ry regio n by the

.
,

w ay we m eet with n am e s th at help to S how th at

,

the g r o un d s tock o f the L ati n r ace w as H am itic .

Co m p ar e the A s c u l u m in the l an d of Pic e nu m ,

th at in D au ni a and th at in A p u li a with the race

, ,

n am e o f the O s ki an d o f the T u s c ans (fo r T u s c an

is as old a fo r m as E t r u s c a n ) with T u s c u l um in ,
.

the l ate r L ati n r egio n wi th the traditio n al fathe r o f

,

the A lb an li n e A s c ani u s and with the ra ce n am e

, ,
-

o f the B as q u e s E u s k ald u nac a nd we h ave a r oot

, ,

th at s hoots u p fr o m the s oil in s lightly v ar i ed le af

a ge whe r eve r the r e is a H a m itic p eople It m ay .

be t raced too in the A s kelo n o f the Phi li s ti ne s

, ,

a n d in the L ake As c an i a o f Bithy n ia R ecl u s i t .

,

is t r ue d e r ive s the n am e of the city of A s kelon

,

fr o m th e gar lic th at g r ows n e ar it ; b ut i t is m u c h

mo r e likely th a t the city g ave na me to the e s cu
lent Tar as co n h as the do u ble E tr u s c an n ote in
.

it , T ar and As h .

The L atin l an gu age and the U mb r o S abelli an -

we r e the two b r anche s i nto wh ich the It alic s tock

divided Both of them s eem to h ave clo s e r afli nity
.

to the H e lle n ic to ng u e th an to any other fo r m of

Arya n s p eech s howi ng a ge ne ral ag r ee m e n t i n
,

voc ab u l ary as well as in thei r infl e c tio nal s y s

te m . Schleicher and Fick h ave atte mpted to re
con s tr uct the m other to n g u e fr o m which s p r an g
the s e two dive r ge n t g r o u p s A fte r the dive r ge nce
.

G r eek d evelop ed a n infi nitely r iche r vowel sy s tem -

a nd c r e ated a n u mbe r of n ew ve rb fo r ms To -

s how how m uc h poore r L ati n is in its ve r b sy s te m -

,
 LA T I N .
23 3

it is only nece ssary to s tate th at while th e L ati n

verb h as b u t o ne hu nd r ed and fo r ty th r ee po ss ible -

i n flection s the G reek h as no le ss th an five h u nd r ed

,

an d s eve n . The d u al which Greek d r opped o nly

,

l ate i n its lite rary hi s tory w as app ar ently n eve r

,

u s ed in Lati n It al s o lo s t if it eve r h ad it the

.
, ,

d efi nite ar ticle The r e is no as s u r ed evide nce th at

.

it eve r h ad the middle vo ice It likewi s e dep arted

.

s till fu r ther fr o m the G r eek by it s ac q u i s itio n of

a n exten s ive voc abul ary app ar e n tly not r el ated at

,

all to the H elle n ic in any o f its di alect s So m e .

s c hol ar s h ave s u p po s ed the s e wo r d s to h ave co m e

fro m Keltic s o u r ce s b ut it is far mo r e p r ob able

,

th at they we r e d e r ived fr om the E tr u s c an ele ment

in the R o m an r ace .

The r e we r e th r ee s t age s in the d evelop m e nt

of L ati n — the ar ch aic s ta ge befo r e it w as us ed
, ,

i n lite ratu r e the lite rary s tage and the s tage in

, ,

which the pop u l ar l an gu a ge re appe ar ed and to

s o me exte n t took its pl ace in l ite rat u r e .

The fir s t is k nown chiefly fr om i ns c r iption s .

The C h ant of the A r v al B r othe r s is o ne of the

olde s t s peci men s o f the l angu age O the r s ar e
.

fr a g m ents o f the ancie nt l aw s c alled the T w elve

T a ble s The s e are all di fficult to i nte rp r et ; and
.

to the R o m ans of the lite r ary p e r iod they s eem

to h ave been al mo s t as u n i ntelli gible as to u s .

The p op u l ar l an gu age fl u id and free to ch ange

, ,

b ec ame fixed by its u s e in lite r at u r e u nd er the

i nfl u ence of Greek culture Five ce n tu rie s h ad
.

el ap s ed fro m the bu ildi n g of the city befo r e R ome

23 4 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

h ad the begi nni n gs of a lite ratu r e I t is j u s t .

po ss ible th at a r ich u nw ritte n lite rat ur e m ay h ave

ex is ted in the s h ap e of b all ad s narrati n g tho s e
s to r ie s r etold in a l ater age by L ivy — b a ll ad s ,

s u ch as M ac au l ay i m a gi n ed whe n he s an g in E n
g
“
li s h h is L ays of A n cient R o m e It is a g r e at .

p ity if s u ch a lite r atu re exi s ted th at i t did n o t

, ,

s u r vive fo r as M a c au l ay tr u ly s ay s
, , ,

T he e arl y h isto ry o f R o me is indeed far m ore po e ti

c al t h an an th in
y g el se in Latin lite ratur e T h e lo v e s o f .

t h e Ve stal and t h e G o d o f W ar t h e c r adle l aid am o ng ,

t h e re e d s o f T ibe r t h e fi g tr ee th e sh e w o lf the s h ep
,
-

,
-

h erd s c abin t h e r e co gn itio n th e fr atr ic id e th e rap e o f

’
, , ,

t h e Sabine s th e d e a th o f T arp e ia th e fall o f H o s tus

, ,

H o stilius th e st ruggle o f M e ttus C ur tius th ro ugh th e

,

m arsh th e wo men rushing w ith to rn raiment and d is h ev

,

e lle d h air betw e e n th e ir fath e rs and th e ir h u sb and s th e ,

n igh tly meetings o f Nu ma an d the N ymp h b y th e w ell in

t h e s ac red grov e th e figh t o f th e t h ree R o mans and t h e

,

th r ee Albans the p urch ase o f th e Sibylline b ook s th e

, ,

c rime o f T ullia th e s imul ated mad ne ss o f Brutus th e am

, ,

b iguo us r e pl y o f the D el p hian o racle to th e T arquins th e ,

wrongs o f Lu c retia th e he ro ic actio ns o f H orat iu s Cocle s

, ,

o f Sc aevol a and o f C l oel ia t h e battle o f R e gillus w o n b y

, , ,

th e aid o f C asto r an d P o ll ux t h e de fe n ce o f Cre me r a , ,

th e t o u c h ing sto ry o f Co r iol anus th e still m o re touc h ,

ing sto ry o f Virgin ia th e w il d l egen d abo u t th e d r aining

,

o f th e Al b an l ak e th e co mb at betw e e n Val e r iu s C o rvu s

,

an d th e gigant ic G aul — ar e amo ng th e many ins tanc e s

,

whic h will at o nce suggest th e mse lve s to every re ad er

”
.

M ac au l ay cite s s eve ral au tho rs of the li te rary

p eriod amo n g the R o manS i n p r oof of the fact
 LA T IN .
23 5

th at b all ads co n tai n ing these old s to ri e s o nce

exi s ted B u t befo r e the s plendor of G r eek lite r a
.

ture the be au ty o f the s e s imple l ay s lo s t thei r

c h ar m for the R o m an p ublic N ze v iu s sang the .

Fi r s t P u nic W ar i n the o ld S atu r ni an ve rs e a ,

'

tr u e b all ad me as u re . E n n i u s s ang the Second

Pu nic W ar in hex amete rs The victo ry of the .

fo r ei gn tas te c au s ed the ancie nt b all ad s to be

co mpletely for go tten . A ne w lite r atu r e s p rang
u p wholly ali en in s pi r it and form
, The fathe r s .

o f th a t lite r at u re we r e the m s elve s fo r ei gn e r s a nd

s l ave s . L ivi us A nd r o nic u s Te r ence and Cae c iliu s

, ,

a ll began th ei r R o man li fe in se r vit u d e The .

fi r s t w as fr o m Tar e ntu m then a G r eek city ; the

,

s eco nd w as fro m C ar th age Pl a utu s tho ugh no t

.
,

hi m s elf a s l ave gai ned h is d aily b r e ad by wo r k

,

in a mill They we r e all copyi s ts fr om the G r eek

. .

E n ni u s A tti u s Pac uv iu s — nay

, , , eve n N ae v ius , ,

the l as t o f the S atu r ni an poets — i m itated the ,

G r eek t r agedi ans . Pl au tu s and Te r e n ce t rans

l ated the c o m edie s o f M e nan der and Phile mo n .

E ve r ythi n g go e s to s how th at lite r at u r e w as no t

a n i ndi geno u s p r od uctio n am ong the R o man s .

W h at li ttle they h ad p r odu ced of the ms elve s ,

they allowed to p ass i nto o blivio n Afte r thei r .

co ntact with G r eek civiliz atio n they we r e long ,

co nte nt to take s u bj ects for m eve rythi ng fr o m

, , ,

the poli s hed H elle n i c race They r e s embled the

.

Sp a rtans in thei r s i n gl e he arted d evotio n to the

-

on e aim of b u ilding u p a g r e at s tate .

To the cl ass ic al w r iter s L atin w as i n s ome

,
236 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

degr ee tifici al l ang u age

an ar I ts voc ab u l ary
.

w as no t the s am e as th at of the pop u l ar d i a lect .

The r igid for ms of co ns tr u ction we r e not ad he r ed

to by the m ass e s I t is only i n Pl au tus and
.

Te re n ce th at we fi nd an app r oxi m atio n to the

'

di alect o f eve ry d ay l ife Pl au t us e s peci ally r e

-
.
, ,

tai ns m any fo r m s whic h the w r i te r s of the A u g u s

tan a ge r egar d ed as a r ch ai s ms The s e ve ry .

exp r e s s i on s howeve r we r e p r ob ably i n c u r r ent

, ,

use am ong the p eople o r in the co u n t ry lo n g

afte r the dec ay o f R o man l ite r atu r e j us t as we ,

fi nd s till in provi nci al u se in E n gl an d a nd Scot

l and fo r ms of s p eech th at d ate b ack to Ch au ce r s
'

time .

L ater the l ang u a ge of lite r at u r e beco m e s fu rthe r

,

a nd fu r the r r e m oved fr om th at o f co m m on li fe and ,

m o r e and m o r e a co nve ntion al u s age of th e c u l

t iv ate d . The ch ar mi n g di mi nu tive s with wh ich
the pl ays o f Pl au tu s and the ly r ic s of C atu ll us
are s o thickly s trew n were t abooed by the g rave r

tas te o f the A u gu s tan age C o mpo u nd epithets .

we r e in the same m an ne r r ej ected and fr e q u e n ,

t at iv e s too we r e p ut u nde r the b an of a s o m e

, ,

wh at hyp e r c r itic al and to o ex acti n g t as te .

Still eve n d u r in g the lo ng p e r iod o f its lite rary

,

c u lt u r e de s pite the co ns t ant e ffo r t at a s o m e w h at

,

m o noto no u s u nifo r mity o f d ignified exp r e ss ion ,

the r e were ch ange s goi ng o n in the l ang u age ,

ch an ge s i n voc ab u l ary in i nflection i n wo r d fo r m a

, ,

tio n and in s yntax M any G r eek wo r d s c ame in

, .
,

fr o m cont act with the G reek s o f s o u the r n Italy as

 LAT J N . 23 7

well fro m the study and i mitation of Greek lit

as

e rat u r e ; and with the m c am e frequently G r eek

fo rms o f inflectio n I n the L a tin of the l ater d ay s

.

of i m p eri al rule the tender diminu tive s re appe ared .

I n the S atyri con of Petroni u s Arbiter where he ,

intr od uce s the co nve r sa tion of the lower cl as s e s a ,

v as t n umber o f provinci al fo r ms loom up s howi ng ,

u s wh at a di fferent to ng u e w as sp oken by the

m as s e s fr o m th at i n o r di nary liter ary use B ar .

b ar is m s of all sorts d is fi gure the sty le of the

A fr ic a n A pulei u s The voc abul ary is s till fu r the r
.

enl ar ged when eccle s i as tic al Latin come s to be

written L ong mouth filling word s h ave the p r ef
.
,
-

ere nc e over the s i mple r fo r ms th e old plebei an ,

n am es for things emerge a nd t ake the pl ace of

cl ass ic al term s adj ective s ar e turned into s ub s tan

,

t iv e s verb s of s eco n d ary deriv ation take th e pl ace

,

o f s imple verbs the n u mb er o f co mpo und wo r d s

,

g r e a tly i ncre as es and m any irregularities in infl e c

,

’
tio n are no ti ce able T hu s for s eaes is u s ed ses s i
.
,

mo mum s ess ibul a m o r s es s or iu m for p la eefl s

’

, , ,

p l aeibil is fo r eres cer e a a irzoresoere for eqa u s , ,

ca ba l /as ; for a omzz s ma ns io ; for os bucca ; for

’
, ,

cap a t tes ta
,
There ar e al s o m any ch anges in the
.

”
me ani ng of words Focus o nce he arth co me s . , ,

”
to me an fire ; pap il io o n ce b utterfly is n o w , ,

“ p a vilion v ena t io o nce hu nting ”

is now
; , ,

”
ve n iso n There is al s o a growing tend ency to
.

a n alyti c inste ad of s ynthe ti c co nstructio n , p r epo

s itio ns b ei ng u s ed mu ch more gener ally th an in

the cl assic stage o f the l angu age to exp re s s wh at

23 8 THE S T OR Y OP L A N G U A GE .

i nfl ected to n gu e s nat urally exp r e s s by c as e s ,

ill e h ie o r is bei n g u s ed fo r the defi n ite a rticle and

, , ,

a n us fo r the i ndefi n ite a nd the infi n itive follow in g

,

a p r epo s itio n as l ater bec am e the u s a ge in th e

,

R o m ance l an g uage s The s en s e of q u antity in

.

ve r s e is lo s t and acce n t and r hyme p le as e the e ar

,

ins te ad I n ti m e the s e ch an ge s become s o p r o

.

n o u n ce d as to m ake it evid e n t th a t a di alect of

R o m an ce h as t ake n the pl a ce o f L atin M e an .

w hile L ati n c o nti nu e s to be w r itte n

, while the ,

R o m ance to n gu e is s poke n I n the s eve n th c e n .

t ury the te r m Latin is co nfi n ed to the lite r ary l an

,

gu age while the popu l ar s peech is c alled ling ua

,

R o ma na .

S u ch is the hi s to ry of the L ati n to n gue u ntil it ,

is wholly s u ppl a nted as a s poke n idio m by its

d au ghte rs in all the l and s i n which it h ad o nce
bee n c u rr e n t .

L e t u s no w go b ack a little and co ns ider it as it

w as in the d ay s of its p u r ity .

The s p eech o f Fanniu s a gai ns t Ca i u s G r acch u s

w a s r eg a r d ed by Cice r o a s the be s t o f all the o ra

tio ns of the gr e at fo rm ative p e r iod of Lati n p r o s e .

The s t and ar d for p r o nu nci atio n in th at age w as

g iven by ge ntlewo me n like Le li a and Co r neli a .

The n ext gene ratio n h ad the s i mple tas te of C e s ar

and C ato to co u nte ra ct the H ell e nizi n g te n d e n ci e
s

o f Cice r o a nd A tticu s ; and i n the ti m e o f A u g u

, s

t u s as a l ite rar y o r ga n the l an gu a ge r e a ched its

,

hi ghe s t pitch of exc elle n ce .

To the R o mans the m s elve s it w as cle ar eno u gh

 LA T I N . 239

th at there were c h ar acte r i s tic di ff erences between

thei r tongue and th at of H ell as S enec a spe aks of .

the s tately and di gnified movement of the Lati n

p eriod giving weight and emp h as i s to the thou ght
,

i t exp r es s ed This is g r e atly enh anced by the

.

u ni fo r mity of its accent giving to the c ad ence of ,

the s entence s o m ething like the he avy tre ad of the

le gio n o n i ts m arch The p reci s ion of its gra mm ar
.

and the ab s e n ce of di alect help too to m aintain , ,

for the l an gu a ge its di s ciplined ch aracte r be s to w ,

i ng u p o n it wh at m ay n o t unfi tly be de s c r ibed

as a m ili t ary p o mp Thi s ex actne s s o f exp r e s s ion
.
,

while it p recl u ded gr ace ve rs atility and subtle s ug , ,

ge s t iv e ne ss s ec u r ed cle ar ne ss and preci s io n and

, ,

p er mitted both r hythm and force I ts d igni ty its .

,

u nifo r m ity its p r eci s io n — all concurred to m ake

, ,

it emp h atic ally the l ang ua ge of law and of o r gani

z atio n .

L a ti n pro s e w as p erh ap s c arried to its hi gh water -

m ark by Ci ce r o who c atchi ng the to n e of the

, ,

able s t R om a n s men like Scipio a nd L e liu s

, and ,

armed with the finest c u lture of the Atheni an

school s gave it all it co u ld receive i n the w ay o f
,

a rti s ti c fini s h o f s tyle H e w as ably as s i s ted as

. ,

alre ady i ntim ated by the simpl e and str aight

,

fo rwar d tas te o f Ce sar The pro s e th at w a s the .

fin al o u tc ome of their e fforts h as no riv al i n the

qu alitie s o f dignity and fo r ce c ad e n ce and rhythm , ,

a nd yi eld s to its d au ghte r the Fre n ch pro s e alone , ,

i n cle a rne ss and preci s i o n The b est L atin is .

alway s di rect forcible and perfectly lu cid

, ,
.
240 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

At the clo s e of the fir s t ce nt u r y , a H is p a nian

L ati nity p r ev ailed led o ff by the S e n ec as L u c an
, , ,

M ar ti al and Q ui n tili an A t the begi n ni n g of the

, .

n ext ce n tu r y we find the A fr ic an s tyle p ar amo u n t

,

in w r ite rs like F r o nto a nd A p ulei u s who s e co nceit s ,

we r e m ai nly the affectatio n of an ar ch aic s tyle and

a b ar b ar o u s m ixt ur e of the fo r m s o f p r o s e a nd

poet ry .

Th is deb as ing te n de ncy howeve r did not p r e , ,

v ail u nive rs ally The s tyle of G ains and the othe r

.

l awye r s is d ry and u nado r n ed b ut cle ar te rs e and , , ,

ex act .

L ater s till fr o m Cl au di a n an d A u s o n i u s down to

,

the m ed i e v al w r ite rs we fi nd the l an g u age g r ad u

,

ally lo s i n g the s e n s e of
q u antity a nd p as s i ng wholly
u nde r the do m i n io n of acce n t p r e fe rr i n g big wo rd s ,

to s i mple o n e s u s i n g r u s ti c te r m s i ns te ad of the
,

cl as s ic al o n e s t u r n i ng adj ective s i n to n o u ns and

, ,

u s i n g co m po u n d and d e r iv ative fo r m s i ns te ad o f

the s i m ple o ne s Thi s ch an ge h as al r e ady bee n

.

m e ntio ned a nd ill u s t rated .

It is fro m the s e s o u r c e s th at m any wo r d s h ave

come i n to the R o mance l an g u age s Th u s g io r no .
,

in Ita l ian and f o ur i n F r e n ch are d e r ived not fr o m ,

a ies b u t fr o m a in r nn rn
’ ’
, .

The te nde n cy too to a nalytic s tr u ctu r e as b e

, , ,

fo r e s aid is m arked and s hows how r e adily by a

, ,

m e r e p r oc e s s o f g r owth in thi s di r ecti on ar o s e the

a n a lytic s t r u ct u r e of the R o m an ce to n g u e s Th at .

the two ar ticle s s ho u ld h ave d eveloped in thi s l ate r

L atin is the mo s t s u r p r i s i ng thi n g o f all fo r e x , ,
 LAT I N .
24 1

c ep t atrace of th at me aning bei n g as s igned to

n nns in Cat u llu s the r e is an enti r e ab s ence o f the
,

li m iti ng s e ns e of the ar ticle i n cl as s ic al Latin and ,

G r eek h ad o nly the d efinite ar ticle It is imp o s .

s ible to avo id the co n victio n th a t the G e r m an ic

r ace s we r e al r e ady s t r ongly i nfl uenci ng the ge ni u s

of the l ang ua ge .

It w as o nly after centu r ie s of degrad atio n th at

a nythi n g like a p u r e L ati n ity r evived th r o u gh the ,

enth u s i as m of Petr ar c a and the H u mani s ts who

followed h im L ate r s till Polizi ano in Italy Ag ri
.
, ,

col a in G e r many E ras m us i n the N ethe r l an d s M u

, ,

re tu s i n F ra n c e and B u ch an an in Scotl an d w r ote

,

with a p u r ity which wo u ld p e r h ap s h ave bee n

acknowledged by C ice r o hi m s elf E ve n as l ate as.

the ei ghtee nth ce n tu ry we fi nd L ati n u s ed fo r

,

wo rks i n te nded fo r the s chol arly wo rld at l ar ge .

L eibni tz howeve r w as p e r h ap s the l as t to u se it

, ,

h abit ually I n the d eb ate s i n the D iet of H u n

.

g ary it w as th e p arli am e ntary to ng u e u ntil the

,

ye ar 1 8 2 5 whe n i t g ave pl ace to M a gy ar

, .

I t is s i n g u l ar how al m o s t i nv ar i ably the L ati n

writer s ar e fo u nd to h ave co m e fr o m othe r l and s
th an the old ho m e of th e L ati ns I c an not r ec all .

the nam e o f a s i n gle o ne who w as bo r n in R o m e .

The e ar ly w rite rs as al re ady s aid we r e fo r ei gn

, ,

e rs. Cat ull u s w as of Ve r o na ; C ice r o o f A r ,

p in um ; S all u s t and V a r r o fr om the S abi n e l and ;

,

H or ac e fr o m A p uli a ; Ve r gil o f M a nt u a ; L ivy

, , ,

o f P ad u a ; L u c an M arti al Q u intili a n Senec a

, , , ,

were fr o m Sp ain ; A p ul ei u s Cyp r i an L ac tantius , , ,

1 6
242 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Te r tulli an Aug us tine we r e fr om A fr ic a ; Vitru

, ,

v iu s ,
Pli ny the E lder Pli ny the Yo u nge r fr o m , ,

C i s alpi ne G au l ; U lpi an of Ty r e ; A mm i an u s , ,

of An tioch ; C l au di an of A lex and r i a ; A m b r o s e, ,

S alv ian Sido ni u s A p olli nar i s fr o m G a u l

,
R ome , .

co u ld p r od u ce gr e at le ad e r s b u t s eldo m g ave ,

bi rth to me n who co uld u s e h e r m aj e s ti c l an g u age

to tell of thei r deed s .

I m po r tant as thi s lite ratu r e h as bee n to mod

e r n E u r op e and h e r colo n ie s in the develop m e n t of

h e r l ang u a ge s h e r lite rat u r e and h e r civili z a tio n it

, , ,

is in its elf in fe r io r to m o r e th an o ne of the l ite r a

t u r e s o f the A ry an race s W h at M ac aul ay s ay s
.

of it h as s o m e of the ex agge r ated to ne natu r al to

h is veheme nt r heto r ic ; b u t it is in the m ai n t r u e .

T h e l iterature of R o me , bo rn old
says h e, “w as .

All th e sign s o f d e c r ep itude w e r e o n it in th e c radle .

We lo o k in v ain fo r th e sweet l isp and th e grace ful w ild

n e ss o f an infant d ial e ct W e look in vain fo r a single
.

gre at c re ative mind fo r a H o me r o r a D ante a Sh ake

, ,

sp e ar e o r a C e rvantes I n th e ir pl ac e we have a c r o w d
.

o f fo ur th rate and fifth rate auth o rs t ranslato rs and imi

- -

, ,

t ato rs w ith o ut e nd T h e r ic h h e r itage o f G r e c ian p h i

.

lo so ph y a nd p o e try w as fatal to th e R o mans T h ey .

w ould hav e acq u ire d mo r e w e alth if th e y h ad succe e de d

t o l e ss I ns te ad o f acc u mulating fre sh inte l le c tual tre as

.

ur es th e y c o nte nt e d t h e mse lv es w ith e nj o yin

, g d ispo sing ,

in ne w fo r ms o r imp air ing b y an inj u dic io us manage

,

me nt th o se w h ich they took b y d e scent

, H e nce in .
,

mo st o f th e ir wo rk s th e r e is sc arcely anyth ing spo nta

,

neo ns and racy sc arcel y any o rigin al it

, y in the th o ughts ,
 LA T IN . 24 3

c cely any id iom in the style T he ir poe try tastes o f

s ar .

the hothouse It is transpl anted fro m G re e ce with the

.
,

e arth o f Pindus cl inging ro und its roots I t is nurse d in

.

care ful seclusio n fro m th e Ital ian air T h e gar de ners

.

are o fte n sk il ful but t h e fruit is al mo st al ways sickl y

,

O ne hard y and pr ic kly shrub o f ge nuine Latin growth

, .

must indeed be ex cepted . Satire was the o nl y ind ige

nous p rod uce o f R o man tale nt ; and in o ur j ud gment

by far the best .

 CH A PT E R XVI .

I N FLE CT ED EN G LI S H .

I NFLECT E D E ngli s h w as the E ngli s h s poken

by the S ass en ach by which te r m I m e an to d e s
,

ignat e the v ar io u s i nv adi n g t r ib e s of Te u to n i c

blood who we r e so c alled by the Keltic pop u l atio n
o f B r it ai n. The te r m Ang l o S ax o n is a poo r one
-

for i t exclu d e s the J u te s who we r e the e ar lie s t

,

of the s e i nv ad ers .

I t w as in the ye ar 449 th at H enge s t and H o r s a ,

chie fs of the J u te s s ettled in the I s le of Th anet

, ,

in th e n o r th of Ke n t The S axo n s did n o t co m e

.

u ntil 4 7 7 whe n thei r chiefs E ll a and Ci ssa

, , ,

l and ed o n the s o u th co as t ne ar the R o m an city

,

o f R egn u m afte rwar d c alled fr om Ci s s a C is

,

s ance as t e r ,n o w Chiche s ter E ar ly in the s ixth

.

ce nt u ry the A n gle s c am e ove r s ettli n g in the

, ,

no r the as t of B r itai n .

They we r e all S low in m aking thei r s ep ar ate

co nqu e s ts and it w as tw o hu nd r ed ye ars afte r the
,

R om ans h ad left the i s l a nd befo r e it w as fai r ly in

the h and s of the S ass en ach I n Scotl and they .
,

d r ove the Kelt s i nto the H ighl and s ; i n E ngl and ,

i nto the mo untain s o f W ale s D evon s hi r e and , ,

246 T H E S T OR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

Co r nwall , and i nto W estmo r el and

Cu m be r l and , ,

an d L anc as hire H e r e the Keltic p eopl e c alled

. ,

W el s h by the S assen ach long rem ai n ed ind ep e nd,

e nt b u t losing muc h o f the civiliz atio n they h ad

,

ac q ui r ed u nd e r R o m an r u le .

A s the r e w as co n s t a nt ho s til ity between the tw o

r ace s ,the r e w as not at thi s period any g r e at
m i n gli n g of blood s ; and henc e the tr ace s of th e
Ke lti c tongue i n I nfl ected E ngli s h ar e co mp ara
t ive ly few .

A t the clo s e of the sixth c entury the J ute s we r e ,

Ch r i s ti an ized from R o m e the e ar li er Ch r i s ti an i ty

,

of the Kelts h avi ng natu rally failed to i nfl u e n c e

any of the Teutonic i nv ad e r s as yet to ab and o n

thei r faith i n the old mytholo gy o f the ir fa the r s .

The w ars betwee n the di fferent Teuto n ic ki n g

d om s in the l and h ad j us t c e ased with the reco g ,

n itio n of E gbe r t Ki n g of the W est S axo ns as

, ,

r u le r over all the E n gli s h as the S assen ach no w ,

c alled them s elve s whe n ne w inv aders c am e to

,

di s t u r b th e p e ace The s e were the D ane s o r

.
,

No rth m en s e a rove rs as the S ass en ach we r e

,
-

be fo r e them ; and they m ad e settlements no t o nly

in E ngl and b ut i n the O r kneys the I s le of M an
, , ,

a nd o n the e ast co ast o f I r el an d al s o I n the e n d .

,

th ey conqu ered all the north and e ast of E n gl a nd ,

c alled fo r some gene ratio ns after them the D an e

, ,

l a gh . Indeed eve ntu ally E ngl and w as r u led by

,

a b r iefly se ated dyn as ty of D anish kings ; and

hardly h ad the old E ngli s h li ne o f king s b een
rein s tated when anothe r se t of No rthme n who
, ,
 I N FL E C T E D E N GLI S H . 247

h ad u ndergone an ed uc atio n o f a few gener ations

i n Fr ance ove rth r ew the E ngli s h and co mpletely
,

m as tered the l an d .

There are trace s o f the D ani s h tongu e i n m any

n ames of pl ac e s and fam ilie s and i n a fe w word s
,

th at were pe rman e n tly a dded to the E nglish

l an gu age The i n fl u e n ce o f th at form of French
.

spoken by the No r m a n s w as far gre ater and will ,

be traced at a l ate r p eriod The blood of both

.

D ane and No r m an w as an i nv a l uable addition to

the E ngli s h s tock S o m e o f the b e s t qu alities of
.

the r ace are d u e to thi s ad m ixtu r e ; and both

l angu age and lite r at ur e h ave g ained i mmen s ely
by the loftier s trai n of the N o rs e man s n ature as ’

well as by the fe rvor o f the Keltic element and

the h u mor of th e E u s k ari an .

I nflected E ngli s h d i ffe rs fro m modern an alytic

E ngli s h not only in its g r amm atic al s ystem b ut ,

also i n voc abul ary Tho u sand s o f words h ave

c ome i nto M oder n E n gli s h fr o m o ther l angu ages ,

whil e a l ar ge p ar t of the voc a b ul ar y of Inflected

E ngli s h h as wholly di s app e a red .

Still by grad u a l s tage s o f ch ange o u r mod ern

, ,

tongu e h as d esce nd ed di r ectly fr om the speech

o f the wild Te utonic tr ibe s th at l an ded in B r itai n
i n the middle of the fifth c entu ry This sp eech .
,

lo ng broken i nto d i alects in B r itai n i tself w as the ,

l angu age prob ably di alecta l the n of s ever al d is

, ,

tinct trib e s lying along the c o as ts o f the North

Se a at the mou th s of the R hi ne and the W eser
and the E lbe Thei r d i alects all belonged to the
.
24 8 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

L o w Germ an divi s io n o f the gr e at Teutoni c s tock ,

the e arlie s t of them all to take l ite rary form being

th at of the M ae s o Go th s who left the sho r es of the
-

B alti c and went s outhwar d m o r e th an a century

before The G othic to n gu e w as u s ed it will b e
.
,

r eme m b e r ed in the Bible of U lfi l as in the fou rth

,

c entury .

The di alect o f the S axo ns is s upposed to h ave

h ad clo s e affinity with the to n g u e now s p oken i n
H oll and ; th a t of the A n gle s with the Friesi an ;
,

th at of the J u te s s ee m s to h ave s tood midway

be tween the n o r the r n and the sou thern di alects ,

thou gh it might b e s u ppo s ed to h ave been still

ne arer the Sc andi navi an type th an the sp eec h of
the A ngle s .

The A ngles of No r th u mb r i a we r e the first of

the new s ettlers to c u ltiv ate lite r atu re and hence ,

they gave n ame to the l ang u age and the l angu age ,

ultim ately g ave n am e to the race in s p ite of the ,

s ub s equent ri s e to powe r of the W est S axo n

kingdom .

R ecognizing then the hi s to r ic contin u ity of

E ngli s h we find on clo s e ex am in ation of its
, ,

lon g s erie s of ch an ge s th at it h as undergone

,

three m ai n s t age s of develop m e n t e as ily d i s tin ,

gu ish e d by di ff e r e nce s of i nflection O ld E ngli s h

.

h as full i nfl ecti on s ; M iddle E n gli s h h as u niform

inflections the re s u l t of a s o r t o f leveling p roces s ;
,

Mod ern E ngl i s h h as no i nflectio ns or very slight ,

tr aces of the old infl e c tio nal s ys tem .

The e arly sp eech w as highly inflected No uns .

,
 I N FL EC T E D E N GL I S H . 249

a dj ectives and ve r b s h ad all numero u s c h ange s

,

o f termi n ation to exp r e s s thei r d i fferent rel a tio ns

to o ne anothe r The r e were fo u r c as e s ; and the

.

d ecle n s ion s were divided as in G e r m an i nto s t r o ng , ,

and we a k Th e fi r s t and s econd p r o n o u ns h ad th r ee

.

n u m ber s The ve r b h ad prop e r ly s pe aki n g b ut

.
, ,

two te ns e s the p r e s ent and the p as t It h ad a

, .

s u bj u n ctive m ood I n the s t r uctu r e o f the s e n

.

tence the old Te u tonic o rd e r p r ev ailed the ve r b ,

clo s i n g the s e nte n ce The o rnam e nts o f po etry .

we r e alli te ratio n and the l arge u se of fi gu rative

te r m s and s tr iki ng co mpo u nd s Few fo r eign wo rd s .

e nte r ed i nto the l ang u age L ati n gave the wo rd s .

fo r s tr eet, m il e, p u nish ment , ch u r ch , bis h op , L a tin ,

butter , pepp er , po nna , inch , and i n th e nam e s
’
ch ees e,

of pl ace s , ca mp , colo ny , tr ench , h a r bo r r a mp a r t ,

.

T hi s co nt r ib u tion w as exceedingly s m all co mp ar ed

with the v as t i n fl u x o f L atin wo r d s both di r ectly ,

an d thro u gh the F r ench i n to Mo de r n E ngli s h , .

The R o m an colonie s left tho s e wo r d s th at h ave

p ass ed so l ar gely i n to the n am e s of pl ace s ; the
Ch u r ch o f R o m e bro ught tho s e th a t h ave an eccle
s ias tic al m e ani ng W e fi nd cas tr a i n the no r th
.
,

a nd e a s t of E ngl a nd with the h ard s o u nd , as in ,

L an c as te r D o n c as te r T adc as te r
,
In the m idl a nd
, .

co u nti e s the s ame word take s the s ofter s o u nd of

,

ces ter , as in L eice s ter Towce s ter G lo uce s te r ,In , .

the w e s t and s o uth it take s the s till s ofter form of

,

Ch es t er as
,
i n C he s ter M anche s te r W i nche s ter , , .

S tr a ta we fi nd not only in the wo r d s tr eet but

, , .

al s o in the n ame s o f pl ac e s like St r atfo r d Str atton , ,

2 50 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

St r etton Str etfo r d Co lon ia g ave Col ne L incoln ;

,
. ,

g ve F o s b ro o k e F o s b r id ge ; p o r t us g ave
f o ss a a ,

Po r ts m o u th B ridp o r t ,
.

E ccle s i a s tic al Lati n b r o u ght in s uch w o r d s as

l fro m ap os to l a s b i f ro m e is co u s ca l c
p os t o s co
p p p
, ,

fr o m ca l ix cl er c fr o m cl er icus ma neo fr o m mo na
’

, ,
‘
ch us p r eos t fr om p r es b
, y ter a el m es s e fr o m el e ern o ,

s zine p r ed ic ia n fr o m p r wd z cd r e r eg o l fr o m r egu l a
'
’

, , .

I n l ate r E ngli s h the s e took the fo r m of ap os tle

, ,

bis h op , c h a l ice, cl er h , mon/z , p r ies t , al ms , p r ea ch ,

r u le .

A lo ng with the monk s c a me o m e of the p r o s

d uc tio ns of the l ar ge r wo r ld beyo nd th e s e as ; and

it w as at th is p e r iod th at the l an g u age r eceived
the wo rd s th at we r e to beco m e in M ode rn E n gli s h
bu tter , ch ees e ; ced a r , fi g p ea r p ea ch
, , l ettu ce, l ily

p epp er peas e ; , ca mel lio n, , el e p h a nt ; oy s ter , t r o ut ,

p o und ,
o u n ce ; ca n d l e , ta bl e ; m a r bl e m in t , .

Keltic gave the wo r d s fo r ba dg e r br eech es , , cl o u t ,

p o ol , oro ch , cr a dl e, d a r n , d a inty , mop p il lo w , g len , ,

h a voc, h il n , in a ttoch To the s e m u s t b e add ed the

.

n am e s o f m a ny r ive rs m o u ntai ns l ake s and hill s , , , .

Th u s E s k in Scotl an d and E x and Avo n in E ngl and

, ,

are the na m e s of r ive rs bec au s e both the s e wo r d s ,

“ ”
me an w ate r in di ffe r e n t Kelt ic d ial ects The r e .

are fo u r teen A vo n s in G r e at B r it ain whil e the r e ,

ar e twe n ty s t r e a m s c a lled E x I n W al e s the s ame .

n ame is fo u nd in the for m U s h ; in York s hi r e i n ,

the form Ous e W e fi nd it too in the n am e s of

.
, ,

p l ace s as in Ax mi ns te r O xfo r d U xb r id ge The

, , , .

Keltic n ame for mou ntai n app e ar s i n W ale s as

” (f
 I N FL E C T E D E N GL I S H . 2 51

P en , in Scotl and as B en The Pennine M o u ntai ns .

i n E n gl and an swer to the Ap en nin e r ange i n

Italy .

La ter o n wi th the Norm an s and still l ater on

, , ,

thro u gh the i n flu ence o f I rish w ar s and of the ad

h e re nc e o f the H ighl a n der s of Scotl and to the
c a u s e of the St uarts there c am e m any othe r Kel
,

tic word s into c urrent E ngli s h .

The D anish i nv asion s p ut an end to the North

u mb r i a n c ultu r e and the W est S axon di alect took
,

then the fore m o s t pl ace King Al fr ed s o wn lite r ary

,
’

l abo rs doing m uc h to give it p r o mi nence The .

North u mbri an liter ature culmi n ated i n the eighth

c entu ry It w as in the n inth centu ry th at the re
.

v iv al of le ar n i n g u nde r A l fr ed took pl ace The .

N orth u mbri an p oe ms were copied at thi s ti m e in

th e W e s t S axo n di alect and it is i n thi s fo r m that
,

they h ave su rvived .

The e arliest s p eci men s of I nflected E ngli s h are

the i ns cripti on s o n the R uthwell and Bewc astl e
cro s s e s Th es e are i n the R u n ic ch ar acte r I n
. .

the m anu s cripts the ch ar acter s are of th at v ar iety

,

of the R om an letters fo u nd alre ady i n use among

the Kelts by the S ass en ach on thei r arrival in the
i s l and As no co nvenie n t s igns co u ld be fou n d i n
.

th at alph abet fo r the E ngli s h s ou nd s it) and th the ,

R u nic letters c alled w i n and th o r n were adopted .

W however is now printed i n the texts of I n

‘
, ,

fle cte d E nglish in s te ad of the foreign looki ng w en

,
-
.

The two fo rm s of th or n the o ne r epresenti n g the ,

thick and the other th e thi n sou nd o f th are re ,

2 52 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

taine d . C and G, as in L ati n,

we r e alway s h ar d
s o u nd s A s a . ge ner al rule the roo t syll able h ad
,
-

the acce nt .

A fte r the No r m an C on q u e s t by ove r l ayi n g them ,

wi th the u nive r s al u s e of No r ma n F r e n ch h ad p ut -

all the di alect s i n to the s am e s t ate o f th raldo m m any ,

D an i s h and othe r Sc a ndin avi an wo r d s e m e r ged with

the s tr u ggli ng E ngl is h and took thei r pl ace in it ,

whe n it fi nally c am e agai n to the s u r face .

S u ch are all n am e s o f towns e n di n g in by o f ,

which the r e are s aid to b e m o r e th an s ix hu n dred

in the e as t of E ngl and By in D a ni s h m e ans .

“
town and thi s is the m e ani n g of the wo r d by
,

la w a l aw fo r a s p eci al tow n
, S u ch ar e al s o th e .

wo r d s co mmo n in s ome p arts of E n gl and and in

,

s o me fo r m s of o u r lite rat u r e back m e ani ng a , ,

s t r e am ; f el l an elev ated ble ak t ra ct o f l and ; fi r z/z

, ,

o r fi om a n a r m of the s e a ; f o r ce a w ate r fall ;

’
, ,

a r ili a y a r d — in the O r k n ey s a ho u s e with the

g , , ,

l an d belo ngi n g to it ; Ito/m an i s l and i n a r ive r ; ,

kir k a ch u r ch ; 06 a n i s l an d ; tk orp e a vill age ;

, , ,
’ '

t/z w a z te a fo r e s t cle ari n g ; u z k o r w ick a s t atio n fo r

,
f
, ,

s h ip s or a c r eek
, M any of the s e wo r d s are fo u nd
.

in co m po s itio n m aki n g a p ar t o f the n a m e s o f

,

pl ace s o r familie s s u c h as W ilb e r forc e D u nki r k

, , ,

Be rwick H ogar th T r e nhol m G oldthw aite

, , , .

B u t the m o s t vital additi o n to the l a ng u a ge fr o m

the tongu e of the D an e s is the wo r d a r e whic h ,

took the pl ace of the I nflected E n gli s h s z na o n the

’
’
,

othe r for m of which beat/z u s u ally h as a fu tu r e , ,

fo r ce F r o m the D ane s al s o we get the h abit o f

.
 I N FL E C T E D E N GLI S H . 2 53

u s ing a p re fix with the i nfi nitive tho u gh they u s ed ,

a t i n s te ad o f to and thi s u s age s till conti nu e s in

,

’
Te nny s o n s n ative Li ncol ns hi r e O the r D an ish .

word s s till in us e as fam ili a r E ngli s h eve rywhe r e o r ,

as me re ly di alect of the n o r the r n and e as te r n S hi r e s ,

o r fam ili ar to u s in the old b all ad poetry of the

Bo r d e r are the bo l e of a tr ee to b e bo i m or bo u n d
, ,

“ ”
o n a j o u r n ey to ba s k i n the s e n s e o f
, d re ss or
“
m ake r e ady ca ke ca ll crop (to c u t) cur l o ut
, , , , , ,

da iry , da z e, din , d r oof , f oll o w fl it f or f r o w a r d

, , , ,

b us tz izg s , ill , ir k, kid,

'

kindl e l of t o dd p l o ugk r o ol
‘
, , , , ,

s co ld , s ky , ta m , w ea k, a nd ugly .

The No r m an Co nq u e s t fou nd the l angu age

al r e ady te nding g r ad u ally to p ass fr o m the s n
y
thetic to the a n alytic s tage The s u b s titu tio n in .

the no rth and e as t of E n gl and of the D ani s h to ng u e

fo r the North u mb r i a n di al ect h ad o f i ts elf s h ake n
the s t ability o f the l ang u a ge ; and whe n to thi s
w as a dd ed the r u le o f a D an i s h dy nasty ove r all

E ngl an d its d i s integ ra tio n bec am e rapid

, The .

d eclen s i o ns o f no u ns b ec am e u ns ettled : n o uns

th at u s ed to h ave a o r u fo r thei r pl u ral te r m i natio n
now took the e n di n g a s th at b elo n ged to anothe r
d eclen s ion .

E ve n b efo r e the conq u e s t o f the count r y by

W illi am the No r m an the l an g u a ge h ad b ee n in
,

v aded and to s o m e exte nt co nqu e r ed by No r ma n

F r ench ; fo r E dwar d the l as t ki n g o f A lfr ed s ,
’

line h a lf No r man in blood and wholly s o in r e ar

,

i ng h ad s o th r onged h is co u r t with No r m an p r i e s ts
,

a nd nobles th at for a qu arte r o f a c ent u ry be fo r e the

2 54 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA G E .

fatal l andi n g at Peven s ey French was the fashi on ,

able l ang u a ge in E ngl an d The fight at S enl ac .

m ade th at w hich h ad bee n a fashio n p erm anent

u s a ge and N orm a n F re n ch bec a me fo r gener ati on s
-

s u preme in th e l and By its lo ng cl as h with E ng

.

li s h it co m pleted the ch an ge fro m s yntheti c to

,

an alytic s peech The co nq u e s t at o n ce e s tabli s hed

.

in E ngl and a foreign co u r t a foreign ar i s tocr acy , ,

a nd a foreign hie r archy Norm a n F r e n ch w as the

.
-

l angu age o f all who we r e in p owe r and i t w as ,

n ece ssar ily u s ed by l arge n u mbers of the co nquered

r ace E n gli s h of cou r s e a lmo s t wholly c e ased to

.

b e written and as a con s e q u ence lost all i ts v o cab u

,

l ar y except the homelie s t word s of o r di n ary life .

The N o r ma n s m e anwhile were co ntr ib u ting to

the slowly fo r mi ng new idiom p ar t E n gli s h p ar t ,
-

,
~

F r ench a few Keltic wo r ds th at they h ad le arned

,

fr om their mothers i n the old Galli c l and u po n

which thei r pir atic al fathers h ad s ettled The .

Frenc h they s p oke i n No r m andy alo n g with the ,

l arge voc a b ul ary i t h ad r eceived fr o m L atin h ad ,

retai n ed a nu mber of old Kelti c wo r d s which ,

p ass ed i nto E nglish in thi s w ay A m on g the s e .

a re bag , ba rg a in , and ba r ter ; ba r rel , ba s in, bas ket ,

an d bucket ; bo nnet, butto n, and r ibbo n ; car an d

ca r t ; d agg er and
go w n m itten and mo tl ey r og ue,

va r l et, v a ss a l , and w icket It w as m an y

gene ra.

tion s l ater th at Bu r ns s po em s and W alte r Sc ott s

’ ’

r om ance s r evivi ng th at i n te r e s t i n the H i ghl ande rs

,

felt in the ti m e s of the Civil W ar and the J acobite

risings fixed in the E n gli s h l angu age s u ch Keltic
,
 I N FL E C T E D E N GLI S H . 2 55

words as cl a n , cl ay more p/z il a beg kilt p l a id p i

, , , ,

br ocb , and s l oga n . Wbiskey w as not so slow i n nat

u r aliz in itsel f
g .

When the Angevin dyn as ty c a me to the thro ne ,

other di alects of F r ench be s ides the Norm an

p o ured like a flood i nto the l and and E ngli s h ,

s ank i nto still g r e ate r di s g ra ce .

The loss of Nor m an dy h owever threw the , ,

ho u s es o f the forei gn nobility i n to clo s er ass oci a

tio n with the n ative E n gli s h and by the ti me the ,

g r e at wars o f E dwar d I I I and H enry V c ame to . .

m ake all alike p ro u d of the n ame of E nglishm an ,

the E ngli s h to ng u e g r e atly ch anged in structure

,

and l ar gely filled with F r e n ch word s s ucceeded i n ,

s truggling to the fr o nt .

It is at this p oi nt th at s o m ethi ng s ho uld be s aid

abo ut the liter atu r e of I nflected E nglish ; fo r u h ,

i mportant and d evo id o f i nterest in i tself i t is a ,

v alu able factor i n the d evelop m e nt of the l angu age ,

a nd i n en abling u s to co m p r ehend the c h anges i t

h as u nd ergon e .

The old e s t li ter atu r e in I n fl ected E ngli sh consi s ts

“ ” “
Deo r s
’ ’
o f th r ee p oems The Traveler s Song
, ,

” ”
Compl ai nt and Beow u lf all of which were once
, ,

beli eved to h ave bee n co m p o s ed on the conti ne nt

and bro u ght over with them by the i nv ading tribes ,

being long h anded dow n by recitatio n b efo r e they

were committed to w r itin g Thi s is still thou ght .

“ ’
to b e the c as e so far as co ce n n r s The Tr aveler s
”
Song and D e o r s C o m pl ai nt the co mp o s iti on of
’
,

which is referred to the clo s i ng ye ars of the sixth

 2 56 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

centu ry The fi rs t o f the s e is the wo r k o f W id

.

s ith a poet o f the M y r gings a t r i be dwelli n g n e ar

, ,

the E id e r The s econd is r egard ed as belo n gi n g

.

to the s am e p e r iod I ts au tho rs hip is howeve r .

, ,

u nk n ow n .

Beow u l f a wo r k of crud e p o w e r is n o w b e
, ,

l ie v e d to h ave bee n w r i tte n abo u t the begi nni n g o f

the eighth ce n t u ry A s to the q u e s tio n o f whe r e it .

w as co m p o s ed a u tho r itie s s till di ffe r ,

I t is a he r o .

myth r el ati ng to the Swede s the Sc andi navi a n

, ,

G oth s a nd the D a n e s
, I ts i n te r e s t is l ar gely d u e .

to the fact th at the l ate r lite ratu r e in I nflected

E ngli s h is s o u n o r igi nal co ns i s ti n g al m o s t wholly ,

of p araph r as e s of the Sc r ip tur e s and o f the live s o f

the s ai nts .

I n fl u e nced by the C u ldee s of Ion a the cultu r e o f ,

the No r th u m b r i an m o n as te r ie s e ar ly r e ach ed a
high poi n t fo r th at age ; b u t the lite rat u r e w as
ch iefl y in L ati n B e s ide s the L ati n w r iti n gs in
.
,

which the s c hol ar s hip of the ti m e felt bo u n d to ex

p r e ss its el f the r e w as howeve r an othe r body of
, , ,

lite r atu r e th at w as the fr u it o f a n at u ral longi n g o n

the p ar t o f the race to p u t i nto thei r native to n gu e
the r el igio u s te ac hi n gs they h ad so l ately r eceived .

Thi s de s ir e g ave b ir th to the Par ap h ras e s of ”

Cae d mo n The L indi s farn e Go s p el s belo n g al s o

.

to thi s p e r iod .

I n the e ar ly ye ar s of the eighth c entu r y flo u r i s hed

Cynewulf a W e s t S axo n poet o f s o m e o r igi nality
,

and o f g r e ate r ve rs atil ity th a n a n

y o the r s th at h ave
come down to u s H e w r o te b e s id e s the u s u al .
,
 I N FLE C T E D E N GL I S H . 2 57

religio u s p oe ms — h is we r e Ph ce nix
,
“
Cri s t ,

“
E le n e o r Th e Fi n ding of the C r o ss
, an d ,

— s ec u l ar po e ms :
”
The W ande r e r
j u li a na , ,

“
The Se afar e r The W ife s Co mpl ai nt and
,
” ’

”
R iddle s Felix a monk of Cro y lancl w as the
.
, ,

“
a u tho r of G uth lac To th e s e m u s t be add ed
.

the p oem of J u dith and A nd r e as — a poe m

“
, ,

fo u nd ed o n an ap oc ryp h al wo r k in G r eek “ The ,

A cts of the A po s tle s A nd r ew a nd M atthew .

I n the ninth ce nt u ry c a m e A l fr ed s s tr u ggle s

’

with the D an e s who h ad al r e ady p u t an e nd to

,

the s ho r t lived cultu r e o f the No r th u mb r i ans B u t

-

the vivid e ne r gy o f A lfr ed — I u se Gr ee n s ad mir '

i ng exp r e s s io n — w as di s pl ayed n o le s s in h is
ar de n t devotion to le ar ni n g th an in h is w ar s with

G uth r u m a nd H as ti n g H e t ra ns l a ted G r ego ry

.

the G re at s C u ra P as to ralis O r o s i u s s H is to r i a
’

,
’

'

U n ive r s ali s B o e th ius s D e Co ns o latio ne Ph ilo so

,

”
p h iae and B md a s
”
H i s to r i a E ccle s i as tic a No r
’
.
,

we r e the s e wo r k s me r e tran s l ati o ns fo r he added ,

m any s h r ewd co mm e nts d e r ived fr o m h is ge n e r al

r e ading a nd h is o w n expe r ie nce It is believed .

“ ”
th at the S axon C h r onicle exi s ti n g befo r e in ,

r u de s t o u tli n e owed to h is co mm and and e n

,

c o u ra ge me n t the fu lle r fo r m which it now b eg a n

to take It w as kept u p i n afte r ti m e s with v ary

.

ing me ag r ene ss a nd copio u s n e s s of det ai l u ntil the

s to r my r eig n of Stephe n when it died o u t at l as t ,

i n the A bbey of Peterbo r o ugh A lo ng with the .

S axo n Ch r o ni cle o u ght to b e m e ntio n ed al s o

”

the “ L aws o f E thelb e r t and of Ine

"
.

I 7
2 58 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

“
To the clo s e of the tenth c e ntu ry belong The s

B attle o f M aldo n . A fte r thi s e ar ly in the eleve nth

,

ce nt u ry co m e the L ive s of the S ai n t s the trans

, ,

“ “ ”
l atio n o f the H eptate u ch an d the H o m ilie s
,
”

o f W o lfs t an , an d al s o the H o m ili e s of fE l fric ,

A r chbi s hop o f Can te r bu ry .

The r e is a lo n g gap of two ce n t u r ies between

the s e wo r k s w r itte n in the u nch an ged o r but ,

s l ightly ch an ged ,
I n fl ected E n gli s h and th e fi r s t
th at app e ar in th at g r e atly mod ified fo r m of the
to n g u e w hi ch h as r eceived the nam e of M iddle
E n gli s h. The i nte r v al is W ide i n deed betwee n
fElfr ic and L ay a m o n . O f thi s lite r a tu r e in which ,

the i nfl u e n ce of N o r m an F r e n ch is s o m an i fe s t
-

I m u s t t r e at s ep arately ; fo r the l an g u age ,

tho u gh no t yet fr ee fr o m i n flectio n h ad no t the ,

fu ll i nflecti o n of its e ar li e r p e r iod and both lan ,

g u age and lite r atu r e w ill b e bette r u nd e rs tood

afte r a n acco u n t h as bee n give n o f the fo r m at ion

an d s t r u ct u r e of th at F r e nch tong u e by which

they we r e s o g r e atly affected .

No do u bt the p r e s e nce of the D an e s in the

l and h ad al r e ady g r e atly q u icke n ed p ho netic d e
c ay . B ut the p r o ce s s we nt o n with s u ch ac c e l er
ated s peed afte r the s u p r e m a cy o f the F r e n ch

s p e aki n g No r m an s h ad bee n e s t abli s h ed th a t we ,

m ay p r actic ally r eg ar d it as d u e wholly to the

co nflict w ith F r e nch .

Thi s c h apte r may fi tly be clo s ed with a p as s age

fr o m the tho u ght fu l and s chol ar ly e ss ay s of D avid
H ilto n W heele r :
 I N FLE C T E D E N GLI S H 2 59

We t d y Anglo Saxo n fo r th e beginnings o f o u r

s u -

l anguage o nl y T h e l ite rature is as d re ary a le vel as its

.

nat ive H ol stein Even th e b its o f l e ge nd w h ich app e ar

.

in th e scant r e mains o f Anglo Saxo n poetry are rath e r

-

D anish th an E ngl ish T h e facile fanc y th e s tro ng

.
,

w inged imaginatio n th e
,
aud acio us inve ntio n w h ic h
ap p e ar in o ur e arl y ro mance and so ng ar e by univer sal

agr ee me n t no n Saxo n
-
”
.
 CH APTE R XVI I .

FR E N C H .

TH AT ch arming l an g u age so facile so lucid s o

, , ,

b r illi ant i n its p ower of expre ss ing thou ght th e ,

to n gu e of Monta ig n e of Pas c al and of M oli ere

, , ,

of Voltaire o f H u go and of D au det — h ad b ut

, , ,

h u mble beginni ng s L ike the other R o m ance

.

l an g u ages it s p r ang fr o m d eb as ed Latin still fu r

, ,

the r co r rupted by the b ar b ar ic p ro nu nci atio n s and

by the solecisms of the r u d e G erm an conq uero r s .

I t s eems as wond erfu l th at s o eleg ant a to n g u e

s ho u ld h ave ri s en fr o m s u ch a sou rce as th at the

n oble E ngli s h s peech s ho u ld t r a ce its o r igin b a ck

to the gu ttur al and clu ms y I nfl ected E ngli s h .

F r e nch h as long b ee n fam o u s among l an gu age s

fo r its facility in exp re s s i n g tho ught with cle ar n e ss
a nd p r eci s ion with g ra ce a nd vivid ness with te rs e
, ,

n e s s and poi nt N o l an gu a ge excel s i t i n co nve r

.

s at io nal e ase and light n e s s o f touch I t h as fo u nd.

exp r e s s ion i n a lite ratu r e as r ich and v aried as any

th at exi s ts embodyi ng the ch ar acteristics of s e n ti
,

m e nt and thou ght o f ra ce s as d i fferent as the

B r eton and the Proven c al th e N orm an and th e
,

G as con the A ls ati an and the P arisi an

, .
 FR E N CH 26 1

The n ame Fr a ncia app e ar s fo r the fi rs t time in

the fo urth centu ry The G allic r heto r ici an A u
.
,

s o niu s o f B urdi g al a ,now Bo r d e au x m ake s us e ,

of th e term in ce rtai n line s o f h is to de s c r ibe the

l a nd occ u pi ed by the tr ibe s o f the Fr a nk s who ,

we r e s till dwelli n g be yond the R hine .

I n the s eventh cent u r y G r egory o f To u rs obey

, ,

ing the co u ns el of h is m othe r to “ w r ite fo r the

”
i gno r an t delibe r ately u s e s r us tic Lati n d e clar
, ,

ing th at he w r ite s a s p eople s p e ak ign o r i ng the ,

d ecle ns i o ns and keepi n g n o di s ti nction betwee n

the abl ative and the acc u s ative At the s ame ti m e
.

he decl ar e s w ar aga i ns t all the old le ar ni n g as in ,

extr ic ably m i ngled with p rofan e idol atr ie s The .

ti me h as co m e fo r the lege n d s of the s ai nts to take

the pl ace o f the cl ass ic lite r atu r e .

The s poke n l ang u age of the e n ti r e Gallic r egion

w as d eveloped m ai nly fr o m the e ffo r t o f the c o n

q u e r i ng F rank s to s pe ak the to ng u e o f the p eople

who i nh abited the l and at the ti m e o f the F ran ki s h
s ettle m ent It m u s t be reme mbered th at thi s to n g u e
.

w as al r e ady g r e atly co rr u pted fr o m the L ati n of

lite ratu r e fo r in add ition to the old R o m an colo

,

mi s ts in the tow ns the pop u l atio n co ns i s ted of

,

m i n gled E us k ar i a ns Kelts A llem a n s B ur g u ndi ans

, , , ,

Vi s i goth s and the G r eek s of M as s ili a

, .

So u th o f the Loi r e the pop ul ation w as m ai nly

o f the old E u s k ari an Gr eek and Galli c blood
, , ,

s trongly ti n ct u r ed with R o m an civi liz ati o n and no t ,

g r e atly ch anged by Vi s igo thic o r F ranki s h co nq u e s t .

A q uit ai n e S e p timania Gas cony and Bou r gogne

, , ,
 2 62 TH E STO R Y OF L AN G UA GE .

this l ast l argely Bu rg u ndi an — were lon g reg ard ed

as territory s u bj ect i ndeed to the Fr ank s b u t ,

wholly di fferent in r ace and te mp er fr o m Fr ankl and

p rop e r .

No rth of the L oi r e the p op u l a tio n w as p ar tly

Gallo — R o m an and p a r tly Te u to n i c Fl anders Pic
.
,

ar dy Ch am p a gn e No r m an dy we r e of thi s mixed
, ,

blood Bretagne w as p u r ely Kelti c M ai ne Anjou

. .
, ,

Tou r ai n e and th at ce n tral l an d c alled the I s le of

,

Fr ance bec au s e b o u nded by the r ive rs Seine O i s e , ,

A isne and M ar ne we r e of the m i xed blood

, , .

The stru ggle betwee n the r us tic Lati n s poken by ,

the m ass of the p eople eve rywhe r e thro u gho u t the

empi r e and so o fte n r e fe rr ed to by the cl assic
,

writer s of R ome as p r ovi n ci al and b arb aro u s ,

the s tru ggle b etwee n thi s loo s e Lati n and the voc al
org an s of the Te u to nic m as te r s l as ted abo u t fo u r
centu r ie s ; fo r as al r e ady i nti m ated Vi s igoth s
, , ,

S ueve s A lle mans and B u r g u nd i an s h ad al r e ady

, ,

done much i n a Te u to nic w ay tow ard the attrition

of the vulgar L ati n b efo r e the co ming o f the
F rank s .

By the time o f C har le s the G r e at the mo ngrel ,

sp eech h ad b eco m e s o di s ti nct a di alect th at h e

c au s ed a gr ammar o f it to be p r ep ar ed fo r the u se
of h is s chool s A gene ratio n l ate r when the broth
.
,

ers Ch arle s the B ald and L o u i s the G e r m an s wo re

, ,

to thei r t r e aty of alli an ce at Str as b u r g they swore ,

and thei r p eople s wo r e in the t w o di fferent di alect s

,

the one being no w di s ti nctively G e r m an and the

othe r R om ance It w as in the middle of the ninth
.
 FRE N CH . 26 3

centu ry th at the W e s t F r ank s thu s bec ame aw ar e

th at they we r e s p e aki n g a d i ffe r ent l an gu age fr om
thei r ki n d r ed ac r o s s the R hine .

The fo rm atio n of the R om ance l ang ua ge s

tho s e o f the Sp ani s h a nd Itali an p enin s u l as as well
a s tho s e of the G allic l and — w as a gr adu al p r oce ss .

The r e w as a ti m e — and it l as ted fo r ce ntu r i e s

whe n the pop ul ar tong u e a fte r the m ixtu r e o f
r ac e s s eemed to the p eople as well as to the
s chol ar s o n ly b ad L ati n . All we s te r n E u rope
s poke v ar i ation s of the s a me b ar b ar ized Latin .

S o long as any t r ace of lite ratu r e r e m ai n ed the ,

n ece s s a ry c o m p ar i s o n of the s poke n to n g u e with

the w r itte n fo r c ed m e n to r eg ar d their s p eech as

m e r e b ar b ar i s m A s the ch as m be t w ee n the two
.

g r ew wide r m an u s c r ipts and the s tu dy of the m

,

r eti r ed m o r e a nd m o r e into the cloi s te rs The r e

.

c a me a ti m e at l as t whe n m e n r eco g nized the

fact th a t they no lo nge r s poke Lati n at all b u t ,

R o m an .

As thi s ge n e ral s p eech bec ame diffe r e nti ated by

r ace ch aracte r i s tic s and u s age s the R o man w as
,

p erc eived to b e d i s ti nctively Itali an Sp an i s h Pro

, ,

v e ncal o r F r e n ch
,
The n ext s tep w as to w r ite in
.

the s e tong u e s th at h ad g rad u ally co m e to be r e c

o gn iz e d as s omethi n g mo r e th a n me r e di alect s .

The F r e nc h tongu e co me s then mai nly fr o m the

co ntact o f Te u to ni c tongue s with th at b ran ch o f
the Italo Pel as gic known hi s toric ally as L ati n Fo r
-
.

the mo s t p art the Keltic co n tr ib u tio n to it is re p re

,

sented o nly by the n am e s o f r iver s and pl ace s .

264 THE S TOR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

The E usk ari an ele m e n t p e r h aps more p ersistent

,

in the r ace th an h as h ithe r to bee n s up po s ed p rob ,

ably exp r e ss e s it s el f in the l angu age by tho s e

c har acte r istic n as al s o u nd s ab s e n t in Itali an and
,

Sp ani s h b ut m a r kedly prono u nced in Portu gu e s e

,

and French .

The Teuto nic i nfl u ence in forming the new

tongu e it m u s t be r e m e m b e r ed w as not co nfined
, ,

to the Fr ank s who u ltim ately gave n ame to it and

to the l and i n which i t w as s p oken There were .

other Te u ton s in G au l b e s id e s the Fr anks There .

were the Alle m an s who we r e s ettled in the l and

,

afterw ard known a s A l s ac e by the E mperor J uli an

, .

There were the S axo ns t r ans pl anted in g r e at n u m

,

be r s into Ne u s tr i a l ate r No r m andy by the

E mpero r C h ar les The r e we r e the Goths l ong
.
,

occupying the s outh befo r e its co n q u e s t by the

F rank s The r e we r e the B u r g u ndi ans holdi n g the
.
,

southe ast i n the region o f the R ho n e At a l ater .

period the No r m ans go t po ss e ss ion of the l and i n

,

which th e S axo n colo ny h ad c o m mingled with th e

e arlier Gallo R om an p op u l atio n B u t the Norm ans
-
.

m arr ied the wome n of the co u ntr y ; and the next

gene r ation s p e aki n g the to n g u e of their mothers i t ,

is not likely th at th is Te u ton ic ele m e n t co u nted for

much i n th e u lti m ate s p eec h .

T aki ng then i nto th e acco u nt o nly th e F r ankish ,

Alle manic S axo n G othic an d B u r gu ndi an stocks

, , , ,

we see th at however few r el atively e ach i ndivid ual

,

b and of conq u ero rs the r e m u s t on the whole h ave

,

been a l arge infu s io n of Te u to nic blood i n the r ace

 ER E N CH . 26 5

th at w as soo n to be c alled French The s tr ength .

of this element in the r ace h as n atur ally left the

F r e nc h l angu age richer in Teuto nic word s than is
any other R om a nce tongu e It h as been c ale u
.

l ated th at while all the R om anc e tongu e s h ave to

,

gether ne arly a thou sand word s of Te uto nic o r igin ,

a bo u t h alf o f this n u m ber are confined to the

F r enc h l angu age .

Fro m the middle of the ninth century whe n the ,

L atin Fr anks first bec a m e aware of the fact th at

they were spe aki ng a to n gu e di ff erent fro m L ati n
a nd di ff erent fro m G e r m an to ne arly the clo s e o f
,

the tenth centu ry whe n the Frenc h mo nar chy

,

r e ally b eg an with th e c r owning o f H ugh C apet

(J uly 3 the n ew l angu age s lowly but s te adily

,

grew in coherency and i ndividu ality .

Me antime i n the old Gallic are a two di alects of

, ,

the R o m anc e to n gu e we r e s truggling fo r s up r em

acy — the Proven c al
, an d th at s poken
, north o f
the L oi r e which the g rammari ans now style O ld
,

Fre n ch They were di s ti ngui s hed in thei r o w n

.

’
d ay as the L ang ne d Oc and the L a ng a e d Oil
’

accordi ng to the form they used resp ectively fo r

“ ”
Y es .

I n th e c ase of both the s e tongue s there w as a ,

time whe n tho s e who s poke them regarded the m

as o nly di fferent ki nd s of b ad Latin They we r e .

the n t r u ly d i alects Bu t lo ng before men ve n tu r ed

.

to u s e them for liter ary p u rposes they c ame to b e ,

s p oken and rec ogniz ed as di s tinct l angu age s .

A s r el ated to Latin they h ave in common se v

,
266 T HE S TOR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

e r al poi nts the cl as h o f G e r m an i c s p eech with

,

Latin o r r athe r the e ffo r t of the G e r m an ic c o n

,

q u e ro rs to co mm u ni c a te wi th the co n q u e r ed in

wh a t both r egar ded as the s u p e r io r l an g u age r e ,

s u ltin g in the s e ch a nge s :

1. The lo s s of c as e s and the ab ando n m e n t of

the n e u te r ge nd e r ; 2 The g ai n of the ar ticle by
.
,

the u s e o f a n us and il le fo r a and Me th u s s up ,

plyi ng a g r ievo u s l ack in the L ati n to ng u e ;

3.
(a ) The g ai n of co mpo u nd te ns e s and a c o n
d itio nal m ood ; (b) The r epl a ci ng of the L ati n
fu tu r e by the fu s io n o f a vo ir (li a ber e ) with the
'

i nfi nitive ; (c ) The r epl aci n g of the L at in p as s ive

‘
vo ice by the au xi li ary etr e (esse ) and the p as t
p ar ticiple o f the ve r b in u s e ; 4 The r epl aci n g o f
the L atin adve r bi al e ndings by in cnte in the s e ns e ,

“ “ ”
of m anne r fas hion
, .

I n add itio n to the s e p oi nt s co mm o n to O ld ,

F r e nch and Pr oven c al F r e n ch is al s o di s ti n

,

gu is h e d fr o m L ati n by th e L ati n to ni c s yll able

beco mi ng i nv ar i a bly the fi nal s yll able in F r e nch ,

a r e s u lt p r ob ably d u e to o r i gi n al and p e rs i s te n t

E u s k ar i an i nfl u e nce .

F o r ex ample the Gr eek ep is kop o s b eco ming

, ,

L a ti n ep z s cop ns in F r e nch r eta ined the acce n t o n

,

the s eco nd s yll able and d r opp ed the two s u cceed

ing s yll abl e s e nti r ely Co m p ar e F r e nch ev eque
’
.

with E ngli s h bis /top a nd n ote how in the F r e nch

,

all the o r igi n al s yll able s are d i s c ar d ed alto gether ,

except th at o n which the acce nt fall s and the ini

ti al o ne while i n the E ngli s h the geni u s of the
, ,
 FRE N CH . 26 7

l a ng u age requiring the a cce nt to b e thrown as far

b ack as po ss ible the s yll able p r eceding the ac
,

c e nte d o ne is d i s c ar d ed a nd one of tho s e d is

,

c ar d ed by the F r e nch is kept Both l ang u age s .

r et ai n the o r igi nal accent b u t e ach choo s e s a s ep a

,

r ate pl ace fo r it i n the u tter ance and keep s o r d is ,

c ard s the lighte r s yll able s o n e ac h s ide of it in

a cco rd an ce with the ch ar acte r i s tic bent e ach of its

o w n s t r u ct u r e
‘
.

A nothe r i n s t a nce f r él e fr om L ati n f r ag il is

, , ,

s how s how at the fo r m ative p e r iod of the lan

g u a ge acc ent w as kept o n the r ight s yll able while ,

f r ag il e which w as of m u ch l ate r i ntr od u cti o n

, ,

s how s how by th at ti m e the s en s e of L ati n acce nt

w as lo s t fo r i n accord a n ce with the ge n i u s of the

,

F r e n ch to n g u e the accent here is o n the l as t

s yll a ble .

The L a ng ne d Oil and the L a ng ae d Oc both

' ’ '

d i ffe r ed fro m Itali an and Sp an i s h i n ret ai ning

d i s tinc tive c as e s R ay no u ar d w as the philol ogi s t
.

who fi r s t c alled attentio n to thi s fact B ut o f all .

the old Latin c as e s they kept o n ly two o ne fo r th e ,

s ubj ect o f the s e ntence a nd o ne fo r the obj ect .

H ere w e fi nd s ynthe s i s evide ntly on the decli ne ,

tho u gh it h as not v an i s hed e nti r ely as in the othe r ,

R o m ance tong u e s a nd as it u lti ma tely will dep ar t

,

in F r ench too . W e h ave on the o ne h and in the ,

L ati n o r i gi nal s ynthetic compl exity a nd o n the

, ,

other i n the mod e rn R om ance tongu e s analytic

, ,

s i m plicity ; a nd between the m s howi n g s ome li nk s

in the gr ad u al p r oce ss of ch ange are the s e two ,

26 8 T HE STOR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

“
to n gu e s o f 0c and Oil Fo r ex am pl e emp ero r
. ,

in the P r ove nc al h as two fo r m s emp er a ir e fo r the

,
-

s u bj ect and ernp er a do r for the obj ect while in the ,

F ench the e c e e p ectively emp er er e

O ld r s as s a r e r s

an d e mp er eo r I n Mod e r n F r e n ch the o ne form

.

fo r both s u bj ect and obj ect is einp er enr .

W e fi nd Itali an an d Sp a ni s h wholly without

thi s di s ti nctio n of c as e s as e ar ly as the thi r teenth
ce n tu ry wh ile F r e n ch kept the two fo r ms u n til
,

the fi ftee nth W h y did F r e n ch and Pr ove n c al re

.

tai n th is tr ace of sy n thetic s tr u ctu r e when Itali a n

‘
and Sp an i s h did n o t ? B ec aus e they too k fo r m in
lite r at ur e in adv an ce o f th e s o u the r n idi om s ; and
lite rat u r e as we h ave s e e n exe r ts a powe r fu l c o n
, ,

s e rvativ e i nfl u enc e checking ch ange by e s t abli s h

,

ing a p r e s tige in favor of the for m s whi ch i t u s e s .

The exi s te nc e of a lite ratu r e is al s o b oth a p r oo f

and a s ti m u l a nt o f the co ns cio u s n e s s of r ace li fe -

S u ch co ns cio u s n e ss w as th e nat u r al r e s u lt of the

s u cce s s of the F ran k s in e s t abli s hi n g a pe r m a ne n t

do m i nio n in we s te r n E u r ope .

I n the twelfth a nd thi r teenth ce nt u r ie s we fi nd ,

O ld F r e nch d ivided i nto fo u r di s ti nct d ialect s the ,

B ur g undi an in the e as t the No r man in the we s t, ,

the Pic ard in the n o r th a nd the s p eech of the I s le

,

of F ranc e in the ce nt r e O f the s e the l as t bec ame

.

eve nt u ally the do m in ant di alect .

The di s tinctive pec u li ar ity o f th i s d i alect is s tated

by Littré to b e its p r e fe r enc e fo r th e dip htho n g o i ,

as in r o i r o ine es tr o it
, ,The Pic ar d ch an ge s ck into
.

k as kemi n for cke7n in ko se for ck o se ca t fo r ok a t

'

, , , .
 FR E N CH . 2 69

I t u s e s th e m as c uli ne article l e with femi ni n e

wo r d s as le f emzn e fo r la j emai e te ma is on fo r to
, ,

ma is o n . Thi s u s a ge acco u nts fo r s o m e pec u li ar

family n am e s which h ave prob ably p u zzled m any
r e ad er s of French m e m oi rs The Norm an di alect
.

p u ts ci i n the pl ace of o i as rei r eine es tr eit

, , , .

So m e of the q u ee r for m s of French fo u nd in E ng

li s h law ar e d ue to the c haracteri s tic s of thi s
d i alect .

W hile the d i alect of the Isle of F ra nce tri u mp hed

i n the m ai n the othe r di alects h ad their i nfl u e n ce
, .

L itt r é poi nts o ut th a t the No r man p r o n u nci ati on

t r i u mp hed in the u lti m ate for m of the imp e r fects
of ve r b s and in w ord s like r e ine ef/fia is and cr ea nce
, , ,
’
.

By thi s ti me the l an g u age w as r ich in literatu r e ,

a nd w a s reli s h ed by fo r eig n e rs to s uch an extent

th at they eve n w r ote in i t in p r efe r e nce to u s i ng

their o w n to ngu e s I n the thi r tee nth ce ntu ry the
.

E n gli s h t ravelle r S ir Jo hn M a ndeville the Ve neti an

, ,

t ravelle r M ar co P0 10 and the l e arned B ru n etto

, ,

L ati ni of Flo r ence p ut fo r th their wo r k s in F r ench

, .

The hi s to r i an of Veni c e M ar tino d e Can al e com

, ,

p o s i ng in the same to ngu e s tate s expre ss ly th at he

,

“
do e s s o bec au s e the F r e nch tongu e is c u rr e nt
thro u gh ou t the wo r ld and is m o r e d eli ghtful to
”
re ad and to he ar th an any othe r .

The s u prem acy o f the di alect o f th e I s le of

Fr an ce w as l argely d u e to hi s to r i c fact s —to the ,

progr e ss ive ce nt raliz atio n of the gove r n ment and

to the c r e ati on of a c apital B ut as we h ave s ee n
.
, ,

th e other d i alects i n th e very act of yi elding to

,
2 70 THE STO R Y O F L AN G UA GE .

th at which bec am e do m i n an t and th u s aidi ng in

co ns tit u ti ng it a lite rary l ang u age left thei r i m p re s s
,

u po n it in m any way s th a t are s till t ra ce a ble .

D ur ing the fo ur tee nth ce nt u ry O ld F r e nch g r ad u

ally p ass ed i nto M ode r n F r e n ch lo s ing in th e p r o
,

ce ss its p ec u li ar ity o f s ep arate fo r m s fo r s ubj ect

a nd obj ect Thi s ch ange o cc u rr ed d u r i n g the
.

fe r m e nt atio n o f s oci ety th at b r o u ght abo u t the

t rans itio n fr o m fe u d ali s m to s tr o ng m o nar chic al
gove r n m e nt , th at politi c al ch ao s which w as s o
g r e atly i nc r e as ed by the i ns u rr ectio n of th e p e as
a nt s and the de s ol ation s of th e lo ng civil and
fo r eig n w ars .

The grad u al di s u s e o f c as e —e ndi n gs is to be s ee n

in the lite rat u r e of thi s pe r iod o f t rans fo r m atio n .

Thi s is the ti m e o f di s o r ganiz ation B u t r e o r gani

.

z at io n begi ns at o nc e ; and in the fi ftee n th c ent u ry

we fi nd the l ang u a ge fr ee fr o m all c o n s cio u s n e s s

o f c as e vi go r o u s and r e ady to b egi n a n e w le as e o f
, ,

life Fo r l an gu a ge m u s t accord with the s pi rit o f

.

the age w ith ne w condit io ns of tho u ght and feel

,

ing and hence m u s t c h an ge with e a ch g r e at

,

hi s to r ic c r i s i s and e ach s tep i n the evol u tio n o f

s oci ety .

The t rans ition fr o m fe u d ali s m to p u re m on ar chy

w as n o do u bt c au s e as well as c onco m ita n t o f th e
, ,

ch an ge in l an gu age B efo r e thi s ti m e the c u ltu r e

.

of the r egio ns in which the P r ove n c al to n g u e w as

s p oken w as u nd o u btedly s u p e r io r to th at o f the

little ki ngdo m of F r anc e Th e c au s e s th at b r o u ght

.

abo ut the ulti m ate t r i u mph of F r e nch ove r P r oven

 FRE N CH
'
. 27 1

cal were the politic al fo r tu ne s of the ki ng s o f the

Cap eti a n li n e , the exten s ion of the n o rthe r n s p eec h
i nto E n gl and by the No r m an conq u e s t of th at
co u nt r y and above all the de adly blow d e alt to
, , ,

the d evelop m e nt of the s o u th by the ho rr o r s of

the c r us ad e agai ns t the A lbige ns e s .

A t the ve ry ti me too whe n the art of the Trou

, ,

b ad o u r s beg an to d ec ay the U n ive rs ity of P ar i s

,

h a d al r e ady attai ned a high pitch of celebrity and ,

w as o ffe r i ng a focu s for the g athe r i ng cultu r e of

the race on the L oi r e .

The yo u th of g r e at r ace s always p ass e s th ro ugh

an a ge of p e r s o n al achieve m e n t which we c all the

H e r oic A ge . I n the chiv alry of the Ch r is ti an r ace s

we find the e n thu s i as m o f religio n o ne of the mo s t
s alie n t fe atu r e s d u r i n g thi s p e r iod of develop m e n t .

To thi s s tirri ng i nce ntive w as d u e th at lo ng s e r i e s

of g r e at ente rp r i s e s a nd advent u r e s c alled the
Cr u s ad e s di r ected not o nly a g ai ns t the M o s le ms
,

o f Pale s ti n e b u t fo r mo r e th an s eve n ce nt u r i e s
,

a g ai ns t tho s e o f Sp a i n and d u r i n g a p ar t of th at
,

ti m e a gai ns t tho s e of E gypt of T u n i s of A lgie rs

, , ,

and o f M o r occo .

The i ntellect u al fr uit o f all thi s activity in ar m s

and i n te n s ity o f feeli n g w as the gre at body o f

he r oic l ay s p r od u ced by the Tro uv er e s the chief ,

“ ”
of whic h w as m
the fa o u s L ay of R ol and .

B ut rich as w as the lite r atu r e of the l ay s and the

f a blia ux , the former s erio u s the l atte r me r ry , ,

the l a n gu age c ould h ardly be co ns id e r ed as fairly

n atio n al u ntil in th e middl e o f the thirteenth
,
27 2 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

ce n tu ry wi th the downfall of the A lbige ns e s its

,
,

gr e ate s t r iv al c e as ed to be c ultiv ated and the ,

tong u e of the Tr o u b ado u rs g ave pl ace to th at o f

the T r o u v er e s .

H e r e it will b e well to p a u s e and n ote by a few ,

i n s tan ce s how the e ffo r t o f the Te u to n ic n oble s to

,

s p e a k the p r ovi nci al L ati n modified th e s p eech in

q u ite a nothe r w ay fr o m th a t i nvolved in the s ever al

ch ange s i mp r e s s ed u p o n its gr amm atic al s tr u ct u r e .

W e s h all s e e th at in s o m e c as e s the ve ry fo r ms
cho s e n to r ep r e s e nt id e as otherwi s e exp r e s s ed in
L ati n poi nt to a di s tinct t ra ce of G e r m an me m o ry ,

o r the e ffect of the co nfo r m atio n of the voc al

o r gans in the G e r m an r ac e .

Fo r in s tan c e k a a t “ hi gh ,
c ome s it is t r u e
, , , ,

fr o m the Lati n a l tns but it wo u ld n o t h ave b ee n

as pi rated h ad n o t the G e r m a n Iz o ck b ee n i n the

m i nd of the Te u to nic lo r d and r e ady to le ap fr o m

“
h is lip s .So al s o while k zt r l er to howl co m e s
, , ,

fro m it l nla r e it gets its as pi r ate th r o u gh the infl u

'

“ ”
e nce of the G e r m an k enl en Fe n fi re c ame .
, ,

n o t fr o m ig n is b u t fr o m f o cus bec au s e th at wo r d
, , ,

“ ”
aki n to fi re w as n e a r er to the G e r m a n Fe ner
,
.

“ “ ”
L a iss er , to le ave to let c am e n o t fr om
, ,

b ut fr o m l a x a r e b ec a u s e th at word clo s e
’ ’

s z ner e
, , ,

“
to let in m e aning w as ne ar e r to the G e r m an ,

l as s en
. Co u r c am e n o t fr om a n l a b u t fr o m cok o r s , ,

bec au s e G e r man H of w as the n e ar er s o u nd .

The r e ar e s o m e F r ench word s in c o m m on us e

th at are di r ectly of Teuto nic o r i gi n as fo r in , ,

s t ance bag ne
, ring which is i de ntic al with the
, ,
 FR E N CH .
27 3

I nflected E ngli s h bedg , occ u r r ing i n th at very an

cient saw ,

Cyning s c e al mid ce ap é e w eme gebicgan,

B unum and b e agum

S o the G e r m an w a r h as given g nerr e lzel m,

k a nme ; s ck mel e en, ema il “ cir
; b r ing (me aning
cle ka r a ng a e ; h er berg e , an berg e .

R eturni ng now to the s ubj ect of the continuo u s

develop ment of the F r ench l an gu age let us se e ,

wh at followed u po n the e s tabli s hme nt of the s u

‘
p re macy of the L a ng n e d Oil and e s peci ally of
’

the s p eech of the I s le of Fr ance .

L ittr é c alls a tte ntion to the likene s s between

l angu age and other livi n g org anis ms i n its being ,

like them subj ect to occ as io nal cr ises The firs t

, .

gre at c r i s is u nd ergone by the l angu age th at we

now c al l French w as th at tran s fo r m ation in the
Latin which res u lted in the bi r th of all the R 0
m ance tongues The s eco nd w as th at which re
.

s u lte d i n the tr a n s fo r m a tio n o f O ld French into

th e mod ern s p eech I n the s e tw o p r i ncip al c as es

.

th e pheno men a are so s tr iking s ays L ittré th at , ,

li ght is p roj ected fr o m the m ove r the s ub s equ ent

hi s tory of the l ang u age and we ar e en abled to
,

c o mprehend wh at take s pl ace even i n detail fr o m , ,

o ur knowled ge o f the p r evio u s p athologic al co ndi

tio ns of the org an i s m Th u s we t ake note o f two
.

mi nor crises — th at which ad apted the l angu age of

,

the sixteenth c entu ry to the tho u ght and s entiment

o f the s eventeenth and th at which in the nine
,

18
2 74 THE STOR Y OF L AN G UA G E .

t e e nth h as exe r ci s ed s o p owe r fu l an i nfl u ence i n

the e n l ar ge me n t o f the voc ab u l ary and in the in
t r o d u c t io n o f n e w mode s a nd fo r m s of exp r e s s ion .

J us t as a s e ns e of i n co ng r uity between the lan

g u age o f the p as t and the s p i r it o f the p r e s e n t
op e r ated in the fo r m atio n of th e R om anc e to ng u e s ,

an d the n ,
ce ntu r ie s l ate r in the ch ange fr o m I n
,

fl e c te d i n to M od e r n F r e n ch s o the s a m e s en s e o f
,

inco n gr u ity p r od u ced a s o m ewh at d i fferent typ e o f

l an g u age i n the s eve nteenth ce nt u r y fro m th at
wh ich h ad b een in u se fr o m the ti m e o f the
fo u r teenth .

The w ars o f r eli gi o n ended the r oy al p ower ,

g r e atly i nc r e as ed the co u r t fo r m i ng a centr e of

,

s oci al and i n tellect u al c u lt u r e the r e c a m e a ch an ge

,

in l angu age co rr e s po ndi n g to the ch an ge in the

fo r m and p r e s s u re of the natio nal s pi r it R e s tr ic .

tion s we r e p u t u pon s u ch fr ee lice n s e in the u s e of

p r ovi n ci ali s ms and the coi na ge of wo r d s fr o m the
cl ass ic s as w as ind ulged i n by me n like R abel ai s
and M o n t ai g n e . L aws we r e fram ed eleg an ce a nd
,

p r eci s i o n o f s t ate me nt we r e idoli zed and the lan ,

gu age w as c ramped by r u le s no t alway s b as ed ,

u pon an acc u r ate k nowledge o f it s s t r u ct u re .

The s am e inco n g r u ity b etween the i nhe r ited lan

gu age and the m ode r n s p i r it p r ev ailed o n ce agai n ,

whe n the s p ec u l ative te m p e r of the ei ghtee nth

ce n tu ry g ave bi r th to the r evol u ti o ns a nd w ar s of
the n i neteenth The m ap of E u r op e c o uld n o t b e
.

c h an ged s o often the whol e s oci al fab r ic o f F ra nce

,

co u ld no t b e to r n d ow n and b u ilt u p anew witho u t ,

 FR E N CH . 27 5

prod ucing v as t ch an ge s in the liter ature and the

l an g u a ge .

A n e w voc abul ary a new as s embl age of idio m s

, ,

a new r h eto r ic we r e the i n evi t able r e s ult of a ne w

,

wo r ld in which the ve ry tr ad ition s of fe u d ality and

,

m o n archy h ad p eri s hed a g r e a t body of s cie nc e s

,

h ad bee n bo r n and h ad s p ru ng i nto s udden vigor ,

na tion s h ad bee n fu s ed together into new n ation

alitie s and forei gn lite r at u r e s h ad fo r the fi rs t time

,

b ee n s tudi ed with e nthu s i as m .

Th e cle ar ne s s and po int the limpid p u r ity o f ,

s tyle th at ch ara cte r ized the be s t F r e n ch fr o m the

,

d ay s of Corneille and P as c al to tho s e of Voltai r e

and B u ffo n g ave pl ace to the G othic l u x u r i a nce of
,

H u go and the el abo rate tho u gh exq u i s itely d ai n ty

, ,

p h ras i ng of D au det while the s p eech of P ar i s i a n

,

s ociety its elf is now as full of n eologi s ms as the

work s of the lite rary ar ti s ts of F ranc e .

Still th at is tr u e o f the l ang uage which is so

,

well s aid o f the te mp e r of the race by the g re at

“
E n gli s h h i s to r i an G r ee n whe n he s pe ak s o f
,
its
,

r ap idity an d agi lity of move m e nt its li ght ne ss and ,

brilli ancy of to uch its a i ry m ocke ry its gayety

, ,

an d good hu mor its critic al c oolne ss and s elf

,

”
control .
 C H A PT E R XVI II .

IN FLECT E D E N G L I SH AFT ER T H E C O N QU E ST .

IN the n ec e s s ar y fr ictio n b etwee n the two

s peeche s b r o u ght abo u t by the e ffo r ts o f c o n
q u e r o r and co nq u e r ed to co mm u n ic ate the ex ,

c re sc e nc e s o f i n flected form s we r e g r a d u ally r u bbed

o ff
. A t the s a m e ti m e the m odi fic atio ns and
,

r el atio n s of p r o m ine nt wo r d s c am e to b e ex
p r e s s ed m o r e and m o r e by co nn ecti ng p ar ticle s .

The s e co nnective s ar e all fr o m the O ld E n gli s h

s ide of the fa m ily .

H e r e it will be well to n ote a d i s ti n ctio n th at

thi s fact o u ght to i mp r e ss u po n u s W h ile the .

g r e ate r body of the wo r d s in the E n gli s h l an g u age

ar e t race able to L ati n r oot s a s a n ex a m i n a tio n
,

of the d ictio nary will s how it will no t d o to s ay

,

th at the L at in ele m e nt h as the p r ep o n de ran ce i n

the l ang u age The ve ry l ar ge p ar t pl ayed by
.

the co nnective s j us t r efe r r ed to ac co u nt s fo r the

,

fact th at in al m o s t any book in any co nve r s atio n

,

betw ee n p e rs o ns o f c u ltu r e an d m ar ked ly in the

,

talk of the u nlette r ed the wo r d s of p u r ely E n gli s h

,

o r igi n will fig u r e m ore l argely th an tho s e fr o m

all othe r s o u r ce s .
 I N FLE C T E D E N GL I S H AF T E R C OIVQ U E S T . 27 7

The No r m an Co nq u e s t fou nd the l angu age al

r e a d y te ndi n g g r ad u ally to p as s fr o m the s y n theti c

to the analytic s ta ge The lon g p r e s e nce o f the

.

D a ne s in the l and and the fas hio nable u se of

Nor m an— F r e n c h d u r ing the r eign of E dwar d the
Co nfe s s o r h ad p r od uced a ve ry decided e ffect i n
th at di r ectio n .

The c arefu l p r o nu n ci atio n th at w as nec e s s ary

to m ar k the te r m i n ati o ns by whic h the co rr el atio n
o f ide as w as exp r e s s ed h avi n g lo n g s i nce c e as ed ,

the l ang ua ge eme r ged after its long s tr u ggle w ith

,

F r e nch fo r the mo s t p ar t analytic i n s t r u ct u r e

, .

Still the r e we r e m any fo r ms of i nflection th at

,

did no t di s app e ar u n til the ve ry eve of the Tu dor

p e r iod ; and we c annot c all the l ang u age in whic h
Ch au cer wr ote M od ern E ngli s h tho ug h he is in ,

m any w ays s o t r u ly E li z abeth a n in h is s pi r it .

It m u s t s till be co ns ide r ed as m o r e o r le s s an
i nfl ected tongue u ntil we r e ach the book s th at
C axto n s e nt fo r th fr o m h is p r e s s .

D u r i n g the th r ee ce ntu ri e s be fo r e E ngli s h o b

taine d o ffici al r ecog nition it w as b r oke n u p i n to ,

m any d i alects no o ne of the m h avi ng p re e mi

,
-

n e nc e . Th r ee m ai n di alects did howeve r take , ,

p ar t i n p r od uci n g the lite r atu r e o f thi s Middle

E n gli s h . The s e we r e the S o u the r n the Midl and , ,

an d the No r thern The l as t na med d ropp ed the

.
-

i nflectio ns fo r the mo s t p ar t b ut retai n ed the ,

old vowel s o u nd s I t is the p are nt of the m o d

-
.

ern Scotti s h di alect fam ili ar to u s in the wo r ks

,

o f B urn s Scott W ilson M rs O liph ant and S tev

, , , .
,
27 8 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

en s o n The fi rst—
. n amed kep t the i nfl ectio n s b ut ,

ch anged the old vowel s ou nd s It w as the M id -

.

l and di alect ho wever th at w as d estined to b e

, ,

co m e the n ation al li te rar y l angu age Thi s w as .

the s p eec h th at p rev a iled betw een the H u m b e r

a nd the Th ames ; and the E as t M idl and fo r m of

it w as th at which u lti m ately tri u mp h ed ove r all

t h e other di alects The r e we r e s ever al re as o ns
.

fo r thi s I t got rid of its i n flections soo ne r th an

.

the r e s t bec ause of the e ar ly i nfl u ence of the

,

D an i s h s ettle ments in the e as t o f E ngl an d the ,

l ar ge r n umber of Norm a n s s ettled the r e afte r

the C o n qu est the l arge r n u m ber of th r ivin g town s
, ,

a nd the const ant co mm u ni c ation with the co nti

n e n t th r o u gh the se apo r t towns of these p ar t s .

S u ch are the c au s e s as s i gned by M e iklejo h n .

B ut there we r e othe r r e as ons O ne w a s the .

i mm e ns e i nfl uence o f L o ndo n and the Co u r t .

A n other w as the fa ct th at this w as the di alect

u s ed by the fir s t m e n of geni u s who wr ote i n
E n gli s h at all .

The ch anges fr om O ld to Middle E n gli s h c o n

s i s ted chi efly in : 1 L o s s of m u ch of the n ative
.

voc ab u l ary and adopti on of F r enc h w ord s to s up

ply the pl ace o f tho s e d r opped ; 2 Mod e r nizi n g .

by vowel ch ange s the E n gli s h wo rds retained a

‘
-

beco m ing o o tendi n g to 00 n to o n ea to e e to

, , , ,
’

ee ee to i
, and also by g u tt u ral conson ant s givin g

w ay to p al at al ; 3 O b s c u r atio n of vowel s afte r the

.

a cce nt and especi ally o f fin al a o n all o f the e

, s , , ,

ch angi ng to a light a; 4 C onsequ ent co n fus io n .

 I N FL E C T E D E N GL I S H AF T E R CON Q UE S T . 279
"

and lo ss of old i n flectio ns and thei r r epl ace m e nt ,

by p r epo s i tion s au xili ary ve r b s and ru le s of po s i

, ,

tio n To the s e mu s t be added fo r p oetry the

.
, ,

s u ppl an ting of allite rati o n by r hy m e A nd u n t il .

,

the lite rary ac hi eve m e n ts o f the E as t M i d l and

di alect h ad give n it the mas te ry to all the other ,

c h a n ge s d u e to the s tru ggle with No r m an F r e nch -

m u s t be add ed the fact th at the re we r e m any

di alects and no recognized s tand ard .

The No r man s al s o tau ght the E ngli s h the us e

of the i nd efinite ar ticle I nflected E ngli s h h aving .

h ad o nly the definite The F r e nch plu r al in es

.

took the pl a ce of the E ngli s h pl u ral in e n tho u gh ,

fo r lo n g the M idl a nd di alect r et ai n ed the E n gli s h

fo r m and it is s ti ll m o u r ned by love rs of poet ry
,

as far the b ette r r hythmic al fo r m .

The di ffe r ence b etwee n the di alects is m o s t

m arked in the pl u r al of the p r e s e nt i ndic ative
o f the ve r b Thu s .

M idla nd . S o u th er n .

We h op es ,
W e h o pen ,
We hop eth .

Yo u ho p es , Y o u h o p en, Yo u h o p eth .

T h e y ho p es ,
T h ey h o p e n, T h e y ho p eth .

B ut the M idl and r apidly th r ew o ff its inflectio ns ,

and ,
by the b egi nni ng of the thirtee n th centu ry ,

i t h ad lo s t mo s t o f them I ch h ad lo s t its gu ttu ral

.

a nd become I H im th em and w h o m o r igin ally

.
, , ,

d atives h ad beco me obj ective s al s o The adje c

,
.

“
tive d ative i n light 2 h ad come i nto u se as an 7

adve r b sof te br igh t? bei ng u s ed where we s hould

’

, ,
28 0 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

no w s ay so br ig h tly
M any wo r d s by the
f tly , .

lo s s o f thei r i nfl ectio ns b ec am e mo n o syll able s .

Th u s binda n d r in ca n fi n da n bec am e bind dr ink

, , , , ,

i d The No r ma n di ffic u lty i n s o u n di n g the

f n .

g u ttu r a l m ad e m o n o syll able s of m any m o r e Th us .

h aeg el bec a m e h a il ; tw aeg en t w a in ; f a eg en , ,

a in I fa ct the g u tt u ra l w as eli m i n ated w h e r

f . n ,

ever it w as po ss ible to get r id of it The ge at .

the b egi nni ng o f p as t p ar ticiple s di s app e ar ed ,

bo ug h t ; g e
’

oh t beco m i n g b r o ug h t ; boh t
'

g eb r g e ,

w o r h t w r o ugh t,
The g initi al w as d ropp ed fro m
.

m any wo r d s : g if bec a m e if ; g e no k eno ug h The ,

.

fi nal gu tt ural al s o v ani s hed : h a l ig bec am e h o ly ;

eo r d h l ic , ea r th ly ; g a s tl ic, g h os tly ; mu n u c mo nk , .

M any wo r d s th at s till r et ai n the g u tt u ral in s p ell

ing h ave lo s t it in s pe aking S u ch ar e th ro ug h .
,

p l o ug h th oug h do ug h
,
I n s o m e the g u tt u ral took
, .

a s ofte n ed fo r m a nd s o u n d R igg b ec a m e r idg e ; .

egg ed e ; br ig g br idg e I n the s e th e g u ttu ral

, g , .

bec ame a s ibil ant I n othe r s it bec am e to th e e ar.

a l abi al s o u nd wh il e s till wr itte n with the g u tt ur al

,

fo r m S u ch ar e co ugh en o ug h tr oug h la ugh

.
, , , ,

d r a ug h t I n s o m e the g u tt u r al w as t r ans fo r m ed
.

i nto a vowel s o u nd co ns titu ti n g an add itio nal s y l

-

l able Th u s s o rg bec a m e s o r r o w ; and mea r h

.

ma r r o w I n oth e r s it di s app e ar ed wholly

. Th u s .
,

makad bec am e m a de .

O ne am u s i n g t r ace o f the s t r u ggle b etween Nor

ma n o r ga n s and E n gli s h s p eec h is fo u nd in wo r d s
l ike l igh t m igh t n ig h t which we r e w r itten i n
, , ,

I nflected E n gli s h l ik t m ih t n ih t The s e were , , .

 I N FLE C T E D E N GLI S H AF T E R CON Q UE S T . 28 1

sou nded as i n Scotl and with a light gu ttur al or

b ur r —written no w fo r the Scotti s h di alect with 3
, .

ch as in l ich t A s the N o r m an wo uld not so und

.

the guttur al however li ght the word s were written

, ,

th en with the s tr o ng g u ttu r al they s till be ar about

wi th them as a dre ss to i n d uce the c ar ele s s con
,

q u e r o r to attemp t s omethi n g like a guttu r al But .

still the N or m an re fus ed to s o u nd eithe r h or gh .

E ve n when a wo r d like d o eg w as lightened for hi m

i nto d ay he wo u ld no t s o u n d the y thou gh it is
, ,

still sou nded by the p eople o f N ew E ngl and who ,

c ame l ar gely from the old S ass e nach s tock .

M e iklejo h n c all s atte ntion to the fact th at the

v ani s hed guttu r al is r epl aced by m any forms in
Modern E ngli s h ; by an i in h a il by a y in day by , ,

a w i n f o w l by a ch in tea ch by a dgo i n edge by

, , ,

a j i n aj ar by a g i n d r ag by a k i n tr u ck by the
, , ,

so und of f i n tro ug h .

No r w as thi s b r e aking d own of i nflections and

avoid anc e of gu ttu r al s ou n d s the only evidence o f

the influ enc e of No r man—F r ench u p on E n glish .

The cl u msy and i nvolved o r d er of the s entence in

Infl ected E ngli s h gave w ay u n de r F r ench infl u ence
to the o rd er o f thou ght The s e n tence bec ame
.

e asier li ghter and mo r e r hyth mic al

, ,
.

E ven when the E n gli s h wr ite r c ar efully e s chewed

N orm an word s as Layam o n s eem s to h ave done
, ,

his wo rk w as colored by N or man tho u ght his ver s e ,

o ften took th e No r m an form and he al most invari

,

ably drew h is s ubj ect fr o m a s o u rce alre ady utilized

by the Norm an ro m ancer .

28 2 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G U A GE .

Thi s s o urce w as the r ich t r e as u r e —ho u s e of Keltic

myth s E ve n in the d ays of the fi r s t H e n ry the
.

wild r o mance of the e ar lie r r ace h ad a ttra cted the

inte r e s t of the co u r t The fe r vo r and vivid n e s s o f
.

the Keltic i ma ginatio n its p as s io n fo r colo r and ,

ch ar m it s deli ght in be au ty and life an d the fiery

, ,

s p ir it o f Keltic he r oi s m th at h ave p ass ed i n to the

blo od of the E n gl is h p eople and in s o m e m e as u re ,

at le as t affected both l a n g u age and lite rat u r e d r ew

, ,

the n otice o f s chol ars and p oets to the old s to r i e s

o f A r th u r G eo ffr ey of Mo nm o uth p u t the m i nto
.

G aimar and W ace two N o r

‘
h is Lati n C h r o nicl e .
,

m an t r o u ver es th r ew the m i nto F r e n ch ve r s e

, .

The grand s o n of the s ec o nd H e nry bo r n of a ,

B r eto n mothe r the h aple ss A r th u r o f E n gli s h h is

,

to ry w as give n h is nam e in ho n o r of the Keltic

,

he r o .

E ar ly in the thi r teenth ce nt u r y L ay am o n the , ,

s o n o f L e o v e nat h a p r ie s t of E r nl e y on the b a nk of
, ,

Seve r n in W o r ce s te r s h ir e fas cin ated by the B r ut

“
,

o f W ace
”
d A n gl e t e r r e u nde r took to t rans l ate it
’

i nto E ngli s h ve rs e I n thi s poe m o f thi rty tho u sand

.

li n e s s tr o n g as w as the No r m an i n fl u e n ce th at led
,

h imto the choice o f h is the m e th e r e are n o t mo r e ,

th an fifty No r man wo r d s A s to the fo r m the two .

,

i nfl u e nce s are both p e r ceptible fo r allite r atio n and ,

r hy m e are e m ployed s o m eti m e s togethe r , so me ,

ti m e s alte r nately .

A little l ate r we re ach the O r m u l u m a s e r i e s

, ,

o f ho m ilie s b a s ed u po n th e Sc r i pt u r e s th at we r e

u s ed in the d aily m a ss s e r vice of the ch u r ch .

 I N FL E C T E D E N GL I S H AF TE R CON Q UES T: 28 3

T his w as the wo rk of O r m a c ano n of the order of ,

St A u gu sti ne living i n s ome s hire in the north o f

.

E ngl and prob ably i n L anc as hire where there is

, ,

“
an O rmskirk D a ni s h wo r d s abou nd i n the O r
.

mu lu m
”
Su ch are bl u nt bul l d ie dw ell ill kid
.
, , , , , ,

r a is e
, sa me th r iv e w a nd, w ing There are few
, ,
.

N orm an word s however ; but the old inflectio nal

,

stru ctu re of the l an gu age is almo s t gone Thi s .

absence of inflectio n s says M e ik lejo h n is prob ably , ,

d u e to the fact th at the book is wr itt en in the Eas t

M idl a nd d i alect The ve r s e is metric al b eing
.
,

i amb ic with fo u r ti me b e ats in o ne line and in the -

next three followed by a li ght h alf time be at It

,
- -
.

is adorned with ne ithe r r hy m e nor alliter atio n .

W h at is singul ar abou t it is the e ffo r t of O rm to

i ndic ate the qu antity of the vowel s by the sp elling ,

the s hort vowels b ei n g inv ar i ably followed by a

d o uble conson ant while s i n gle co n s o n ants are used
,

after vowels with the lo n g s o u nd The two open .

in g li nes of the i ntr od uc tio n will s e r ve to show his

syste m of sp elli n g :

T h iss b o c is s n e mmne dd O rr mulum

Fo rr th i th att O rr m itt w ro h h t e .
”

A bo u t qu arter of a ce ntu ry after Lay amo n s

a
’

”
Bru t comes a wo r k in the So u thern di alect c alled
,

”
the Anc re n Riw le or R ule of N u n s w ritten for
”
, ,

a sm all s i s terhood in D or s et shire con s i s ti ng of ,

three l adies who with thei r s erv ants the lay sisters
, , ,

m ad e up the co m mu nity It is in p ro s e and b e .

, ,

i ng the work of an eccle s i as tic and o n a mo n as tic

28 4 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

s ubj ect h as natu r ally mo r e Lati n wo r d s th an either

,

“ “ ”
the B r u t o r the O r m u lu m .

To the middle of the thi rtee nth ce ntu r y belongs

the p oe m o f “ The O w l and the Nighti n gal e by
N ichol as d e G u ildford al s o o f D o r s ets hi r e The
,
.

“
sam e d a te c all s u p The Sto ry of G ene s i s and
E xod u s a r e w r iti n g no do u bt o f o n e of the old
, , ,

Biblic al p arap h ras e s of I n flected E n gli s h as it is ,

u n u s u ally c r owded with i n flectio n s fo r the age to

which it belongs .

A few ye ars l ate r the gove r n ment i s s u ed a p r oc

,

la m at io n in E n gli s h as well as in F r e n c h and

,

L at in . Th is s how s th at the l an g u a ge w as by thi s

ti m e in ge n e r al u s e th r o u gho u t the co u n tr y .

Late in the s am e cent u r y co m e s the C h r onicle

o f R obe r t of G lo u ce s te r l ar gely t r ans l ated fr o m
,

the L ati n o f G eo ffr ey o f M o n m o u th It is w r itten .

in A lex a nd r i n e m et r e ; th a t is in r hym ed co u plets

,

of s ix i ambi c tim e be ats e ach The r e are about

-

five p e r cent o f Ro m an ce wo rd s in i t .

The fo u r tee nth ce nt u ry ope ns with th e Ch ro ni

cle o f R obe r t M anni n g c alled R ob e r t of B r u nne
, .

Th is take s u p the old s to ry of B r u tu s of Tr oy the ,

lege nd ary fo u nde r of the B r itis h rac e and ki n g

d o m a nd co n ti nu e s the hi s to ry o f events i n the
,

i s l and d own to the d e ath o f E dw ar d the Fi r s t The .

fi rs t p ar t is in r hy mi ng co u plets o f fo u r ti m e be ats -

e ach . The s eco nd p ar t u s e s the A lex an d r i ne .

It co ntai ns a l ar ge n u m b e r of F r e nc h wo r d s A t .

thi s ti m e and in the p r eviou s c e nt u ry the p ass i o n ,

o f the a e fo r the F r e n ch rom anc e s an d the l arge

g
 I N FL E C T E D E N GLI S H AF T E R CON OUE S T . 28 5

nu mber of r e ad er s of E n gli s h c au s ed the trans la

“ ” ”
tio n i nto E ngli s h o f Si r T r i s tr e m King H o r n , ,

“ “ ”” “
S ir H av e lo k S ir G uy
, The Squi r e o f L o w ,

“ ” “
D egre e King R o be r t of Sicily Ki n g A li s ,

“ ”
a n der , The Ki n g of Tars The D e ath o f ,

” “ "
A rth u r Th e So ud a n of D am as c u s a nd othe r
, ,

p op u l ar l ay s of the tr o u veres S ir W alter Scott .

,

i n h is e nthu s i as m for the p as t edited “ S ir ,

Tr i s tre m ; and its app e arance i n h is collected

wo rk s h as p r ob ably give n ma ny a you ng boy h is
fi r s t le s s o n in E ar ly E ngli s h and i n O ld Fre nch a nd
G e r ma n too fo r the n ote s ar e full of coll ater al
,

re adi n g s fr o m tro u o éres a nd m i n ne s i nge r s .

M e anwhile E n gli s h w as s te adily gai ni ng gr o u nd .

I n 1 3 6 2 i t w as o rd e r ed to be u s ed in co u r ts o f
,

law ,
b ec au s e the F r enc h tongu e is m u ch u n
known .C ompl ai nt w as bei ng m ade a gains t the
u s age of the s chool s whe r e pupil s we r e m ade to
,

t u rn the cl ass ic s i nto F r e nch Thi s co nti nu ed .

u ntil the Bl ack D e ath o f 1 3 49 whe n the mo r e ,

p u r ely E n gli s h p ar t of th e pop ul ation s ee m to

h ave m ad e a ge n er al s oci al advance It w as the n .

th at John C o r nwall a s c hool mas te r s tar ted a re

, ,

form c au s i n g h is p u pil s to co n s true thei r le s s o ns

,

and their things i nto E ngli s h i n s te ad of F r e n ch '

“ ”
and R ich ar d Pe nc ry c h s ay s Joh n de T re v is a
, ,

the Co r ni s h cle r gym a n who tr ans l ated H i gd e n

i n R ich ar d the Seco nd s ti me le ar n ed thi s man
’

ner of te ac hi ng of him as other m e n did o f ,

Pe nc r y c h S o th at now the ye ar of o u r L o rd
.
,

I 3 8 5 a nd o f the s econd Ki n g R ich ar d afte r the

,
28 6 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

co n q u e s t ni n e in all the g ram m ar s chool s of

,

E n gl a nd child r e n le aveth French and c o n s tr u ,

eth and lear ne th in E n gli s h A l s o ge n tle m e n . ,

h ave no w m uch left fo r to te ach thei r c hild r en

F r ench .

I n 1 3 6 3 the ch ancellor op ened P ar li ament with

,

a s p eech in E ngli s h .

The l ang u age s till clu n g te nacio u s ly to its old

voc ab u l ary Sho r tly befo r e the m id dle of the
.

“
fo u r tee n th cent ur y appe ar ed the A yenbi te of
” “ emo r e o f
I nw y t,
or R s Co ns ci ence by D an ,

M ichel of Kent It w as followed clo s ely by The

.

Voy age and T rav aile of S ir J o hn M au n d e v ille ,

”

who wr ote fi rs t in L atin the to n g u e of s c hol ars , ,

then in F r ench th at of s ociety l as tly in E ngl is h

, , , ,

fo r h is fellow cou nt ryme n

-
H e u s e s m any French .

wo rd s while h is E n gli s h is as mode r n i n the mai n

,

as th at o f the E l iz abeth a n a e Few of the fo r eign

g .

wo rd s e mployed by hi m have s i n c e become o b s o

lete H is E n gli s h w as the cu rr e n t s p eec h of the
.

L o ndo n of h is d ay .

A little l ater co m e s the Pie r s Plowm an of

the L ondo n e r W illi am Lan gl a nd the e m bodi m ent
, ,

of the b itte r r evolt o f the poo r ag ai ns t thei r m i s e ry .

I t is the fi rs t r e al o u tb u rs t of o r igi n ality i n the

lite ratu r e A ll be fo r e it h as bee n tr a ns l ati o n eithe r
.

fr o m L ati n o r F r e nch the o u tco m e o f i nte r e s t in

,

Biblic al R o ma n F r e n c h o r Kelti c lite r atu r e

, , ,

“
with the exc eptio n o f Beow u lf and the v e ry jeju ne
E n gli s h “Ch r o nicle L angl and p a i nt s h is o w n ti me
.

and the s cen es th at h ave p ass ed b efo r e h is own

 I N FLE C T E D E N GLI S H A F T E R CON Q UE S T . 28 7

eye s B ut he h as s een nothi ng of th at gay world

.

o f the co u r t or th at j ocund world of the c ity

b u r ghe r s th at Ch a ucer knows and p aints so vividly .

H e h as s een o n ly the wretched l abo r e r s o n th e

far m s th at lie aro u nd the M alvern H ill s H e is .

a pop ul ar s ati r i s t u s ing ve r s e as h is m edi u m of

,

exp re s s io n b ut s urely no poet The E ngli s h u s ed

, .

“
i n the Vi s i o n of Pie r s the Plowm an is the Mid
l and di alec t I ts p r opo rtio n of F r e n ch wo r d s is
.

ve r y l ar ge Thi s is the l as t lo n g poe m in whic h

.

allite ra ti o n is the o r na m e nt There are th r ee .

allite rative wo r d s in e ach li n e The following may .

s e r ve as a s peci m e n

A lo u d in th at l igh t to L ucife r cr ied

v o ice

P rinc es o f t h is p al ac e , pr e s t u ndo th e ga tes ,

Fo r h e r e c o me th w ith cr o wn th e k ing o f al l gl o ry .

To thi s p e ri od al s o belo n gs a t rans l atio n fr om

a cu r io u s F r ench wo r k o f 1 3 7 2 ve ry pop u l ar in ,

its d ay the Book of the K ni ght G eo ffr ey d e La

,

To u r L an dry w r itten fo r the i ns tr u ct io n of h is

,

mothe r le ss d au ghte r s I n thi s book as m i ght

.
,

be exp ected F r e n ch wo r d s abo u nd

, .

The E ngli s h writi ng s of Jo hn W ycli ffe e s p e ,

c ially h is ve r s io n o f the Bible fo r m a v al u able ,

co n tr ib utio n to the p r o s e of thi s age G eo ffr ey .

Ch a u cer the g r e at contemp o r ary of L a ngl and

, ,

W ycli ffe and M a nd eville thou gh gr e atly s up e 4

, ,

rio r in geni us to all the th r e e who helped h im in

givi ng c u r rency to the Midl and di alect and d e s e rv ,
~

ing in every w ay to be c alled the father of E n gli s h

28 8 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

p oetry wrote a l an gu age more ar ch ai c th an thei r s

,
.

Thi s w as b ec au s e he w as a poet and b ec au s e h e ,

d r ew s o l ar gely fr o m fo r eign s o u r ce s L ati n F r e n ch , , ,

and It ali a n M any of the word s he e m ployed h ave

.

the r efo r e beco m e ob s olete .

Yet h is is s o p r e e m i ne n tly the g r e ate s t n am e o f

-

the fo u r tee n th ce n tu ry th at a s t u dy of h is E n gli s h

,

m u s t give u s o u r cle ar e s t vi ew of the di ffe r e n ce s

between M iddle E ngli s h and o u r m od e r n to ng u e .

Be fo r e e n te r in g up o n thi s s t u dy howeve r it will , ,

be well to n ote th at he h ad othe r co n te mp o rar ie s

be s id e s the t ravelle r the s ati r i s t and the r efo rm e r
, , .

The s e we r e G owe r T re v is a and th e two Scots , , ,

B arbo u r and W y nt o u n .

J oh n G owe r of Ke nt w as held in high e s ti ma

tio n by C h au ce r hi ms el f b ut h is s tyle is d u ll and ,

he avy L ike M andev ille he w r ote in F r e n ch and

.
,

L ati n a s well as in E ngli s h

, H e w a s wholly a .

s t u de nt of book s no t like Ch au ce r of b oth book s

, , ,

a n d li fe .

Joh n of T r e v is a s tr ans l ation o f H i gde n s Poly

’ '

ch r o nic on is v al u ed fo r the light it th r ows o n the

co nd itio n o f the l an gu a ge tow ar d the clo s e of the
fo u r tee n th c e n t u ry .

The wo r k s o f the Scotti s h poets o f the same

p e r iod s how little d i ffe r ence in the E ngli s h s poke n
in the two co u ntr i e s C o nte mpo rar y with C h au ce r
.

is Joh n B ar bo u r A r chde a co n o f A b e r d ee n who

, ,

“
w ote The B r u te and “ The B r u ce two m etr i
r
”
,
”

c al ch r o n icle s in th e s t and ar d r hy m i n g co u plets

o f fo u r ti m e be at s e ach
-

To the ye ar o f C h au c e r s
.
’
 I N FL E C T E D E N GL I S H AF T E R CON Q UE S T . 28 9

d e ath (1 400 ) b elongs A nd rew W y nto u n s C h r o u i ’

”
cl e of S cotl a nd .

C h au ce r with h is wo r ld —
, wid e and l ifelong e x p er i
ence as s oldie r co urtier amb as s ado r and s chol ar
, , . ,

with h is wo nderful gift fo r ob s e rvi n g both hum an

s ociety an d the op en book of n ature with h is ,

g ayety h is s en s e of h u mor and h is good tas te h as

, , ,

give n u s the fu lle s t pictu re of h is o w n time and ,

wi th al h as co mm and of s o r ich a voc ab ul ary that

he is entitled to b e the expo ne nt of the l angu age
of thi s p e r i od H e li fts the l an g uage fai r ly i nto
.

the dom ai n of lite r at u r e — the lite ratu r e of all

,

time , and by s o doi n g prevent s it fr o m u n der

goi n g in the l ate r age s any m ar ked ch an ge s .

The r e co uld be no me r e welte r of di alects after

“ ”
the Cante r bu ry T ale s .

A b r ief a cco u nt o f C h auce r s E ngli s h will be

’

fo u nd i n th e A pp e ndix .

The metre o f C h aucer v ari e s with the poe m ;

“ ”
b ut i n th e Ca nte r b u r y Tale s he m o s t fr eq u e n tly
u s e s co u plet s of five ti me b e at s e ach The fi nal e
-

.
,

as in F r e n ch ver s e is elid ed be fo r e a vowel and

,

before s ome wo r d s begi n ning with h .

It is in the i nfl u e n ce o f F r e nch accent th at we

find Ch au ce r s F r e n ch le arning m o s t active i n its
’

e ffect upo n E n gli s h .

I n flected E n gli s h pl aced the acce n t upon the

r oot s yll abl e
-
.F r e nch a cce nt w as fr o m the fi r s t
upon the fi nal s yll abl e th at bei ng th e acce nted
s yll abl e of the word as it c am e fr om L ati n fo r th e ,

p rovinci al s of G au l dropp ed all s o u nd s after the

1
29 0 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

a cce n ted s yll able Thu s fro m L ati n ca bd l l um .

, ,

the F r e nch fo r med ch eo a l W he n F r e n ch wo r d s

'
'
.

we r e take n i nto E ngli s h they c a me with thei r ,

n ative acce n t a nd by the ti me of C h au ce r we

,

fi nd the l an g uage fu ll o f word s s o a ccented The .

te n de ncy to lay s tr e s s o n the l as t syll able eve n

exte nded in proce s s of ti me to wo r d s o f p u r ely
E n gli s h o r i g in .

I n R obe r t of G lo uce s ter we fi nd f a l s h ede i ns te ad

’

'

off a ls h ede tiding e i ns te ad of tz d ing e tr ew eh ede

’ ’

, , ,

'
i ns te ad o f tr ew eh ed e g l addo r e i n s te ad of g la dd or e
’

,
’

'

w is l ich e i ns te ad of w z s l z ch e begy n nyng e i ns te ad o f

'

begy nny nge endyng i nste ad of endy ng

’

.
,

I n Ch au ce r we h ave f r edo m fo r f r edo m h eth en es s e

’ ’

fo r h e th eness e w or th iness e fo r w o r th ines s e, l o w ly fo r

' ’

l o w ly , wy nnynge fo r wyn ny ng e w ed dy ng e fo r w ed
' ’

fo r co my ng e
my ng e
'

dy ng e , co .

I n M ode r n E ngli s h m any F r e nch wo r d s s till

'

keep thei r acce nts ; n am ely all n o u ns e n di n g in ,

a de ier o r eer ee oon in e m any ad j ective s fr o m

, , , , ,

L ati n in us and all adj ective s e nd i n g i n os e and

,

es au e and m any ve r b s
, F o r ex a m ple s tocka de .
,

ca nno n ee r , deba u ch ee, ba ss o o n , f as c ine , na iv e , mo r os e ,

g r o tes que , su
pp l a nt .

Of
co u rs e Ch au ce r p u ts th e fi nal acce nt on all
wo rd s of F r e nch o r igi n e ndi n g in a u nce o u n o u r , , ,

ie e r age u n e a r e e es s e as fo r i ns t an c e pa r
’

, , , , , , , , ,

ch a u n ce , f
co n es s o u n , i l a ng age , mel o d ie , bokel er ,
f o r t u ne na tu r e p oss ibil ite r ich es s e
’

, , , .

Yet the co nt rary te nd e n cy is to b e ob s e rved

even i n Ch au ce r : wo r d s of F r e nch o r i gi n t ake th e
 I N FL E C T E D E N GL I S H AF T E R C ON Q UE S T . 29 1

E n gli s h ccent Thu s mo rtal becomes mo r ta l ;

’

a .
,

temp es t, tempes t ; s u bs t ance, s zibs ta nce ; a my dbl e ,

d my a bl e mo r s el mo r s el
’
i
’ ’
s er u s e , s er v is e d uch es s e,
’

d uch ess e ;
’
cos yn , co sy n . So me h ave both a ccents
di ffe r e nt ti m e s ba ta il l e bata il l e ; f or t une
’

at , as a nd
’
and f o r t une .

The E n gli s h a cce n t in mo s t c as e s tr iu mphed

eve n tu ally and the te nd ency h as s te adily bee n to
,

th r ow the ac c ent b ack eve n in the c as e of wo r d s

bo r rowed fr o m ab r o ad Sh ake s p e ar e s ch ar acter .
’

’
iz e h as lo n g s i nce become ch ar a cter iz e B a l co ny .

of a fe w gene rati on s b ack h as long bee n bal co ny .

I n o ur own ti m e p r og r a mme h as b eco m e p r bg r a m ’

The g r e at i r r eg u l ar ity of accent i n E ngli s h ,

howeve r p erplexi ng to foreigner s and a c au s e of ,

a n xiety to p u blic s p e ake r s who h ave n o t h ad the

a d va n t age of good s ociety in thei r youth h as h ad ,

an a d m i rable r e s ult in givi ng the to n g u e v ar iety o f

mod u l atio n and s o enh ancing its c ap acity fo r r ich

,

h ar m o n i c e ffects .

W hile the W ars of the R o s e s m ade a b arr en

p e r iod in lite r atu r e the l an gu age we nt o n lo s i ng
,

o ne i n flectio n after an other even of tho s e fe w re

t aine d by C h a u ce r a nd h is contempo rar ie s W ith .

O ccleve h is di s ciple
,
not s u ch howeve r as Soc
, , ,

r ate s h ad in Pl ato the fin al e bec am e u nce r t ai n

, ,

bei n g s ometi m e s s ou nd ed and s o m etim e s not .

A little l ater co me s Joh n Lydgate a B enedic ,

tine m o nk o f Bu r y St E d mond s who s e chief .

’

“ “ ”
wo r k s are The Sto ry of Thebe s The F all o f ,

Princ e s and “The H y s to ry Siege and D e str uc

”
, , ,
29 7
M THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

Ly d gate s s tyle is cle ar and

” ’
cyon of Troye .

fl u ent tho u gh too di ffu s e and ofte n l an g u id O c

,
.

cleve p ed antic and s pi r itle s s w as o f far le ss

,
,

we ight in the develop m e nt o f l ang u a ge and lit

e r at u re .

W ith Lydgate the fi nal e wholly di s app e ar s .

The ve r b al i nflectio ns in en al s o s oo n fall aw ay .

Still in thi s pe r i od of tr ans itio n the r e w as g r e at

, ,

dive rs ity o f u s age W e fi nd Caxton who by the . ,

i ntr od u ctio n o f p r i nti ng w as to b r i ng abo ut u ni

fo r m ity co mpl ai n i n g sadly of thi s p r ev alent diver
,

s ity .

“And he says “o ur l angage no w used

c e rt aynly,
”
,

varye th fe rr e fro m that w h ic h w as u se d and sp ok e n

w h an I w as bor ne Fo r w e e nglyssh e me n be n b o r ne
.

un d e r t h e d o myn ac yo n o f th e mo n e w h ic h e is n e ver ,

ste dfas t e b u t eve r wave rynge w e x yn ge o n e se aso n an d

, , ,

wan e t h an d d yc re ase th ano t h er seaso n An d th at co myn ,

e nglyss h e th at is s p o k e n in o ne s h yr e v ar ye th fro m a

noth er I n so muc h th at in my d ays h app e n e d th at c e r

.

t ayn mar c h au n t e s w e r e in a sh ip e in ta m yse fo r to h ave ,

sayle d ove r th e sea in to z e land e an d fo r l ac k e o f w in d ,

th e i taryed atte fo rlo nd and w e nte to l and e fo r to r e

,

fr e s h e t h e m And o n e o f th e ym n ame d sh e ffel de a

.
,

mer ce r cam in to an h ows an d ax e d fo r m e te and sp e

, ,

c yally h e ax yd afte r e ggys An d th e goo d e w yf answ e r d e

, ,

th at s h e co ud e sp e k e n o fre ns h e And th e m ar c h aunt .

was angry fo r h e al so coude sp eke n o fr e nsh e

, but ,

w o lde h ave b ad d e e gge s an d s h e u nd e rs to d e b ym no t .

And th enne at laste a n o th er sayd th at h e w olde have

e yr e n t h e n the good wyf sayd t h at sh e und e r sto d e him
 I N FLE C T E D E N GL I S H A F T E R C ON Q UE S T . 29 3

wel . Lo o ! w h at sh o lde a man in th ys e d aye s no w

wryte, e gges o r eyren ? c e r taynly ,
it is h ard e to p layse
eve ry man , by c ause o f dyve rs ite and chaunge o f lan
”
g g
a e .

’
Cax to n p u blic atio ns s how the p ass ing
s o wn

aw ay of i nflection s fo r the e ar lie r h ave s till s o m e

,

of them while the l ate r ar e p r actic ally in the E ng

,

li s h of the T u do r age T h e ye ar 1 48 5 when the .

,

Tudor dy nas ty w as e s tabli s hed may well be as ,

s u m ed as the fi rs t ye ar of Mode r n E n gli s h D at .

i ng the n fr o m 1 0 4 2 the ye ar when u nd e r E dw ar d

, , ,

the Co nfe s s or No r m an F r e nch fi r s t beg an to infl u -

ence the S ass en ach to n gu e we s e e th at it took ,

mo r e th an fo u r ce n tu r i e s fo r the old I nfl ected E ng

li s h to r e ach a p u r ely a nalytic s tage .

The p r i nti n g— p r e s s h ad a l ar ge s h are in b r i n g

i ng abo ut the t rans itio n fr o m Middle to M ode r n
E n gli s h I t u s ed the M idl and di alect to the ex
.

e l u s ion o f the other s and th u s g ave it a pe r m a

,

nent p re s ti ge It al s o tend ed g r e atly to fix the

.

s pelli n g whic h befo r e h ad bee n exceedi n gly c ap r i

,

cio ns E ven the O ld E n gli s h ch ar acte r s we n t o ut

.

of us e givi n g pl ace to tho s e u s ed by the French

, .

E n gli s h lite r atu r e begi ns with the fo u r gre a t

co ntempo rar ie s : M andeville the tr avelle r ; W y e ,

liffe th e religio us r efo r m e r ; L an gl and the s oci al

, ,

r efo r m e r ; and Ch au ce r the poet and h u mo r i s t , .

E ngli s h poet ry b egin s with C h a ucer No m e r e .

ver s e writing like L a ngl and s no m e r e trans l ated

-
’

metric al m a tter like G ower s c an for a moment be ’

“ ”
pl aced alongside o f the Cante r bury T ale s .
29 4 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

But the E ngli s h l a ngu age — E n gli s h fr ee fro m

i nflection — beg ins with the p ri n tin g p r e s s o f Cax -

to n.

Be s id e s Skelto n M alo ry and H awe s in E n gl and

, , ,

Caxto n h ad fo r co n te m po r ar i e s in Scotl a n d two

p oets o f s o m e wo r th O ne o f the s e w as J am e s the
.

Fi r s t of Scotl and who h ad r eceived h is ed u c atio n

,

‘
in E ngl an d a nd h ad w r itte n th ere h is p oem o f
“
The K in g s Q u b air (Q u i r e o r Book ) a poem
’

i n s even l ine s tanz as i nsp i r ed by h is love for the

-

L ady J a ne Be a ufo r t g r andd a u ghte r of J oh n of

,

’
G au nt Ch au c e r s fr ie nd
, H e is the b e s t p oet of
.

the fiftee nth ce n tu ry The othe r Scot w as Bli nd

.

H arry a wa nde r i ng m i n s trel of the s am e p e r iod

, ,

“
who wr ote The A cti s and D e idis of the ill us ter
and v ail z e an d Cam p io u n S c h ir W illi a m W all ace
, ,

”
Knic h t of E lle rs lie Thi s poe m is in twelve
.

book s the m et r e bei n g the u s u al he r oic o ne of five

,

time be ats
-

The poet l au r e ate of H en ry the E i ghth s r e ign

-
'

the vigo r o u s s ati r i s t of W ol s ey J ohn Skelton , ,

p rai s ed by E ras m u s fo r h is s c hol ar s hip w as the ,

be s t expo ne nt o f E n gli s h ve r s e at thi s ti m e H is .

chief poe ms are the s ati r e o n the gr e at Car di nal ,

“ “
e ntitled W h y Co m e Ye N ot to C o u r te ? The
“
T u n ni n g of E ly no u r e R u m my ng The Bowge o f ,
"

“
Co u te
r ,a n d P h y lly p S p ar o w e Th e l as t is .

c alled by Col e rid ge an ex q u i s ite and o rigin al

poe m ; b u t he s ee ms to h ave fo r go tten th at it is
b uilt o n the ch ar mi ng po e m of C atu ll u s o n a si m
ilar s ubject and can the r efo r e h ar dly b e c alled
,
 I N FL E C T E D E N GLI S H AF T E R C ON Q UE S T .
’
29 5

o r i gi n al S k e lto n s verse is i n ge ne r al co ar s e and

.
’

s c u rr i lo u s b ut viv aciou s a nd ni mble H all am s

’
.
,

d e s c r ip ti o n is ve ry ap t : a to r r ent like vol u bility

-

”
o f wo rd s in doggerel r hy m e .

S ir Tho mas M alo r y w as the au tho r of th at

”
M o r te D ar t h u r which g ave del ight to m any a
r e a d er i n the d ay s before an
y othe r p r o s e r om a nce
i n E n gli s h exi s ted w o n the appl au s e of Scott and
,

So u they a nd i n the ab r idg m ent of i t fo r the

, ,

m od e r n boy m ad e by S id ney L an ie r h as help ed ,

m any i n o u r ti m e to a k nowled ge of th at gre at

cycle of lege nd m od e r nized by Tennys o n i n h is
Idyll s of the Ki ng The au tho r d r ew h is m ate
.

r i a l fr o m a n u m be r of F r ench and W el s h s o u r ce s .

H e is beli eved to h a ve b ee n a W el s h p r i e s t T he .

s tyle h as a q u aint ch arm th a t is all its o w n for ,

the r e is n othi ng p r eci s ely like it anywhe r e el s e .

Step he n H awe s is chiefly known as the author

“ “
of The Te mple of G l ass e and The P ass T y me
of Pl e as u r e The r e is both le ar ni n g and philo s
.

o phy in H awe s b ut h is s tyle is p ed a ntic and

,

o b s c u re .

O ne wr ite r of thi s p e r iod r em ai ns to be noted ,

Alex and e r B ar cl ay the s ati ri s t who s e poe m

,
Th e ,

S h y p of P oly s o f the W o r ld e tran s l ated fr o m the

,

Ge r m an of Seb as ti a n B ra ndt with m any a mp l ifi ca

,

tion s is w r itte n i n a s tyle o f s i ng u l ar e as e and

,

fl ue n cy comp ar ed with m uch o f the ve rs e between

,

C h au ce r and Spe ns er H e h as bee n l au ded as a

.

g r e at refine r of the E ngli s h l an gu a ge I n thi s .

work the o nly n otic e able tr ace of the old inflectio n

29 6 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

is the u se of the pl u ral in es fo r no u n s as a s ep a ,

r ate s yll able .

The r e we r e m any fam o u s b all ad s th at belonged

to thi s ti me — tho s e fo r i ns tanc e abo u t R obi n
, , ,

“
H o od and the b all ad s o f
,
S ir P at r ick Spe ns ,

“ “ ” “ ”
E do m 0 G o r do n
’
C hevy C h as e
, a nd The ,

”
N u t B r own M ayde
-
.

B ut the g r e ate s t worke r in l ite ratu r e of the a ge

w as th a t e n th us i as ti c lover o f book s W illi am ,

Caxto n who died in the ye ar o f the di s cove ry of

,

A m e r ic a H e w as a Ke nti s h m an by bi r th and a
.

L o ndo ne r by r e s ide n ce H e s aw the wo r ki n g o f

.

the p r i nti n g p r e ss in H oll and and in the ye ar 1 4 7 4

-

e s tabli s hed o ne in the A l m o nry at W e s tm i ns te r .

The book s he s e nt o u t fr o m thi s p r i n ti n g p r e ss -

are w r itte n in an E n gli s h in no wi s e di ffe r e n t

fro m th at of the E liz abeth ans .
 C H APTE R XIX .

FRE NC H GR AFT S O N T H E EN GLI S H ST O CK .

A T T ENT I O N h as l e ady bee n c alled to the g r e at

a r

i n fl u ence of F r e n ch u po n E ngli s h in the b r e aking

d ow n of i nfl ectio ns in the b r i n gi ng in of many
,

new wo r d s as well as v ar iety in acce nt and in the

, ,

t r i u mp h in p oetry of r hyme ove r allite ratio n ; th at

is of e nd r hy m e ove r he ad r hy m e
,
- -

B u t the i nfl u e n ce of F r e nch w a s not confined to

the s e thi n gs The F r ench s p i r it w as q u icke r and
.

liveli e r th a n th at of the E n gli s h an d affected the

,

l an g u age — to u s e the m etapho r of Lowell — as

l e ave n give s li ghtn e s s to the lo af The wo nd e r fu l
.

c ap acity o f the No r m an fo r ass i m il ati ng wh at w as

be s t in the ch ara cte r and c ultu r e o f the people
who s e l and s he co n q u e r ed b r o ad e ned and e nr iched
,

E ngli s h with the ga i ns of h is r ace in its conti ne nt al

c ar eer The long con n ectio n with the co ntinent
.

kept u p by the li ne of Pl an t agenet p r i nce s p re

ve nted the r ac e fr o m beco mi n g a g ai n too i ns u l ar ,

a nd the ar t and t as te of the s o u th s t r e a med i nto

the l and fr o m Bo r de a ux .

’
I n C h a ucer s time the E ngli s h we r e a g r e at
E urop e a n p owe r ; a nd the l angu a ge re aped the
29 8 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

fr u its o thi s l ar ge r life Fro m Cr ecy to A ginco u rt

f .

E ngli s h w a s the to n g u e of a co nq u e r i n g r ace and ,

wh at it took fr o m F r e n ch d u r i n g thi s p e r iod it

co u ld ab s o r b w itho u t h u mili atio n .

The p r oce s s o f evol u tio n fr o m s y ntheti c to

an alytic s t r u ct u r e w a s i m m e ns ely h as te n ed and ,

w as m ade far m o r e co m plete by the lo n g ye a r s of

s u p r e m acy held by the F r e n ch to n g u e W h at is

.

the r e s u lt o f thi s p r oce s s o f evol u tio n ? Th at

E ngl is h is with a few r e mn an ts o f i n flectio n a
, ,

wholly an alytic to n g u e and yet h as r et ai n ed m a ny

,

of the g ai ns mad e by the infl ected to n g u e s fr o m

which i t is de s ce nded M u ltit u d e s of its wo r d s
.

— “
ar e to bo rr ow a te r m fr o m A lic e in W o nde r
l and co nve nie n t po r tm ante au s fo r m any
r oot s ; and the exp r e s s io n of tho u ght is g r e atly

fac ilit ated by the m It h as al s o fr ee co mman d of

.

m any o f the idio m s o f the to n gu e s th at other

l ite rat u r e s h ave b u r n i s hed and p oli s hed i nto v ar iety
a nd poi n t .

A nothe r r e s u lt of the lo s s of i n flecti on s as n oted ,

be fo r e h as b ee n a r i ch tr e as u ry of m o n o syll a bl e s
, ,

wh ich h ave bee n fo u n d m o s t e ffective fo r r heto r ic al

and poeti c al u s e in co n t ras t with th e lo n g fu ll ,

s o u n d ing wo r d s d r aw n fr o m G r eek o r L ati n .

Atte ntio n h as a l s o b ee n d rawn to th e fa ct th at

o n e o f the m o s t i m p o r t ant r e s u lt s o f F r e n ch in

fl u e nc e e s p eci ally in givi n g l ightne ss to th e s e n

,

te n ce and di r ect n e s s to the tho u ght w as the ch ange ,

in the o r de r of w o r d s .O ld E n gli s h s u ffe r ed fr o m

the s am e di ffic u lty in thi s m atte r as s u ffe r s Mod ern
 F R E N CH GR AF T S ON T II E E N GL I S H S T O CIf
'

. 2 99

G e r m an . The clu m s i ne ss of the G er man s e nte nce

wo u ld h ave bee n the fate o f E ngli s h to d ay bu t fo r -

the i n fl u ence of F r enc h upon o u r sy ntax The .

r hyth m ic p rose o f o u r be s t w r ite r s co u ld n ever

h ave b een s h ap ed h ad the order of I n flected

,

E n gli s h co n tin u ed to p r ev ail .

I n additio n to all the s e g ai n s d u e to F r ench ,

we owe to the lo ng exi s te n c e togethe r of the two

l an gu age s i n the s am e i s l and tho s e co u ntle ss sy no
nym s th a t e n r i c h o u r m ode r n to n gu e a nd e n able

its m as ter s to enh an ce by di s c r imi n ation in the u se

o f the m the b e a uty strength o r wi s do m of e ach
, ,

tho u gh t
L e t us ex ami ne now into the ch aracte r of the
wo r d s b r ou ght i n by the No r m an s It m u s t be .

r e m e m b e r ed th at they s poke a di alect di ffe r i n g

fro m th at of the I s l e o f F ra nce both in s p elli n g
a nd in p r o n u n ci a tio n For ex ample the No r m an
.
,

Frenc h for ro i w as r ei ; fo r et ro it estr eit ; for pen

’

r ea l fo r
’

loy a l , l ea l ; fo r roy a l ,
'

p l e, p eopl e ; fo r ;

r oy a u me , r ea l m
’
Thi s will acco u nt fo r m any dif
.

fe r e n c e s in fo r m between the F r e nch word s i n

E n gli s h a nd thei r co n ge n er s in the F r ench tongu e .

I n th e th r ee c entu r i e s betwee n the b attle of Se nl ac

and the pe r iod of Ch au cer and W ycli ffe thou ,

s and s o f F r enc h wo r d s h ad t aken fi r m r oot in the

s p eech of even tho s e E n gli s h fa m ilie s m o s t inv e t

e rate in thei r p r efe r ence for the w ay s of their

fathe r s and the s p eech of Ki n g A lfred .

The s e wo rd s we r e in the m ai n wo r d s co nnected

with w ar with the feud al sy s tem and with hu nt
, ,
3 00 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

ing ; wo r d s co nn ected with law with the c h u r ch , ,

an d with cooke r y ; ab s tr act te r m s and ge n e ral

wo r d s s yno ny m o u s with E ngli s h
'

n am e s ; and

wo r d s th at we r e no t r ej ected b ut at o ne ti m e ,

s ee m ed to n eed t ra ns l atio n s o th at both s u r vived ,

s id e by s ide .

O f wo r d s co nn ected with w ar s ome ex am ple s ,

ar e : ar ms , ar h a u ber k, g a n tl et, m a il , v is or
mo r , ,

l a n ce, j o us t ,
to u r na ment, a ss a u l t, ba ttl e, capta in ,

ch iva l ry , s ta nd a r d , tr u mp et .

H a r ness ,
the wo r d th at the con q u e r ed ra ce u s ed
fo r a r mor w as deg r aded i nto m e ani n g the e q uip
,

me nt of a ho r s e M a il co m i n g o r igi nally fr o m
.
,

L ati n ma cu l a the m e s h o f a ne t r e m i nd s u s th at
’

, ,

the fi rs t co at s o f m ail r e s e mbled n etwo r k .

A m o n g wo r d s con nected with the fe u d al s y s te m

m ay be n am ed : h o mag e f e a l ty s uz er a in v a ss a l , , , ,

es qu ir e, r eta in er , h er a l d , scu tch eo n , s en es ch a l , bl a

z o n ry . the N o r m an —F r e nch fo r m of fi
Fea l ty ,
d el ite the ve ry e s s ence o f fe u d a lity le ad s u s to
’ ’

, ,

d o u bt the u s u al de r iv atio ns of the te r m f eu da l and

to co nnect it with th at c u s to m o f the R o m a n s s o
“
C o m m e nt ar ie s
’ ”
f
o te ll t ted
n i u s r a in Cea s ar s o f re ,

c e iv in g a h u m bled e n e my in
fi d e m The es qu ire .
,

in O ld F r e n ch es cuy e r fr o m L ati n scu tiger is the , ,

s hield be ar e r
-

fo r th at w as h is o ffi ce o n the m ar c h .

S cu tch eo n too co m e s o r igi nally fr om Lati n s c u tu m

, ,

a s hield the co at of ar m s by which the m e diasv al

,

k ni ght w as k nown eve n with vi s o r clo s ed bei n g

, ,

e n graved u po n h is s hield The v as sa l took h is .

n ame fr o m Lo w L atin v a ss a l u s “ a little yo u n g ,

FR E N CI I GR AF T S ON T H E E N GLI S H S T O CK 30 !

man, th e d imi n utive of v ass us which in tu rn c ame ,

”
fro m the Keltic gw ds a man Va let O ld French
, .
,

vas l ct w a s an other di mi n utive fro m the sam e w ord

. ,

and v a r l et is o nly anothe r form of the sam e dimin

u tive Senes ch a l come s w ithou t ch ange from O ld

.

French an d is d erived fr o m two Gothic words

,

“ ”
m e ani n g old serv ant the high stewar d of a ,

c astle e s p eci ally d e s e r vi n g th at app ell atio n .

C o n nected with the ch as e ar e s uc h word s as

brace, co u p l e, f a lco n br a ch
, , lea sh , lever et, q ua r ry ,
v en iso n , ch ase,
v enery , co u rse,
p
co s e, co ver t, f ores t ,

mew s .

B race is di rectly fro m

French a nd th at O ld ,

“
fr o m L ati n bra ch ium an a r m It is appli ed to
, .

wh ateve r like the ar m holds u p a thi ng The

, , .

keen a ir b r ace s the ne rve s ; a br ace o f birds the

s p o r t s m an hold s up by tyi n g two togethe r Co up le .

co me s u lti m ately fro m L a ti n cdp ula a li nking to ,

”
gether .L ea sh fr om O ld French less e is t r ace abl e
, ,

” ”
to Lo w L ati n lax a a th o n g from lax us loo s e
, , , .

L ass o h as the s ame o r i gi n only it co m e s to u s ,

throu gh the Sp ani s h W e h ave two quar r ies i n .

E ngli s h The mi ning wo r d c o mes from French

.

“
ca r r ier e and th at fr o m L atin quad r a r e to cut
’

, ,

"
squ ar e . The hu nting word comes fr o m O ld
“
French cuy er ic and th a t from Latin co r
, the ,

he art b ec ause the he ar t and entr ail s o f the game

,

were th r own to the d og s when th e ch as e w as over .

Venison a nd v enery both co me from L atin thro u gh

the Fre n ch the one fr o m venationem the other
, ,

fro m vend r i the l atte r r et ai ni n g the s ense of

,
3 02 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

the p r imitive —“hunti ng while the for m e r ac ,

“ ”
q u i r ed the me aning o f the fle s h of g ame and ,

fi nally b ec ame limited in m e aning to th e fl e s h o f

dee r Copse the s ho r te n ed form o f copp ice is fr o m
.
, ,

O ld F r ench copeis which is t r ac e able to the G r eek

,

fo r c u tting o r felling the te r m b eing p rop e r ly ap

,

plied to wood s growing thickly afte r a c u tti n g .

Fores t i n the old No r ma n s e ns e do e s not ne c e s s a

r ily m e a n wood s at all It comes p r im arily fr o m
.

L a ti n f o r as o ut of door s
, To the N or m an lo r d .

it m e an t l and taken o u t of the j uri s dicti on o f the

co m m on law l a nd se t as ide fo r the pre s e r v ati o n
,

of gam e It w as u nc u ltiv ated and might be

.
,

he ath wood s river bo g any s p ace p rovid e d it

, , , , ,

we r e wild and waste M ew s me ant at first c age s .

”
fo r h awks It c am e fr o m m uer to moult and th at
.
, ,

fr o m Lati n mu tdre to ch ange bec au se the h awks

, ,

we r e s h u t u p when m o u lti n g Then mew s c am e .

to m e an the royal s table s in L o ndon h aw k s h avi n g ,

bee n kept the r e be fo r e ho r s e s were Now the .

te r m is applied to live ry s table s .

A s to the term s co nn ected with l aw we ma

y ,

al m o s t venture to as s e r t th at they ar e all bo rr owed

fr o m the French to n g u e so long were the pl e ad ,

i ngs i n Norm an F r e nch Ass iz e attor ney ch a n

-

.
, ,

ce l l or , e qu ity ces tu i — nc—

, tr ns t
q , j udge j ustice , , co u r t,
’
p l a intzfi p l ea
, , s ue, su mmo ns tr espa ss , , ar e a few o f
the wo rd s th at h ave thi s origin .

The attor ney from No r m an attou rne and th at

,
’

m L w L “
fo
r o ati n a ttor na tu s p ut i n the pl ace of ,

”
a n othe r is the man c ho s en by one to act fo r hi m
,
FR E N CH GR AF T S ON THE E N GLI S H S T O CK 3 03

i n a s itu atio n i n which he c an n ot act for him s elf .

The ch ancell or got h is n ame from the fact th a t the

’
i mperi al fu nctio n ary i n the d ay s of R ome s wid e
spre ad rule who attended to those m atter s which
,

afte r w ard fell withi n the province o f co u r ts o f

equi ty sat b ehind l attice —work and in Latin these

, ,

“
b ar s of l attice wo r k we r e styled ca ncel l i or little
-

cr ab s the cross —
”
, li n es of o rn amented work r e s em
bli ng cr ab s cl aws cro s s ed Ca ncel come s fr o m
’
.

the s a me wo r d and me ans to m ake cro ss line s over

,
-

w h at we wi s h to m ark o u t as n o t i ntended to b e
re ad Co u r t co mes fro m French and th at from
.
,

Lati n coh o r te m o r i gin ally a c attley ar d or s heep

,

p en and l ater a body of R om an soldie rs and then

, ,

ag ain the pl a ce in which they kept gu ard

,
S ue .

co m e s fro m O ld French s u ir and th at fro m L ati n ,

sequ i to follow
,
P rosecutor sequel p u rs ue ens ue
.
, , , ,

is s u e and a ho s t o f other wo r d s fl ow fr o m the

, ,

s a me s o u r ce T resp ass from O ld F r ench tres

. ,
”
s er is tr ace able to Lati n tr a ns acro ss and pa s
p as ,
, ,

“ ”
s us
,
a step and me an s to t ake a step acro ss the
,

’
b ou n d ary of ano ther m an s l and .

Chu rc h terms a re such as : a lta r B ibl e relic , , ,

bap tis m, p ena nce, ceremo ny , f r ia r , tons u re, cl o ister ,

vesper s , ma tins ca ndl e ,

.

Cer emony ru n s b a ck fo r i ts origin throu gh French

and L ati n to the a nci ent E tru s c a n town o f C a re .

“
F ir ar, fro m the French f r i r e brother re a ches
, ,

b ack to Lati n f ratrem Cl oister from O ld F r ench . ,

“ an
cl o is tr e w as i n L a
,
tin cl a u s tr u m enclo s ure ,
.

coming d i ectly f o m the French h as for

M atias r
,
r ,
3 04 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE

its ori gin al the Latin adj ective fo rm ma tutinum -

.

Ca ndl e whi ch m ay h ave co me di r ectly i nto In

,

fle cted E ngli s h fro m Lati n is from ca n dela and

’

, ,

th at agai n fr o m ca n dere to s h i ne ’

, .

M any title s and dignitie s are fro m the Norm an

French S u ch ar e d u ke marqu is cou n t visco unt
.
, , , ,

peer may or
, , c o ns ta bl e, g o v er nor .

D uke and
were o ld i mp e r i al fu n ction ari es
co u nt
’
in the d ays of the R o m an empire s wid e s t exten
s ion . D uke is from L ati n d u cem “ le ad e r ; co unt , ,

fr o m co mite m a man e ntitled by h is o ffice to be

'

the E mp e r o r s m e ss m ate in c amp Th e title o f

’
.

co u nt w as r ep l aced in E n gl a nd by the D a n i s h ear l ;

b ut h is wi fe w as c alled co u ntess The v is co u nt w as .

’
the cou nt s li euten ant o r i gi n ally from L ati n vice , ,

“
i n the p l ace o f The ma r qu is w as the lo r d of the
.

m ar che s ; th at is the fr o ntie r whe r e there w as

, ,

always kee n watching and h ar d fighti n g to be

do ne The may o r O ld French ma ieu r took h is
.
, ,

n ame fr o m L ati n ma o r e nz
”
j gre ate r The co ns ta , .

bl e O ld F r e nch cones ta bl e is tr ace abl e to L o w L ati n

, ,

co nes td bu l u m o r i gi n ally co mes s tabu l i

, co u nt o f the ,

s t able ; th at is m aste r O f hor s e , Go v er nor fro m ,

,

Fre n ch go u v e r neu r goe s b ack to L ati n g uber na

, ~

“
to rem a hel ms man
'
”
, the pilot o f the Shi p o f State
,

beco mi ng in ti me its m et ap horic al m e ani ng .

The F r e nc h h ave alw ays been fam ed for thei r

cookery To thi s day it is the F r e nch ch ef th at
.

n ame s the di s he s th at fig u re on the menu o f a

s tylish di nne r N atu rally then we fi nd a v ast , ,

n u mber o f words rel ati n g to cookery th at co me to

 FRE N CH GR AF T S ON T HE E N GLI S H S T O CI r
’

.
305

us fr o m the F r e n c h to ng u e ,
— wo rd s like ra
g o tit,
f r icass ee , v ia n ds , v ictua ls , entr e mets d inner
, , su pp er ,

ca tes . D inner is fr o m dine ; and dine fr om O ld

F r e n ch d is ner which co m e s fr om L o w L ati n dis
,

nd r e a co r r u ptio n o f d es iner e
, to le ave o ff ; that
,

is to de s i s t fro m wo r k i n o r de r to p ar take of food

, .

S upp er is fr o m F r e nch s o up er “ to s up and th at is

”
, ,

fr o m s o up e the eve n ing m e al bei ng s i mply a s o u p

,

o r b r oth o r b r e ad and m ilk a r ep as t witho u t m e at

, , .

B ut the m o s t s t r iki n g fa ct in reg a r d to the

n am e s o f di s he s is th at the cooked m e ats got thei r

n a me s fr o m the No r m a ns while the l ivi n g an i m al s

,

which s till r e q u ir ed c ar e and atte nd ance kep t thei r

O ld E n gli s h nam e s The or whe n s e r ved u p fo r
.

No r m an b an q u ets bec am e beef (fr o m F r e nc h

bce uf ) ; the s h eep bec am e m ut t o n (fr o m F r e n ch
m o u t o n) ; the ca lf bec am e vea l (O ld F r e nch v ee l
the p ig bec ame p o r k (F r enc h p o rc) The r e ade r .

“
o f Iv ant will r e m e mb e r wh at amu si ng com
m e n t the j e s te r W a mb a m ake s o n all thi s in h is
di s co u r s e with Gu r th the s wi nehe r d .

L a t in h ad fo r m any ce nt u r ie s bee n a l ang u age

of c u lt u r e ; he n ce it be q u e athed to its R o mance
d au ghte r s a l ar ge s to r e o f ab s tract te rm s Acco r d .

ingly we find E n gli s h r e ady to r eceive fr o m F r e nch

the gr e ate r p ar t of the cl ass n am e s r e q u i r ed fo r -

p u rp o s e s of ex act thi nking while it kept the i ndi

,

vid u al n am e s it al r e ady h ad .

Th u s a nima l and beas t are fr om the Nor ma n

,

s id e of the fam ily while the E n gli s h s ide fu r ni s he s

,

f ox ,h o u n d w h a,
l e s na ke w asp fly
, ,
The No r m an s , .

20
3 06 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

bro ught over f a m ily r ela tio n p a r en t a nces to r , , , ,

co us in u ncle ; the,
E n gli s h r et ai ned their o w n

f a th er , moth er ,
s o n, da ug h ter , gos s ip R ea l m , . co u r t,

s t a te , co ns t it u tio n , p eop l e, t r ea ty , a u d ience, na vy ,

ar my , j u ry a s s embly are
l eg is l a tu r e, co mm it tee , , ,

No r m an ; while o f ab s tract te r ms r el atin g to the

fu nctio ns o f the Sta te p e r h ap s the o n ly o n e th at ,

co me s fr o m I n flected E n gli s h is k ing do m .

I n wo r d s r el ati n g to a g r ic u lt u r e and s e afar i ng ,

howeve r the old to n g u e take s the le ad

, P l o ug h .
,

r a ke h a r r o w fla il ar e p u r ely E n gli s h
, , E n gli s h
, .
,

too are s h ip and s a il boa t and oa r h u l l fleet s ter n

, , , , , ,

while p r o w co me s fr o m the R o m an ce s ide o f the

l an gu age .

So it is wi th the h u m an pe r s o n ality ; while

F r e nc h g ive s us p er s o n f a ce co u n t en a n ce co rp s e , , , ,

s t a tu r e sp ir it it is fr o m O l d E n gli s h th at we get
, ,

ey e, br o w , n os e, ch eek , ch in , too th , to ng u e, h a nd , f oo t,
el bo w , fi ng er leg ba ck , ,
.

F r o m th e R o m ance s id e co m e co lo r tint n ua nce , ,

fr o m the Te u to n ic r ed y el l o w g r een bl u e br o w n , , , , , ,

w h ite and bla ck ,

M o tio n is R o m ance ; b ut leap
.
,

s p r ing , s l i p ,
s l ide , f a ll , w a lk , r u n, s w i m ,
r ide , cr ee
p ,

cr a w fly are Te u to nic
l , ,
.

The s e ar e the co mmo npl ace s o f the co n t r as t

b etwee n the tw o ele me nt s o f E n gl is h E ve ry .

wr ite r o n the s u bject e n u m e rate s m any s u ch in

s t an ce s of the do m i n io n o f L ati n di r ectly o r
th r o u gh F r e n ch ove r all th a t p ar t o f the l an g u age
which exp r e ss e s gene raliz atio ns and of I nfl ected ,

E ngli s h ove r th at whi ch exp r e ss es s pecific a ction s

FR E N CH G R AF T S ON T H E E N GL I S II S T O CK
3 07

o r individ u al bei n gs I h ave followed M e iklejo h n

.

pretty clo s ely in t r e ati n g of all thi s m atter .

Then the s yno nym s fo r m in them s elves a gre at

s ubj ect W e h ave book s m ade u p of them whole
.
,

d icti on aries d evoted to nothi n g else ; and i t is

exceedingly di ffi c ult fo r even a tr ained writer al
w ays to use them with tas te and d elic acy There .

w as a time in the hi s to r y of the l angu age when

it w as th o u ght n ece s s ary to u s e them in couplets
i n ord er to re ach the u nder s tandi n g of both
cl asses of E n gli s hme n — tho s e of the court and ,

the city and tho s e of the p eopl e and the country

, .

This u s age h as left its traces over a l arge p art

of o u r liter atu r e and is p artic u l arly ob s erv able
,

i n the Book of Co mmon P r ayer Ch aucer h as .

a nu mb er of s uch co u plet s .

A few o f them may fi tly be s e t down here .

S uch are beg in and co mmence limb and member , ,

w il l and testa ment l uck and f o r tune flo w er and

, ,

bloom, branch and bough , p u r ch a se and buy , a mia

cor d ia l an d h ea r gt , co unt
ble and f r iendly , ry and
la nd, gentle and mil d, des ire and w ish , l a bor and

w ork, mis er a bl e and w r etch ed The s e are ,

not
o ften u sed together But the r e are . m any th at go
i n cou ples S uch are a ct and deed
.
, u s e and w o nt,

a id and a et,b p ray and beseech , ac k now l edge and

f
con es s , ass e mble an d meet togeth er , d iss emble and

cl oa k, h umble and l o w ly
There ar e also h ow .
,

ever as in G er m an co uple s of words th at are

, ,

wholly of Teu toni c o r i gi n s u ch as s to ck and stone , ,

s tem and s tern h ip and th igh

,
The s e it will b e .
,
30 8 T H E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

ob s erved ar e not syn ony ms but s o metimes simply

, ,

a llite r ative and s ometi m e s co n tr asted id e as .

A llu s ion h as al r e ady bee n m a d e to the deg r ad a

tion of certai n word s of I n fl ected E nglish thro u gh
their p arti al di s pl acement by words of French
o r igin Meiklejo h n c all s atte n tio n to a nu mber of
.

s u ch . There is for i ns tan ce s too l whi ch once

, , ,

m e ant ch air ; b ut ch a ir tak ing its pl ace h as r e , ,

d u c e d it to a lower m e a n in g Wh ine like the .

,

G e r m a n w einen o nce me an t to weep ; b ut i t h as

,

fallen to a lowe r u s e The s ame thin g is tr u e of

.

th a tch which onc e m e a n t a ny ki nd o f roo f

, H ide .

o nce me ant any c r e atu r e s s ki n ; b u t its u se is ’

n o w re s tricted to the s ki n of a be as t Weeds .

o nce me ant gar ments i n ge n er al b ut now only ,

a widow we ar s the m .

Some of the wo r d s we h ave r eceived from the

Fre n ch h ave u nd e r go ne q u eer c h an ge s in thei r
m e aning ; fo r in s tan ce pay co mes fro m F r e nch,

pay er and th at fr o m Lati n p a ca r e

, to p acify or , ,
”
s ati s fy N o is e co m e s fr om O ld Fre n ch o f the
.

s a me form and th at fr o m L ati n n a zis ea m

, in the ,

s e ns e of annoy ance M ax M iill e r p oints o ut the

.

fact th at Joinville the old F r ench cr u s ad er who

,

w rote th e doi n gs of h is mas ter St Lo u is u s e s , .

,

both these wo rd s in both their e ar lier and thei r

l ater s en s e Then the r e is p u rch as e which co m e s
.
,

fr om French pou r ch asser o r igin ally “ to hu nt for , ,

”

“ ”
to ch as e after a thi ng I n p roces s of ti me the
.

French word c ame to m e a n getti n g the thi ng

h u nted for and w as u s ed i n th e s ense of proc u r
,
FR E N CH GR AF T S ON T H E E N GLI S H S T O CR
'

3 09

in g o r c ateri n g ; and l as tly i n E n glish it got the

, ,

se n s e of b uyi n g S ome am u s i ng tr ansform atio ns

.

took pl ace in the n ame s o f pl ace s S uch w as the .

ch an ge fro m Ch er e R eine C ro s s to C h aring C r oss .

A t m u c h e ar lier p eri od s i n E ngli s h hi s to ry th an

th at o f th e No r m an i nfl u ence F r ench lite r ature , ,

Fre n ch taste a nd Fre n c h m an n e r s infected the

,

l angu a ge i n d ive r s w ay s There h as always been .

a ste ady infl ux of French word s fr o m these c a u s es .

D iplo ma cy fas hion w ar a nd scie nc e h ave at v ari

, , , ,

o u s p eriod s i n tr od uced m any

, Soci al c u s tom s .

h ave given u s matinee so iree etiqu ette el ite ’

’ ’

, , , ,

g out , dej euner , en nu i,

'

l evee, de v is ite,
’
s ea n ce, ca r t e - -

mme D iplom acy h as give n us p recis p er ’

p r og ra .
,

s o nnel , cou p ch a rge d afi a ir es

’
W ar h as
’ ’
.

mp , p de g r dce
’
give n u s a ide de ca co u - -
co u p d ce il ,
- - -

rev eil le, mitr a il l eus e, p o ntoo n, ch e vro n, g u ido n .

L ite ra tu re h as given u s n o m de g uer r e, na ive no n ,

p ench a nt r ech er ch e, co u l e u r de
’ ’

ch a l a n ee, o u tr e, ,
r ose ,

br och u r e , eclat, debr is , br us que

’

. F as hio n h as given
bl o nde, br u nette, bel l e, bea u, bo uquet, debut, ae
’

us

buta nte , tr o us s ea u , pr otege, ma uve We ’ ’

, cor s ag e .

even abbrevi ate French p hr ases as when we m ake ,

P P C c all s and exp ect o ur E ngli s h Spe aking

. . .
-

fri end s to u nd e r s t and th at these letters stand for

r p r end r e co ng e and to know wh at th at m e ans
’

p o u ,

or s e n d them i nvitati o ns with R S V P below . . . .

and t ak e it for gr anted th at they will recogni ze

the s ymbols for r epo ndez s il vo us p la it ' ’

.

The r e w as a ti me as we le arn fr om H u m phrey

'

Clinker w he n the good folk of E dinb urgh c au ght

”
,
3 10 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

“ "
ve ry r e adily the c ry Gar dy loo ! and u nder
-

s t andi n g th at th a t m e ant Ga r dez

’
l ea u or
a l ea u mad e all h as te to h u r r y o u t of the narr ow
’

clo s e to e s c ap e t h e d eluge o f s lop s fr o m above .

The r e w as eve n a time when und e r the l n ,

fl u e nc e o f wr ite rs like H o r ace W alp ole and G ib

b o n who lived m uch in F r anc e F r e n ch idio m s
,

we r e te mp o rar ily in vogue .

 C H A PT E R XX .

U LT I M AT E EN G LI S H .

T HE a cco u nt give n o f I n flected E ngli s h afte r the

No r m an C o n q u e s t b r o u ght u s down to the Tudo r
pe r iod .

F r o m thi s ti me o nw ard the w r ite r s a re too nu

,

me r o us and th e lite r ature too ge n e r ally k nown to

p er mit anything like d etailed m e ntio n of me n or
book s howeve r te mpti ng the the m e Be s ide s the
, .
,

l an g u a ge w as fo r m ed and i t is o nly o f fo rm ative

,

p e r iod s th at l ang u age as a s ci e nce take s co g

n iz a n c e W h at actu ally exi s ts is ope n to the eye s
.

of all me n .

W i th the coming to th e th r one of the Tudor

dy n as ty E n gli s h c am e of age and e n tered i n to
,

po ss e ss i o n o f its n obl e e s tate .

L ooki n g b ack u po n the p as t a nd s c a n n ing

clo s ely the two to n gu e s th at co ale s ced to fo r m it ,

with a little help fr o m Keltic and D an i s h q u ar te rs ,

w e c an s e e th a t the ou tcome w as s uch as to ble n d

th e wei gh ty s tren gt h and the d eft flexibility of the

o ri gi nal to n gu e s i nto an i ns tr u m e nt of r ar e fo r ce
and o f m e as u rel e s s co m p ass The E liz abeth an
.

liter atu r e al one s tand s as p erp etu al witne ss of

3 12 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

thi s The to u gh n e ss o f fibre which h ad in s u r ed

.

the s u r viv al o f the s p eech of the S as s e n ach ,

s t r ipp ed as it w a s of s o m u ch th a t w as di s ti n ctive ,

is n owhe r e m o r e m an ife s t th an in the vi go r o u s

d rama th at ill u s trated the r eig ns of E liz abeth and
J am e s The exq u is ite h ar m o ny of S h ake s p e ar e s
.
'

ve r s e the be au tifu l and v ar ied r hyth m o f the

,

p ro s e in which the E n gli s h Bible and the Bo ok

of Co m mo n P raye r are w r itte n a nd the m as te ry
,

o f a fi n e r heto r ic al s tyle s how n by eve n mi n o r

w r ite r s o f th at p e r i od fo r ce u p o n us th e s e ns e o f
,

how m u ch the l an gu age owed al r e ady to its

F r e n ch ele m e nts .

T h e i nfl u e n ce o f Itali an lite r atu r e and o f the

Itali an e nth u s i as m fo r the ar ts and lette rs o f anti q
u ity w as eve n s t r o n ge r with S u rr ey W y a tt Sid n ey
, , ,

Spe ns e r and the whole body of the d ram ati s ts

, ,

th an it h ad b ee n with C h au ce r two h u n d r ed ye ar s
befo r e ; and the l an g ua ge w as e nr i ched in m any
way s al mo s t too s u btle in thei r natu r e to b e d e
fi ned and yet p e r ceptible e n o u gh to the di s ce r ni ng
,

r e ade r .

So l ar ge is the p ar t pl ayed by ve rs e in the

E liz a beth a n l ite rat u r e th at we are h ar dly aw ar e in ,

o u r o r d inar y m ood s of r ecollec ti o n o f the r e m ar k

,

a ble ch aracte r o f its p r o s e Yet whe n we co m e to

.

’
s t u dy the p r o s e p a r t s o f Sh ake s p e ar e s p l ay s we ,

ar e at o n ce s t r u ck with th e e as e w ith which he

pl ay s upo n thi s u nfa mili ar i n s tr u m e nt with the ,

g race and ni mble ne s s o f h is p e r iod s with th e r ic h ,

ne s s of s u ch o r n am e nts as he p e r mits hi ms el f to
 U L TI MA TE E N GL I S H 313

use and with the r api er like swiftness of h is thru s t

,
-

i n d i alo gue .

B ut i t w as after all i n the age immedi ately s uc

, ,

c e e d ing S h ake s pe are th a t we fi n d pro s e r is ing to

the d ig n i ty of a profes s ed art i n s pite of m u ch that

,

“ ” “
i s b e tiful i n the
a u A rc di
a a an wi s e in the
d , Tox
”
o p h il u s and the Sc h o le mas te r The ric h music
.

of E liz abeth an verse p as sed i nto the rhythmic al

prose o f the Bibl e tr an s l ator s and the i nvolved
b ut h ar mo nio u s p eri od s of J ere my T aylo r and Sir
Tho m as Browne .

O ne o f the chief ways i n which the E liz ab e

th an s gave rhythmic al b e auty to a sente nce w as
their free u se of th e p r i nciple o f r heto r ic as to the
i nve rs io n o f the ord er to obt ai n emp h as i s The
, .

received ver s i o n of the Bi ble is full of in s tances of

“ r a
thi s devic e . G e t i s D i an a of the E phe s i a n s !
The r e be god s m any and lord s m any ; “
W ith
a gre a t s u m obt ai ned I this freedom
”
—are famil ,

iar ex a mpl es .

The elo qu ence of J ere my Taylo r and Si r Thom as

B rown e and Milto n i n h is pro s e owe s much of its
p owe r to the swelling p h ras e and p omp of diction
whi ch th ei r le arn i ng d r ew fro m cl ass ic wr ite rs .

T h e r eviv al o f l e arni ng h ad b een s lowly b ut

ste adily i nfiltrating a v as t voc abul ary o f L atin
and G reek into E ngli s h fr om the ti mes of E r as

m us M ore and Asch am to the Ca rolin e p eriod

, ,
.

J ame s w as a ped a nt and h ad favo r ed p ed antry at

,

co urt Ben J o ns on w as long the a rbiter o f taste

.

i n liter ary c i rcle s u nd er the first E ngli s h S tu arts ;

3 4 1 THE S T OR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

and he p r ided hi m s elf up o n h is L ati n s c hol ars hip .

E ve r ythi ng favo r ed the i m p o r ta tio n of L ati n i n to

E ngli s h It w as tho u ght eleg ant to lo ad e ac h
.

s e n te nce with as m any L ati nized wo r d s as it

wo u ld be ar .

It s ee m s odd howeve r to us to note h ow m any

, ,

wo r d s no w fam ili ar we r e the n r egar d ed as u nju s tifi

able additio n s to the s tock of E n gli s h wo r d s .

A lex ande r G ill o ne of M ilto n s te ache r s give s

, ,

u s s ome o f the s e :

O h arsh l ips I no w hear all around me su ch word s

as co mmo n, vices , e nvy , ma lice ; eve n vir tue ,
s tu d
y, j us
tice, pity ,
mer cy , co mp as s io n, p r ofi t, co m mo digf , co lo r ,

gr a ce, f a vo r , a cce pta n ce . B ut wh ith e r, Ip r ay, in all th e

w o rld h ave yo u b anishe d th ose w ords
,
w h ic h o ur fo re

fath ers use d fo r th e se new fan gle d o n e s ? -

Are o ur w o rd s
t o be e x e cu te d l ike o u r c itize ns ?

Thi s w as in 1 6 1 9 Sh ake s p e ar e w as d e ad I s
. .

it po ss ible th at he w r ote th at be au ti fu l co mm end a

tio n o f m e r cy begi nni ng Th e q u ality of m e r cy is
, ,

n o t s t rai n ed with the co ns c io u s n e s s th at the wo r d

,

w as a novelty ? I s it p o s s ible th at he p u nn ed s o
ofte n o n th e wo r d s ch o l er and co l or with n o c o n ,

c e p t io n o f the s t ra n gene s s of the l atte r wo r d to

many i n h is a u di e nce ? I d o no t beli eve it The .

wo r thy s chool mas te r p r ob ably lived too m u ch o u t

of the wo r ld to k now wh at c u r r e n cy wo rd s h ad
the r e .

Still it is evide n t th at m any wo r d s th at h ave

,

lo ng h ad thei r r eco gnized pl ace in the l a ngu a ge

 U L T I M A T E E N GL I S H .
3I5

c am e crowdi ng in at thi s time O nly be s u r e th at .

,

th e d r am ati s ts wo u ld u se few th at we r e not well

know n to thei r audi e n ce s .

Ve ry m any o f tho s e th at we r e coi ned at thi s

ti m e and l ate r h ad a b ri ef li fe i n the book s in
, ,

whic h they app e ar ed b ut we r e no t take n up i nto,

gene r al ci r c u l ation even fo r lite rary u s e The r e .

ar e not a few co i n age s o f w r ite rs like J eremy

Taylor and S ir Tho m as B r owne who h ave w o n ,

i m mo r tality th at neve r p ass ed beyond the s chol ar s

,
’

own m i nt .

I n E n gli s h as in Fre nc h the r e we r e n o w i nt r o

d u ce d m any wo r d s fr o m L ati n o r igi nal s th at h ad
‘
alr e ady p as s ed i n to th e l a ng u age in a m o r e n at ural

w ay .Thi s co m i ng into the l an gu age of the s am e

wo r d by two di ffe r ent d oors by the Ey e and by
th e E ar as M e ik lejo h n expre ss e s it
,
g ave r i s e to
d o u bl ets Th u s we h ave fr o m the s am e s ou r c e
.
,

ca d en ce a nd ch a nce, ca p tive an d ca iti

y f , co n ce
p tio n
fi er def e ct and d ef ea t d il a te
'

and co n ceit, co a nd co
fiin , ,

a nd del ay , f a br ic an d f orge f a ctio n and f as h io n

, ,

f a ct and f eat, g en til e a nd g entle, h osp ita l and h otel ,

m int a nd mo ney , n utr imen t an d no u r is h men t, p a r

ticl e and p a r cel , p a up er a nd po or pen itence

, and

p en a nce, p ers ecu te and p u r s ue p o tio n

,
and po iso n ,

a nd an d
p u ng ent and o i n a n t,
p g quiet coy , r esp ect
r es p ite , s ecu r e a nd s u re, se p ar a te and sever , s p ecies
and s pice, tra ditio n and treas o n .

Th e wo r d s th at h ave co m e fr o m L ati n by the

i nd u s try o f s chol ars ar e s till fo r the mo s t p ar t book
word s The wo r d s th at c ame in lo ng ago th r o u gh
.
3 6
1 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

F r e nch are tho s e th at belong to the com m o n

s p eech of the E ngli s h s pe aki ng n atio The l atte r
ns
-
.

h ave ge n e r ally bee n wo r n by the a ttr itio n of d aily

u s e into s ho r te r fo r m I n m any c as e s all app ar e nt
.

ide ntity h as bee n lo s t by the d evelop m e nt of wholly

di ffe r e nt s h ad e s of m e an i ng .

The r e are eve n a few tr iplets — wo r d s th at h ave ,

co m e o ne fr o m L ati n o ne th r o u gh No r m an
, ,

F r e nch and one th r o u gh F r ench of P ar i s M ei kle

,
.

j ohn m e ntio ns s o m e o f them : r ega l roy a l and , ,

r ea l ; l eg a l , l oy a l , and l ea l ; fidelity f a ithf u l ness

, ,

an d f ea l ty .

F r om Gr eek al s o we h ave tw o fo r ms th at r e p re
‘
s e n t the s a m e o r igi nal
— o ne o f the m com in g in
,

with the C h u r c h lo n g ago the othe r i ntr od u ced , ,

by w r ite rs o f m o r e r ece nt ti m e s di r ectly fr o m ,

G r eek lite rat u r e S u c h are a da ma n t and dia mo nd

.
,

ba l s a m and ba l m , bl a sp h e me an d bl a me, s u rg eo n

a nd ch ir u rg eo n
(s u rg eon s ee m s to h ave co m e fr o m
O ld F r ench cir urg eo n ) dacty l and da te ph a ntasy
, ,

a nd f a ncy p r es by ter
, an d p r ies t p a r a ly s is
, a nd pa l sy ,

s ca n da l and s l a n der .

The r e ar e al s o do u blets of p u r ely E n gli s h o r igin ,

a n d the r e are n o t a few th at wh ateve r thei r o r igi n , ,

s ee m to h ave bee n d u e to c au s e s i ndep e nd e n t o r

the d iffe r e nce betwee n E ar and Ey e m od e of i ntr o

d u ctio n So m e are d u e to di ffe r e nc e s of p r o nu nci
.

atio n S u ch ar e p er so n and p a r s o n sop a nd s oup

.
, ,

tas k and ta x , ticket a nd etiqu e tte, s u a ll

q a nd s qu ea l .

So m e ar e d ue to di ffe r e nce s in s p elli n g .

S u ch
are to and to o, of and f f r om
o , a nd
f ro , u n io n and
 UL T I M A T E E N GLI S H .
317

onio n . Unio n at fi r s t m e ant a l arge single p e arl ,

then the pl ant .

Som e are d u e to di ffere nce s i n di alect . Su ch

ar e kir k and ch u rch , canker and ca ncer, ca na l and

ch a nnel , deck and th a tch , dr ill and th r il l , na u h t,

g
no ug h t, and not, p ike p ea k and bea k, scabb
, y and
,

s h abby , s cr eech a nd sh r iek, s h ir t and skir t, sh ufi e

and sen j ie sp r ay
, an d s p r ig .

So me are d ue
to co ntra ction s i n the hu rry of
d aily sp eech . S u ch are ex a mp le and sa mp le alone ,

and lone, def end and f end ma n oeu vr e and m a nure

, ,

ca p ital and ca ttl e, disp o r t a nd s p o r t, es ta te and s ta te,

esquire and s qu ir e, Egyp tia n a nd

gypsy , emmet and
ga mmo n and g a me, mo bile
a nt, and mo b,
p er iw ig
and w ig , o mn ibu s and bus , s h a l l op and s l oo
p .

M e iklejo h n give s the s e ex ample s and some

others .

A v ast p rop ortio n of the addition s m ad e to the

l a ngu age m u s t be r efe rr ed to th at s ti r ri ng and
studi ou s age when s chol ar s we r e th r on gin g to Italy
i n se arch of the New L e ar ni n g when you ng gentle ,

m en were pu pil s in the art o f w ar u nd e r the white

plu me of H enry of N avarr e o r we r e fighti ng the
Sp ani ard s i n the Neth er l and s and when adve n ,

tu ro ns spi rits were saili n g fr o m D evo n s hire to

d i s covery and b attle in th e N ew W o rld Ly ly s .
’

E uph ue s w as b u t o ne i n dic atio n a mong m any of

the thir s t for new and choice fo r ms o f expre ss io n .

A ll the E liz abeth ans h ad th e r age for rhetoric and ,

picked thei r word s with an e ager s en s e of di fference

i n the v alu e of the m .
318 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

They we r e fully co ns cio us of the exc ellence of

thei r l a ng u age The poet D an iel in h is dedi c a
. ,

tio n o f “ Cleop a tra to the Co u nte ss of Pe m b r oke ,

is alive to th is when he c r ie s

O h t h at t h e O ce an did no t b ind o u r s tyl e

W ith in th es e s tr ic t an d n arr o w l im it s so ,
B ut th at th e m e l o dy o f o ur s w e e t is l e
M igh t no w b e h ear d t o T ib e r , Ar n e , and P0,
T h at th e y may k no w h o w far T h ame s d o th o utgo
”
T he m i
us c o f l
de c ned I taly !
i

Yet l ame nti n g thu s the n ar r ow li mit s o f the

,

E n gli s h o f h is d ay he wo u ld s ee m to h ave s ee n
,

in p r ophetic V i s io n the fu t u re t r i u m p h o f h is native

tongu e fo r th u s he s i ng s :
,

W ho k no w s w h ith er w e m ay v e nt
T h e t r e as u r e o f o u r to ngu e ? T o w h at s tr ange s h o r es

T h is gain o f o u r b e s t gl o ry w ill b e s e n t
T e nr ich u nk no w ing natio ns w it h o u r s to r e s ?
’

W h at l
w o r ds in th e ye t u nfo r me d o ccid e n t
M ay c o me e acce nts th at ar e o ur s
’
r fi n e d w ith t h

I h ave al r e ady alluded to the powe r E n gli s h h as

of v aryi ng the m us ic of a s e nte nc e by the co n tras t
of lo ng wo r d s with s ho r t O f co u rs e it is p ec uli ar ly
.

in ve rs e th at thi s excelle n ce tell s ; a nd o u r m od e r n

poets are no t s low to av ail the ms elve s of thi s s i n g
u l ar adv ant age M any p as s a ge s co u ld be d r aw n
.

fr o m Te nnys o n and Swinb u r ne b oth s ubtle mas ,

te r s of m u s i c al e ffect i n ill u s t ratio n o f thi s fact

, .

B ut it is in the E liz abeth a n p oets th at we find the

l ar ge s t u se of thi s app e al to the e ar It wo u ld be .

e asy to s elect p assage s fro m s co r es of them i n

 UL T I M A T E E N GL I S H
3 19

ill u s tr ati o n of thi s ; but I s h all confine my s elf to

two well k n ow n and often q uoted p assage s fr o m
- -

the m as ter po ets of the ti m e Sh ake s p e are a nd ,

M ilto n the l atte r b eing i n h is e ar ly d ays tr uly an

,

E liz ab eth an i n t as te and s pi r it .

“
The fi r s t is thi s fr o m M acbeth
,

“ W il l all r eat N e ptu ne ’s o c ean w as h th is b loo d

g
Cle an fr o m my h a nd ? N o th is my h a nd w il l rath e r
T h e mu l titudino us s eas incar nadine ,
”
M ak ing th e gr e e n , o n e re d .

1)
Then fr om , Comu s

A th o u s and p h antas ie s
B egin to th ro ng into my me mo ry,
Of ca l l ing s h ap es , an d b ec k
’
ning s h ado w s d ir e ,
And airy to ngu es th at sy ll ab le me n ’
me s
s na

On s ands , and s h o res , and de s er t w il d e rnes s e s .

B ut the r ic h E li z ab eth an fan cy w as to give w ay

to far othe r t as te s The civil w ar s ee m s to h ave
.

killed m u s ic The Pu r it an s corn fo r ple as u re and

.

d re ad of merri m e nt doomed art in the d ay of

Pu r it an t ri u mp h ; and a fate even wo r s e befell the
l and whe n the R e s to ratio n c am e abo u t C h ar le s .

the S eco nd b r o u ght b ack with h im the F r e nch

t as te ; and following Boile au and h is s chool
, ,

D ryd e n and the po ets who took h im for thei r

m as te r s o u ght l u cid ity a nd p oi nt u ntil with Pope ,

and all the r e s t of th e Q u een A nne wit s poet r y

bec ame p e r p etu al epi g ram I h ave nothi ng to do .

he r e with the fo u lne ss of the dr am a of the R e s to ra

tio n or with the s c u rr ility of the s ati r e of Pope and
Swift b ut merely with the vi cio u s i nfl u ence of a
,
3 20 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

na rrow fo r m of ar t u p o n the l angu a ge There is a .

mo noto ny i n the ve r s ifi c atio n of the age whic h

poi nts w ith u nerrin g i n dex to a sc ant and imp o v
e r is h e d voc ab ul ary and to a pove r ty in the u se o f

idi om atic fo r m s At the s ame ti m e wi th lucidity

.
,

and fo r c e for thei r aim the p ro s e w r ite r s fr om

,

B u ny an D e Foe and Swift almo s t to the age o f

, , ,

G old s m ith and J ohn s o n p r od uced a p r o s e of u n

,

m atched b ald ne ss and b ar ene ss I n the c as e of .

Buny an its provi nci al textu r e is s o mewh at r eli eved

by the ab u nd an t quotatio n s fr o m the g r e at E liz a
beth an Bible and by h is o w n wild gyp sy i m agin ati on .

I n the c as e o f D e Fo e its s lip s hod loo s e n es s and

,

fre q u ent l ap s e s fr o m g ram m atic al acc u racy ar e for

gotte n in o u r s en s e of its i ni mitable air o f s eri o u s
n e ss and m ar vellous m as te r y of det il
a W i th Swift .
,

who in the lon g comp an io ns hip of h is yo u th with

,

a man of the wo r ld and p r acti s ed wr iter like

Temple h ad le arned co rr ectne ss the b ar e n e ss o f
, ,

h is style s eems of set p u r p o s e and is ce r ta i n ly i n

,

keeping with his i nten s ely m ate r i al i s tic i ntellect ,

h is u nce as in g pl ay o f i r o ny a nd hi s co n tempt fo r
,

m anki nd B ut ce r tainly the E n gli s h of th a t d ay is

.

a tongu e th a t h as lo s t it s blo om The th r ill the .

,

bo u nd ing e las ticity of yo u th s eems to h ave gone ,

wholly fr o m its limb s O nly i n the ge nial hu mor

.

and the pl ayfulne s s o f A ddi s o n and Steele d o we

feel s o m e tr ace of that lighter vei n th a t i n th e

E liz abeth a n age m ad e a comedy as ai r y as its
tragedy w as thrilling .

A c h ange of l angu age s ays M ax M u ller, in ,

 UL T I M A T E E N GLI S H 3 21

v ar i ably b etoken s a ch ange i n the soci al c o ns titu

tio n of a cou ntry .

I f we did not know the histo r y of th at i nterv al

“ “ ”
between C omu s and The R ap e of the Lock we ,

mi ght w ell infe r m erely fro m the contr as t be tween

,

tho s e two p o em s th at a gre at s oci al ch ange h ad

,

take n pl ace I t would be still more app arent if we

.

“ ”
set the A rc ad i a s ide by s id e with Moll Fl anders .

I thi nk the r e can b e no q u e s tio n abou t the m atter

the l ang u a ge certai nly su ff ered from the lowered
tone .

The lite r ary fo r m was s till wo r se when J oh nson

d omi n ated the liter ary world I t w as i n h is age .

th at writers grew afr aid of u s ing th at fi ne idio matic

str u ctu re of the s entenc e th at end s it with a s ho r t
wo r d and resorted to the i m itation of the s ti ff
,
’

Lati n fo rm atio n But J ohnso n s own s tyle went

.

far beyo nd th i s s imp l e evas io n of the Teutonic

i dio m th at couple s the prepo sitio n wi th th e ve r b i n
a n a dve r bi a l se ns e b ut th r ow s it to the end of the
,

s e n tence to li ghten its close

H e s y s tem atic ally
.

avoid ed the s imple word s whether Teutonic o r

,

No r m an F r ench th at lie at the s ou rce s o f the l an

-

guage H e always p refer r ed the longe s t and m ost

.

recently i n tr od uced word s H is style w as as u n .

E ngli s h a s his ch a r acte r w as E ngl i sh O n thi s .

poi nt at le as t M ac a ul ay h as not been a bit too h a rd

upo n h im H is s tyle is execr abl e almo s t as b ad
. ,

as the ord i n a ry new s p ap e r E ngli s h of o u r time ,

which i nd eed clo s ely re s emble s i t

, ,
.

The p hilosop hic al mi nd o f Bu rke his w arm ,

21
3 22 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Keltic i m ag ination and h is Keltic t as te for e x u

,

be r ance o f d icti on kept h im fr o m s u cc u m bi n g

to John s o n s i nfl u e n ce I nd eed to two I r i s h m e n
’
.
, ,

B u rke and G old s m ith and to an o ther who w as

,

n ext doo r to an I r i s hm an the hu m o r i s t Ste r n e we

, ,

owe it th at the E n gli s h l an g uage beg an to r ecove r

r ich n e s s
,
lightn e s s grace and idio m G old s m ith
, , .
,

l au ghed at by me n i nfi n itely i n fe r io r to h im in r e al
good n e s s o f he ar t as well as in geni u s an d in c o m
m and of good E ngl is h h as h ad h is r eve n ge H is
, .

wo r k s novel co m edi e s and p oem s

, ,
are all r e ad

“
s till by people who c ar e n othi n g fo r R a ss el as
or even fo r the vi go r o u s s ati r e of L o n do n ; and
a n i nco mp arable s tyli s t like W as hi n gto n I r vi n g took

the s tyle of Gold s m ith fo r h is m od el Ste r ne by .

,

“
th e p op ul ar ity o f h is T r i s tr am Sh an dy did ,

wo nde r s fo r the l an g u age in b r i n gi n g it b ack

fr o m book s to nat u r e ; fo r fu ll as the book is,

of fal s e p ed ant ry in the s h ap e o f a p ar ade of

s tolen le ar nin g nothin g co u ld be e as i e r th a n the
,

s tyl e. It h as all the ar tle s s g race o f life it s el f It .

w as m uc h the s ame with Fieldi n g H is vigo r o u s

.

and m anly s tyle s m ack s no t in the le as t o f Jo h n

s o ne se It is neve r gr and ilo q u ent except when

he is h u m o r o u s ly p ar odyi n g H o m e r .

B ut it is in Ste r ne th at we s e e how u tte r ly in

s ome p art s o f E n gl an d the old g ra m m ar o f the

l ang u age h ad bee n fo r gotte n I n th e d ay s o f

.

G eo r ge Fox th e e s s e nti al pl ur ali ty of y o u w a s

,

still felt ; el s e th e Q u ake r s n eve r wo u ld h ave

tho u ght it nece ss ary to p r ote s t a gain s t its use in
 UL T I M A T E E N GL I S H .
3 23

a dd res s i ng a s i ngle pe r s on and to p r ocl ai m s uch

u se the a cti ng o ut o f a lie Yet whe n we h ave.

re ached the ti m e of Ste rn e all s en s e of its pec u li ar

,

pl ace in the l an gu age m u s t h ave d i ed o ut fo r he ,

“
al m o s t u nifo r mly say s
”
y o u w as
, I d o u bt whethe r .

an i n s t a nc e can b e fo u nd of Ste r n e s u s i n g “ o u
’

y
”
we r e .

W he n we re ach the age of R obert Bu r n s — s till

more whe n we co m e to the W ave r ley Novel s we
begin to s e e the b e ne fic e nt e ffects u po n l ang u age
of di alect in lite r atu r e .

“ “
D i alect s s ys
a, M a x M lle r
u ar e eve rywhe r e ,

the n at u ral feeder s o f li te rar y l ang uage s ; and an

attempt to de s t r oy them if it c ould s u cceed wo u ld
, ,

be like s h u tti ng u p the trib u tar ie s of gr e at r ive rs .

The G r eek s with thei r i nv ar i able good ta s te

, ,

see m to h ave i ntu itively u n d e rs tood thi s ; and d is ,

d ainfu l as they were of all fo r eig n to ng u e s they ,

c u ltiv ated with c ar e the di alects of thei r o w n and

fo u nd fit pl ace a nd u se fo r e ach of the m To the .

l as t D oric rem ai ned the p rope r fo rm fo r cho r al

,

s o ng while the di alo g u e of the acto r s kept p ace

,

wi th the d evelop m ent of A tti c .

It w as a fo r tu nate thi ng fo r E ngl is h th at the

d elicio u s Scotti s h d i alect al r e ady to s o m e exte nt
,

a lite rar y to n g u e w as t h e fi r s t of th e di alect s to

,

fi nd its w ay i nto ack nowled ged E ngli s h lite rat u r e .

It s ec u r ed a r e s p ectfu l r eceptio n fo r the othe r

d i alects and it de s e r ved to r ank as the E ngli s h
,

D o ric .I n fact i t w as with b ut a few r ecent

, ,

’
c h ange s the e arly E ngli s h of C ax to n s d ay
,
.
3 24 T H E S T OR Y O F LAN G UA GE .

W e h ave h ad m any d i alects i n o u r lite ratu r e

s i n ce
,
the York s hi r e the D evo n shire and others
, ,

an d in the h and s of w r ite r s of geni u s they a r e

a lway s enjoy able .Thei r u tility to the gene r a l

l an g u a ge co n s i sts i n the fact th at fr om ti m e to
tim e there is adopted fr o m th em some piq u an t
wo r d or idiom th at go e s down th e s tre am o f lan
gu age and liter atu re with r e n ewed life d e s ti ned ,

p r ob ably to l ast as l o n g as the l an gu age i ts el f .

I n thi s l as t age tu r ni n g b ack to th at gay co u r tier

,

who bec ame a singer whe n h is wars and h is e m

b as s ie s were over we are wo r thily s triving to
,

r evive the us e of so m e o f the richest a n d m o s t

exp r e s s ive terms of o u r olde r lite ratu r e which h ad ,

‘
b ee n u nh appily allowed to p as s o ut of ci r cul atio n .

Te nny s on t akes u s b a ck to the old rom ance s abo u t

A r thu r Pendr ago n a nd T r i s trem o f Ly o n e s s e .

W illi am Morri s both in p r o s e a nd ve r s e re n ew s

the olden to ngu e and tell s over the a ncient s to r i e s .

Swi n b u rne we ave s h is m u s ic al word s i nto the old

metr ic al form s of F ran ce th at we r e once so pop u l ar
i n E ngl and Bl ack m o r e and oth e r s b r ing to th e
.

fr o nt di alect s lon g hidden fr om liter atu r e A fo r .

gotten voc abul ary th u s q u ickened i n to new li fe

, ,

is p r oving to us how exh a u s tle ss and ever fr e s h

is the wond erfully copi o us l a ng uage th at is o u r
heritage .

The E nglish are a r ace of travelers by l an d and

by s e a ; their com m erc e h as l on g b een world — wid e ;
and their colonie s are o n all the continent s and i n

m any an i s l and Thei r contact with oth er r ace s

.
 UL T I M A T E E N GLI S H .
3 25

and with the fau n a and flo r a of many a l and h as

add ed i nnu m er able words to the voc ab ul ary of
the l angu age I n the A pp e ndi x will be fo u nd a
.

nu mber of illustr ati on s of thi s fact .

So me write r s exp r e ss gre at di s m ay at the i nfl ux

of new words and the r e s u r r ection of old ones fe ar ,

i ng th at the p urity of th e l angu age may s u ff er .

But while there is life ch an ge m u s t go o n ina

,

l angu age ; and the m o r e vigo r o u s the l an gu age

, ,

the gre ater wil l b e the tend e n cy to co p io ii sne ss .

It i s the mono to ny o f a wo u ld b e p u re s tyle th at -

brings with it at l as t th at s ense o f s tale ness which

is so ap t to drive a p eople to vici o u s corruption s
and co u nterfeit glitte r o r el s e to n arrowne s s and
,

priggishness The s aple s s and s tilted s tyle of the

.

l ast century w as the co ns u mm atio n of the l atter

’
fault ; the str ai ni n g and co ntorti ng of Carlyl e s
'

E nglish and the p o s t u r i ng of G eorge M eredith s

are ex amples o f the fo r m e r .

There is p ere n ni al wisdom in th at ap horism of

H orace s
’

M any a w o r d t h at h as go ne to th e gr o und,
R ais ed fro m th e d e ad, sh a l l in h o no r be fo und ;
M any a w o rd th at is no w in re pute

S h all in its tur n b e fal l en and mute ,

G ranting th at u s e s h all l
w i l it fo r each ,

U s e, which is al mo s t th e l aw of go o d s p eech .

M odern E n gli s h h as th r own o ff fo r o rdin ary use , ,

so me o f the gr am m ar of the E liz abeth ans T h ou .

,

thy th ee and y e ar e s eldo m u s ed ; and the termi

, ,

n ation ln th for the thi r d person singul ar o f the

3 26 T HE STOR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

verb is al s o very r are W e tr e at them as th e .

Attic d i alect c am e to tr e at the anci e n t d ual .

There are s o me c ar ele s s ne s s e s i n M o de rn E n gli s h

m u c h ofte n e r co mmitted over the w ate r th a n with
us . E ve n Th acker ay fo r i ns ta nc e who s e s tyle is
, ,

u s u ally ad m ir able m ake s u s e of th at hideo u s s ole

,

“
c is m ,
di ffe r e n t to .

It is h ardly withi n th e s cop e o f my wo r k to d is

c u s s s tyle o r I s ho u ld like to s ay s o m ethi n g o f
,

H awtho r n e s i nv ar i able air of di s ti nctio n of Poe s

’

,
'

choice l ang u a ge of Pale y s an d M ac a ul ay s cle a r

,
’

’
n e ss ,
of R us k in s elo q u e nce o f L afc ad io H e ar n s
’

O r i ent al lux u r i ance o f Steve ns o n s r acy deft flexi

’

, , ,

ble s tyle alw ay s ad e q u ate to the m atte r in h and

,
.

O n e po in t ou ts id e of l an g uage p r op e r I m u s t
, ,

c all atte ntio n to It is thi s : the r e is a s e r io u s

.

te mpe r in the E n gli s h race th at s hows its elf i n

thei r lite r atu r e fr o m C md mo n to Ten ny s o n It .

w as exc e ss ive in the u n m ixed r ac e a nd m ade ,

the m a natio n of m o n k s The N o r m an blood .

co oled thi s ze al ; b ut we fi nd it in W ycli ffe ,

L an gl a nd Sp e ns e r M ilto n — in a lo n g l in e o f
, , ,

theolo gi ans s ati r i s ts e s s ayi s ts poets Pe r h ap s in

, , , .

n o othe r lite r at u r e th an thi s and the H eb r ew h as

the c au s e of G o d b een s o s tr e nu o u s ly s e t fo r th .

It is the s am e with civil lib e r ty and fr ee tho u ght .

The l ang u a ge h as b ee n the tr u e s t fr i end to p u re

r el igion an d s o u nd gove r n m e nt .

The l ang u age in which W ycli ffe w r ote and

L ati m e r p r e ached ; i n which Ch ill ingw o r th B utler , ,

Ch almer s and R o ge r s r e as o ned ; the to n gu e th at

,
 UL T I M A T E E N GL I S H .

3 27

r ang o ut the p ulpit elo q u ence of J ere my Taylor ,

B axter W hite fi eld R obe r t H all and Tho r nwel l ;

, , ,

the l an g u a ge th a t w as fr ei ghted w ith the r ich

i m a gi natio n and the fe r vent ze al o f B u ny an ; th at
flowed with ki nd r ed g race in J o h n Newto n s lette r s ’

and C owp er s p o e ms ; th at exp r e s s ed the vi go r ou s

’

tho u ght of O we n and H owe ; th at san g the s o n gs

of Zio n in the t uneful wo rd s of W e s ley Topl ady , ,

W atts and Keble

, s u ch a s p eech m u s t r an k high
,

in the ann a l s of C h r i s ti anity .

I ts s e rvice to civil libe r ty a nd to fr ee tho u ght

h as bee n no le s s g r e at A l m o s t its whole lite ra
.

tu r e be ars wit ne ss to thi s .

C omp ar ed with othe r to ngu e s in p oint o f fl e x i

b ility cop io u s n e s s g race s oft ne s s s tre n gth h ar
, , , , ,

m ony d elic a cy r ich ne s s in di alectic fo r ms it

, , ,

may yield to s o me in one el e m e n t o r anothe r ;

b u t few will vent u r e to deny th at i t s u r p as s e s all
othe rs i n the co m bi nation o f m any excelle nce s .

T r ench d oe s no t p ut its m e r its too hi gh when

“
he d e s c r ibe s it as a fit o r gan fo r exp r e ss i n g the
s ubtle s t di s ti n ctio n s the tend ere s t s enti m e nt s
, the ,

l ar ge s t tho u gh ts and the lo ftie s t i m agi natio ns

, ,

w h ich at any time the h e art o f m an c a n conceive ”

.

Take D e Q u in cey fo r s u btlety ; the old b all ad s

for tend e r ne s s ; B aco n B u r ke and S ir Tho mas
, ,

More fo r b r e adth o f tho u ght ; M ilto n J e r emy ,

T aylo r Sir Tho m as B r own e Cole r id ge and R u s kin

, , ,

fo r i m agi native re a ch a nd all of the s e bu t C ole

,

rid ge for po m p o f l ang u age ; take Sh ake s pe are

for all the s e q u alitie s and m any more be s ide s ,
3 28 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G U A GE .

an d it is h ar d to i m agi n e any o ne di s s enting fr o m

the p r ocl am atio n of thi s j udgme n t .

W ith the excep tio n of the p rono uns the adje c ,

tiv e s i n thei r co m p ar i s o n a nd the ve r b s in a fe w

,

fo r m atio ns the l an g u age h as wholly s h ake n o ff the

,

fette rs o f infle c tio n al g ram m ar I n fl e c t io n h as le ft

.

its t r e as u r e s b u r ied in the he a r t o f m a ny wo r d s ;

b ut all th at w a s opp r e s s ive i n the s y s te m h as been
eli mi nated I t is like the c as e o f fe ud ali s m and
.

mod e r n s oc iety . W e g ained m u ch by the fe u d al

s y s te m ; b u t in the evol u tio n o f s oci ety we h ave

left its evil s far behi nd u s .

The o nly c u rs e o u r hi s to r i c develop m e nt h as left

with u s — o u r at rocio us s p elli n g — u nfo r tu nately
s till cli n g s to u s . B ut it will no t d o s o fo r eve r .

Thi s n oble l ang u age e m bodyi n g a g rand lite r a

,

tu r e and as co mplex in o r i gi n and co mpo s ite in

,

ch ar acte r as the race s th at s p e ak it h as n o w a ,

ho m e o n eve ry co nti ne nt and in m any a s c atte r ed

i s le W he r eve r i t h as go n e with it h ave m oved in
.
,

h appy h ar mo ny Ch r i s ti an faith and civil lib e r ty I .

c annot b elieve th at it will ever be othe rwi s e .

 CH A PT E R XXI .

SU M MAR Y .

LAN GU AGE is the centre of the entire intellectu al

and s oci a l life o f m an .A s the term is now e m
ployed p u tting asid e the m ere l angu age of s ign s
,

by gestu r e and by wr itten ch ar acter it is a c o m ,

bin atio n of s o u nd s p r od u ced by the air b r e athed

o ut u nder exp ul s ive e ff orts of the will fr o m the
, ,

l u n gs thro u gh the c avity o f the mo uth or th r o u gh

the n as al c avity their di ffe r ence bei ng dep e nde n t
,

u pon the p ath taken by the c urrent o f air and

u po n volu nt ary move m e n ts of cert ai n stru ct u r e s

withi n these c avitie s The c ap aci ty o f the l u ngs

.
,

the s ize and s h ape of the air p as s ages the s ize of ,

the tongu e the co nd itio n of the teeth and the

, ,

s h ap e and fl exibility of the lips , m odify v ario u s ly

the c h ar acter o f the s o u nd s emitted This is why
.

r ace s di ffer so gre atly in thei r voc aliz ation so m e ,

s ou nding gu ttur al s i mpo s s ible for other s to e n u n

c 1 ate o ther s reveli n g in de n tal s th at are so di ffic u lt

,

for m any r aces to u tte r while others again u s e

,

“
l bi ls p refe r ably to any other sou nd s
a a The .

gene ral i mp ressi o n o f fu lne s s and richne s s co n

”
ve y e d by the Fre nch l a ngu age ,
s ays M eyer ,

“ ”
a ri s es from its we alth i n n as al vowels .
3 30 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

L ang uage do u btedly a p r od u ct of m a n s

is un
’

i nnate powe rs an d h is e n v ir o nm e n t The d e s i r e .

n ay the n ece s s i ty
,
th at m e n s ho u ld co mm u n ic ate
with o ne a nothe r o ri ginated l an g u a ge It is t r u e .

th at l an g u age al s o facilitate s tho u ght ; b u t thi s

fu nctio n co u ld h ave h ad little to d o with its o r igi
n a tio n. Food d r i nk s helte r p r otectio n a gai ns t
, , ,

d a n ge r o u s an i m al s and the c ar e of helpl e s s o ff

,

s p r in g we r e m an s fi r s t need s Fo r the s e i n ter

’
.
,

co u rs e and co mm u nity of co u ns el and a cti o n we r e

i nd is p e ns abl e The s olitary m an n ever co u ld
.

h ave o r igi nated s peech ; the s ol itary now wo u ld

di s u s e it and fo r get i t .

G e s t u r e p o s t u r e g r i m ace and u tte ranc e we r e

, , ,

nece s s ar ily the e ar lie s t m od e s of inte r c o mm u ni

c ati o n and p r ob ably co nti n u ed lo n g in u s e to
,

gethe r I n m any p ar ts o f the wo r ld s p eech is

.
,

s till r ei nfo r ced by the othe r m ethod s The r e ar e .

s aid to be t r ibe s th at o n thi s acco u n t c a n n ot c o m

m u n ic ate m an w ith m an in the d ar k

, , .

Cr ie s excl a m atio ns a nd i m it a tio n o f the s o u n d s

, ,

in nat u r e m u s t h ave m ad e u p the fir s t m ode s o f

u tte r a nce The s e wo u ld s oo n get a co nventio nal
.

fi x ity of m e a ni n g am o n g the me m be r s of the

s a m e t r ibe a nd fo r m the b egi nn i n g s o f ar tic ul ate
,

s peech .

The A ry an to n g u e s h ave b ee n tr a c ed b ack to

r oot s of o n e s yll able The C hi n e s e the O to m i
.
, ,

a nd s o m e othe r to n g u e s co n s i s t s till of s u ch r o o t s .

B u t it is not u nlikely th at s o m e r ac e s m ay h ave

beg u n with the m us ic al r ep etiti o n o f the s a m e
 S U M M AE Y .
33 1

s ou n d ; th at is with a r oo t s ee mi n gly of two

,

s yll a ble s .

Thi s tende n cy to r hythmi c r ep etition is often

ob s e rv able in the c as e of ch ild r en le arn i ng to
s p e ak It is l s o noti ce abl e i n th e l a ng u age of
a
.

the H u az te c s s poken in the s tate of T am aulip as

, ,

M exico I ts p r o n o u n s are :
.

ne ma , lz zea i ma , “we
”
I . .

mm ,
“th o u . x ax a , yo u
he
”
M OO , “ th e
j aj a ,
.
y .

N o e ffo r ts h ave as yet av a iled to r ed u ce the

Semitic voc ab u l ar ie s to s imple r oots They m ay .

h ave h ad an o r i gin wholly di ffe r e nt fr o m any yet

i m agi ned by p hilologi s ts .

The keepi n g u p of c o nve ntion al s o u nd s with

give n m e aning s m us t long h ave bee n p u r ely tradi
tio nal as i t is s till fo r the g r e at m aj o r ity o f the
,

hu m an r ace It is l ar gely i ndep e nde nt o f race

.
,

fo r the Neg r o by d e s cent s p e ak s th e tong u e of

the r ac e in who s e l and he is bo r n B ut th at he .

m ake s a di alect o f it is p r oof th at rac e h as a good

de al to d o with l ang u age The r e are co n ge nital .

tendencie s both of br ai n and of voc al o r g ans th at

di ffe r enti a te h is s p eech fr o m th at o f the r ace in
who s e l and h e g r ows u p No do u bt the r e are
.

mod e s of exp r e s s io n and p ec u li ar iti e s of voc aliz a

tion i n E ngli s h th at h ar k b ack to old E u s k ar i an or
Keltic o r Italic o r D ani s h blood while b u t a s m all ,

p ar t of the actu al voc ab u l ary is tr ace able to any

of the s e s o u r ce s .
332 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The first s o und s we r e p rob ably m ad e u p of the

closest co nson ants and the m o s t op en vowel s and ,

m u s t h ave been co n fi n ed to the exp ressio n of

pu r ely p hysic al co n cepts All i ntellectu al a nd
.

mor al ide as found l ate r exp ression by me ans o f

the figur ative u se of wo r d s th at h ad o rigin ally a
physic al me aning o nly .

The s tudy of l an g u age w as begun by the co m

p ar i s on and an alys i s of the Aryan tongu es after ,

they h ad been di s cove r ed to be de s cend ants of

o ne mother tongue B u t it w as s oon p erceived
.

that arre s ted gr owth in the c as e of other l angu age s

th an the Ary an wo u ld e nabl e u s to study the
evol ution o f l angu age as a whole with even bette r
pro s p ects of m aki ng v al uable discove r ie s .

The re s ult of s uch s tu die s h as b een th e co n

v ic tio n th at l a ngu age beg an with p ositi o n al g r am

m ar . There are to n g u e s th at di s p en s e with the

n ece ss ity of th e s e n te n ce in o u r conception o f th e

m e a ni ng o f th at wo r d J u s t as children m ake
.

the ms elves comprehe nd ed by m erely p u tting two

o r th r ee words togethe r so th e r e are race s th at
,

co n tr ive to commu nic ate thei r id e as withou t h av

ing r ecou r s e to the fu ll s e nte nc e str uctu re In s uch
~
.

u nfini s hed and almo s t fo r mle s s expres s i on s there ,

m ay be howeve r all the v ar i eties of gr amm a tic al

, ,

n ex u s The s e are o f fo u r ki nd s : the rel ation o f

.

wo rd s to on e another may be expressed by p o s itio n ,

by i nton ation by inflection and by co nnective s

, , .

In a few tongu es po s itio nal g r a mm ar alone p r e

,

v ail s Chi ne s e uses both p osi tio n and into n atio n

.
.
 S UM M AR Y .

333
‘
In th at l angu age za cco r di ng to its po s itio n
, a
,
“
m e an s g e t or g re atn e s s o r “ to g r ow ” o r
r a
, ,
“ ”
ve ry m u ch o r very
, .

The next s tep w as for o ne wo r d to become

m e r ely dete r mi n a tive o f the p r eci s e me an in g of
a n o the r Thu s in C hi n e s e j z 7z m e ans “ m an
'
”
.
, ,

and m m e an s
“
c r owd fr o m which is fo r m ed by
,

m e r e j uxt ap o s i tio n j z n— “
ma n c r owd
'
"
tu or , a
-

crowd o f m e n . T u is he r e m ere dete r m i native .

The n ext s tep w as fo r the dete r m i native to s u ffe r

p honetic d ec ay and b eco m e a m ere s u ffix Th u s .
,

in B u r me s e the pl u r al is fo r med by to and in ,

Fi nni s h by t .

So m e to n g u e s took a di ffe r e nt tu r n and s howed

a m ar ked p r efe r e n ce fo r p r efixe s Yo u will r e .

membe r how s tr iki n gly the B an tu to n g u e s o f

Afr ic a s how the fo r ce of th is te nd e ncy .

The n ext s tep s e e m s to h ave b ee n to m ar k

di s ti nctio ns of m e an ing by i nte r io r ch ange Thi s .

is the vowel — infl e c tio n o f the S e m itic to n g u e s .

The next s tep w as th e inco rpo ratio n with r oots

of te r min atio n s comp o s ed of word s th at h ave
wholly l o s t thei r s ep ar ate id e ntity and h ave been
b r oke n i nto s ho r t fo r m s Thi s w as the o r i gin o f
.

exte r nal i nfl ecti o n and w as the p r efe r r ed g ra m

matic al n exu s of the A ry a n r a ce s .

The n ext s tep w as the g r ad u al w e ar i n g away or

d eli be r ate ab ando n me nt o f infl ection s and the u s e
i n thei r pl ace of s imple co nnective s o n which no
s tress is to b e l a id b ut which ac t as s tepp ing s to n e s
-

from id e a to ide a .
3 34 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Now it mu s t b e u nde rs too d th at there are n o

,

h ar d and fas t line s i n all thi s Chine s e itself h as

.

s o m e t r ace s of a ggl u ti n atio n and some t r a ce s of

i ncipi ent inflection G r eek — th at is the an ci ent

.
,

H elle nic tongu e — h as a well m arked s ys tem o f -

i nto natio n in its acc ents The Ary an to n gu e s

.

h ave all o f them m any i ns t ances of interior vowel

, ,

infl e c t io n Some of the m and s ome of the Semitic

.

to n g u e s h ave use fo r p r efixe s a s well as the B antu

tongu e s thou gh not o n the s a me exten s ive s c a le
,
.

A ll l an gu ages h ave co nn ectives All l ang u a ge s

.

u s e po s ition al g r amm ar to s o m e extent Yet it is .

evid e nt th at the s e di ff e r e n t typ es of l angu age are

fai r ly di s tingui s h able fr o m o n e another by thei r
ch ar acte r i s tic u s e of s o m e o ne form of gramm ati
c al co ns tr u ctio n in p r e fe r e n ce to all the oth e r s .

C hi n ese i s mo no syll ab ic a nd p ositio n al and int o n

ing . J ap ane s e is aggl u ti native and p o s itio n al .

Z u l u infl ec ts by p r efixe s H ebrew infl ec t s by

.

i n te r nal vowel c h ange L ati n infl e c ts by affixe s to

-
.

the roo t E ngli s h is both m ono s yll abi c and p oly

.

syll abi c and co n s tru ct s s e n tenc es by co nnective s .

B u t i n tru th E ngli s h h as a p ecu li ar advant a ge in

h aving i n use all the m od e s of binding tho u ght s
to gethe r A fter its lo s s th r o u gh m any ce ntu r ie s
.

o f i n flectio n E ngli s h h as r eg ained the p ower of

,

m aking a word do m a ny o ffic e s — th at p owe r ,

which Chinese s hows u s to have b een po ss e s s ed by

tongu e s i n the b aby s t age of d evelop ment By th e .

E liz ab eth ans it w as u s ed with the u tmo s t freed om .

E ngli s h al s o ret ain s to so m e extent th e p owe r of

 S UM M AR Y .
335

c ombin ation p os s e ss ed by l a ngu ages i n the aggl u

t inative sta ge Thu s w e s ay r a ilr oad or r a il w ay
.
,

where the French h ave to s ay c/z emz l z a e f er

'
’

s tea mboa t where they h ave to s a

y ba tea a a vap eu r ;
ck a mber maz a whe r e they h ave to s a
y f emme a e
’
’ ’

c/z a mbre . I t is i n my j u d gm ent howeve r a fo rtu

, , ,

n ate c irc u m s tance th at the No r m an French c am e -

in to c u rt ail so mewh at thi s p o w er of m aki ng co m

po u nd words W e s e e the ill e ffect of exce s s in
.

thi s tend ency in G e r m a n .

50 too with i nflectio n : while E ngli s h h as al mo s t

wholly di s c ard ed gr amm atic a l i nfl ection the r e ar e ,

few words of mo r e th an o ne s yll able th at do n o t

c arr y i n their face s the m ar k s of the long p r oce s s e s
of tho u ght th at lay at the b ack o f their fo r m atio n
“

and w ere once embodied in i nflected fo r ms .

N or — to c om e d own to ch anges fro m I n flected

E ngli s h to the mod e r n s p eech — h as E ngli s h in
accepti ng rhyme thrown away the gr ace o f allite r

a tion alto gethe r It pl ay s a gre at p art in E n gli s h

.

pro s e as well as in E n gli s h p oetry .

It i s b arely p os s ible th at all these v ar ietie s o f

l angu age form ati o n
-
the m ono syll abic the agglu ,

tinat iv e the holop h ra s tic the infl e ctiv e by p r efix

, , ,

the infl e c tiv e by vowel ch an ge the infl e c tiv e by

-

a flix may h ave s p r u n g fro m o ne and the s am e

origi n al to ngu e They seem however to follow
.
, ,

r a ce ch a r acteristics and they may h ave o r i gin ated

,

at di ff erent c entres i n s pite of the fact th at o ne s e t

,

o f i nfl ected to ngu es the A ry an c an b e red uced

to roots o f one s yll abl e O ne thing is c e r tain .

3 36 TH E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

the r e is a co n s t ant tend e n cy towar d v ar i atio n i n

l an g u a ge and the r e h ave alway s bee n di alects
,
.

W hit n ey h as p o inted o ut the fact that e ach h u m an

bei ng h as a l a n g u age to hi ms elf H is p ar t of the .

m othe r to n g u e is n o t p r eci s ely id e ntic al with th at

o f any othe r H o u s ehold di ffe rs fr o m ho u s ehold
.
,

t r ibe fr o m t r ibe p r ovi n ce fr o m p r ovi n ce F r o m

, .

thi s fact with s o meti me s an a dd ed di ffe r e nc e i n

,

o rig in o r s o m e hi s to r ic h appe n i n g co me s the ex ,

is te nce of di alect .

C h ange in l ang u age c o m e s abo u t in no l e s s

th an s ix d iffe r e nt w ay s The r e is ch an ge in th e .

fo r m o f wo r d s ch an ge in thei r m e an i n g the tot al

, ,

di s appe ar an ce of wo r d s the i n t r od u ctio n of new ,

wo r d s the lo s s o f g r am m at ic al fo r m o n ce h ad and
, ,

the int r od u ctio n o f ne w gramm atic al fo r ms .

W h itney ill u s tr ate s the fi rs t two by th e G r eek

wo r d ep z s kop o s ch a nged th u s in fo r m : L ati n
'

e z s eo as ; F r e n ch e v e ue
'
‘ Sp ani s h Obz sp o ; Po r tu
’
'

p p q , ,

bz sp o ; D an i s h Oz sp ; G e r m a n
’

bz s eh of
' '

gue s e
’

, , , ,

I nflected E n gl is h bz s eop E n gl is h Oz s /z op ; Itali an

'

, , ,

v es co v o ; while the p e r s o n m e an t by the o r igi n al

’

G r eek , a m e r e s u pe r i n te n de n t o f t r e m bli n g p r o s

e ly t e s — h as beco m e a n eccl e s i as ti c al p r i n ce o ften ,

h av in g gr e at r even u e s and wieldi n g au g u s t a u

th o r ity .

Th is pho netic d ec ay th at ch an ge s the fo r m o f

wo r d s p rev ail s with r egar d to b oth vowel s and
co ns on ants .

E as e in thi nki n g and e as e i n s pe aki ng h ave

pl ayed the l ar ge s t p ar t in d eter m ini n g ch ange in
 S UM M A R Y .
337

l angu age . U nde r lying all ch ange s a nd eve ry

s t a ge of pro g r e ss in l angu age h ave bee n thes e
two factor s of whi c h the l atte r — gene rally s tyled
,

p ho netic co nve n i ence h as bee n the g r e a ter

fo r ce in its l ater hi s to ry .

Thi s age n cy of eco no my in u tte rance h as bee n

co mp ar ed to a fo r ce like th at of g ravitatio n always ,

lyi n g in w ait to p u ll down wh at tradition o r lite r ary

p r e s tige d o no t av ail to hold u p .

The r e is n eve r p e r h ap s in any h u man being a

, ,

deli be rate i nte ntio n to ch an ge the s p eech of h is

fathe rs and yet he u nco ns ciou sly d oe s v ary i n
,

s m all p ar tic u l ars fr o m the ex act u s age o f the l as t

gene rati o n ; and all the i nfi n ite s i m al v ari atio ns in

e ac h gene ratio n prod u ce a d ecided v ari atio n in th e
s p eech of the next Syll able s ar e s ho r te ned the
.
,

s t r e ss is c h a n ged fr o m one s yll able to anothe r ,

co mpo u n d wo r d s are by fus io n m ad e to app e ar

s imple , the vowel ch ange s c alled i n Ge r m an A b
-

l a a t and U ml a u t ar e d evelop ed wo r d s ar e an ,

ne x e d fr o m othe r l an gu age s the s l ang te r m s

,

prod uced by i gno ranc e o r h u m o r ar e adopted

into the l an gu a ge . The r e ar e v ar i atio ns in i nto
natio n even a m o n g tho s e s pe aki ng the s a m e lan

g uage A Scotchm an s eem s to an E n gli s h m an to

.

be alw ay s as king q u e s tio n s bec au s e he rai s e s the

,

pitc h of h is vo ice tow ard the clo s e of all s e n

te nce s.
I h ave ob s e r ved the s am e p ec u li ar ity i n
the s p eech of th e negr oe s o n the pl ant ation s that
lie alo n g th e r ive r C o mb ah e e i n So u th Car oli na .

I n the Te u toni c l angu age s th e law th at governs

22
338 T HE S TOR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

the s hifting of m u te s di s cove r ed by R as k b u t fi r st

, ,

’
fully s tated by J acob G r imm and Ve r n e r s law , ,

s u pple m e nting G r imm s (r el a ti n g s p eci ally to the

’

s hifti ng o f s p ir a nt s ) a r e go od ill u s t r ati o n s of the

,

r eg u l ar ity with which r ace modifie s s p eech .

G r i m m s law is th at p O f in L ati n Gr eek and

’

, , , , ,

S ans k r it beco me in G othic f p b and i n O ld

, , , , ,

‘
A l s o th at z a if!; in L ati n
’
H igh G e r m a n O f p , , , .
, , ,

G r eek and S ans k r it beco me in G othic Z/z t a nd a

’
, , , ,

and in O ld H igh G e r m an
,
a z an d Z A l s o th at ,
’
, , .

R g
, ,
in L ati n G reek a nd S a ns k r it b eco m e in
, , ,

G oth ic k 16 g a nd in O ld H igh G e r m an g
, , , , E , , .

A s to the a cce ntu atio n o f s e nte n ce s to which ,

r efe r e nce w as m ade a while ago it m u s t be r e ,

me mbe r ed th at we s p e ak n atur ally in b r e ath

g ro u p s ; and it is c u r io u s to note how greatly
race s di ffe r as to the pl a ce whe r e s t r e s s fa ll s In .

E ngli s h and G e r m an the s t r e s s fall s u p o n the ini

ti al s o u nd s o f a b r e ath g r o u p F r e nch s tr e s s on .
,

the othe r h and is ve ry u n ifo r m and the F r e n ch

, ,

gr o u p s are ve ry lo n g H e nc e F r e n ch i nton atio n .

is s o mewh a t m o n oto no u s the d r am a ti c ve r s e in ,

p ar tic u l ar bei n g a r egul ar s i n g s o n g -

The di s app e aran ce of word s a nd of gram mati

c al fo r ms we h ave s een amply ill u s t rated i n o u r
s t udy of the s t r u ggle of I n fl ected E n gli s h with

No rm an F r e nch The i nt r od u ctio n of ne w wo r d s

-

is a thi n g of fr e q u e nt expe r i e nce The E ngli s h .

h ave alway s bee n re ady to t ake word s with b u t ,

s light ch an ge in their form fro m every l and and ,

r ace u nder the s un .

 S UM M AR Y.
3 39

As to tructu re all s tr u ctu r e is the re s ult o f

s ,

growth and growth nec e s s it ate s ch ange in s t ru e

,

tu r e .

The c h ange fr o m s ynthetic to an alytic str u ctu r e

involve s the int r od u cti on o f new gr am m atic al
fo r m s i n the l ar ge r s e n s e o f the te r m g r a mma l i
,

ea !. The very c ap acity s o m ar ked in E ngli s h for

, ,

ch an gi n g o n e p ar t o f s p eech i nto an other mak

ing fo r i ns ta nce a no u n do d uty as a ve r b [ “ h e
, ,

e yed the m a n
”
—
! is a powe r th at may well be
d e s cribed as a new g ramm atic al fo rm fo r a to ngu e
o nce i n flected o ld as the li n gui s tic tr ick is i n
,

itself .

Tho s e c au s e s th at prod u ce d i alects i n any given

l angu age are in the m ai n the same th at d ivid ed
l an gu a ge s o rigi nally fr o m o ne an othe r The .

c au s e s of all v ar i atio n are : th e s ep aratio n of r ace s ,

prod ucing d ive rs ity of envir on m ent ; l ack of fi x ity

i n l an gu age owi ng to the r ace n o t h avi n g r e ached
,

c iviliz atio n ; the i n fl uence of n eighbo r i n g tong u e s ,

e s peci ally in c o ns equ enc e of the law of exog amy ;

and the d elight o f child r ace s i n pl ayi n g with l an

g u age W h at we c all d i al ect m ay be t raced to

.

si m il ar age nci e s : th e provi nci al life with its own ,

pec u li ar envi r on m ent ; th e l ap s e s fro m fo r m s fo r m

erly p r ev aili n g b u t n ot fixed by lite rary u s e ; the
,

i nfl u e n ce o f c o mm u niti e s into whi ch p r ovi n ci al s

m ar ry ; and the m an u factu r e o f s l ang in th e s hee r
ple as u r e of w ord m aki ng It is tr u e th at di alect
-

often s imply retai n s wh at w as o nce u n ive rs al b ut

h as c e as ed to b e u s ed i n the centre s o f c u ltu re .
3 40 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

M any exp r e ss i o ns and p r onu nci atio ns fo r in s tanc e , ,

o nce co mm o n in E ngli s h are fo u nd now in I r el and

,

and in the s e abo ar d p ar ts of Vi r gini a and the Ca r o

li nas They we r e E liz abeth an E n gli s h ; b u t they

.

di ed o u t in the E ngl and o f the H anove r i an ki ngs .

W he n di alects d r ift ap ar t and b eco m e s ep ar ate

l an gua ge s the p ar ts of the voc ab u l ary th at r e m ain
,

m o s t alike are the n u m e r al s the pr o n o u ns the , ,

wo r d s fo r fam ily rel atio ns and the do m e s ticity i n

,

ge n e r al and i n additio n to the s e the fo r m s o f the

, ,

ve r b to be .

It is wo nd e r fu l th at like n e ss e s of thi s ki nd s ho uld

l as t th r o u gh tho u s and s o f ye a r s and ac r o s s wid e
co nti ne nts . B ut the like n e s s in g r amm atic al
s t r u ct u r e r e m ai ns lo n g afte r all t rac e s o f r e s em

bl ance in voc ab u l ary h ave p ass ed aw ay as thi s ,

ve r b to be al s o witn e ss e s .

I h ave l aid s o m e s tr e s s o n the e ffect of pho n etic

v ar i atio n in ch an ging l ang u age ; b u t it m u s t no t
be fo r gotten th at analogy is al s o a fo r c e th at pro
d u ce s sweepi ng r e s u lts o f thi s ki nd Fo r i ns tan c e .
,

in Mode r n E n gl is h the i nflected [J o e o u ght to h ave

’

fo r m ed its pl ur al in the s a m e m an n e r as the in

’

fl e c t e d f o z by ch a nge o f vowel O ld E n gli s h f o t

’

, .

bec am e in the pl u ral fet M od e r n E ngli s h m ad e

’

the s i n gu l ar f oot and the pl u ral f eet B o c which .

’

o nce m ade its pl u ral bee o ught to h ave b ee n in

’

mode r n E ngli s h boo k — beech B ut i ns te ad o f .

,

m aki ng its pl u ral by vowel ch ange it followed the -

a nalogy of the g r e at m aj o r ity of n o u n s a nd s imply

added an S to fo r m the plu r al .

 S UM M AR Y .
341

B ut let u s now reve r t to the gener al scope of my

n arr ative of the evol uti on of l angu age s .

I n s o m e p arts o f the wo r ld the yellow r ace

,

the e ar lie s t civil iz e r s — ce as ed to develop thei r

l angu age at the m o no syll abic s tage B ut it m us t
.

be r e m e m be r ed th at the m o n o s yll abic di alect s ,

eve n i n C hi n a d i ffe r widely fr o m o ne a n other ;

,

and were it not fo r the ge ner al di ffu s io n o f the

,

liter ary d i alect it wo u ld be s tr aini n g a poi nt to

,

s ay th at the r e is s u c h a thi ng as a C hine s e

l ang u a ge
.

A ggl u ti n ati o n v arie s fr o m a s c antine ss h ar dly

a bove th at of the i s ol ati ng l angu age s — to n gue s
th at h ave no form al s tr u cture — to a n i ntr ic acy
app r o a chi n g i nfl ectio n It m ay be cl as s ed in
.

three o rd e r s : a ggl u ti n ation by s imple attac hme n t ,

as p r acti s ed by the Fi nn s ; aggl u ti nation o f the

holop h ras ti c typ e as s een in the A m e r ic a n

,

to n gue s ; and a ggl u ti nation with s ome vowel in

fl e c tio n and con s o nant al ch ange by ass i m il atio n as ,

in the B antu to n gu e s .

There is a p r inciple of s ym m etry p ec u li ar to

e ach typ e o f l an gu age T ha t of the mono s yll abic
is i nto na ti on tho u gh a ll d o not h ave it
,
Th at of .

the a ggl u tin ative is the eup honic interch an ge of

con s o na nts Th at o f the Se m itic is a wo n de r fu l
.

eu pho nic law o f vowel ch a nge Th at of the Ary an

-
.

is the l aw of s y m boliz ation .

The a gglu ti native to n gue s o f A kk ad of S u mi r , ,

and of the H ittite confed er a cy were o f u n do u bted

a ntiqu ity. The r ace s u s i n g thi s type o f l angu age

3 42 T HE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

th at were no t s u bj ected to the i nfl u e nce o f civiliz a

tio n imp r oved thei r s p eech by natu r al p r oce ss es
of evolution i nto ap p r oxim atio n eithe r to the holo
p h ras t ic o r to the infl e c t ive typ e The I n n u it
.
- -

are a n i ns tan c e of the on e te n d e n cy ; the A u s tr a

l ian tr ib e s of the othe r The s y s tem of aggluti
, .

n ative a ffixe s p r ev a iling in B as q u e and th at of

aggl u ti native p r efixe s p r ev aili n g in th e M p o n gwe

p r e s ent a ve ry n e ar appro a ch to tr u e infl ection .

N o r will it do to s ay as w as o n ce ass e r ted by p hil

,

o lo gi s ts th at g ramm atic al gend e r is fo u n d o nly i n

,

the A ryan Se m itic and H am iti c to n g u e s W e

, , .

h ave s een th at the r e w as s o m ethi n g of the s ort in

s eve ral o f the aggl u ti n ative l an g u age s .

Sh am an i s tic wo r s hip and tote m i s tic s oci al organ

iz a tio n s ee m to belong na tu r ally to the a ggl u ti na
tive s tage of d evelop m e nt in l an g u age tho u gh ,

the r e are tra ce s of both in tho s e r a ce s th at attai n ed

the h ighe r development fro m which we h ave s ome
,

r ight to i n fe r th at the s e ra ce s p as s ed th r o u gh the

lowe r s tage of develop m e nt It is at the ag

.

gl u ti native s ta ge th at hi eroglyp h s s ee m to h ave

been i nve nted The yellow r ac e r ep r e s ents the s e
.

to n gu e s as w ell as the mono syll abic .

The holoph r as tic s tage which app e ar s to b e a

,

develop m e nt of a ggl u tin atio n i n to which o nly cer

tai n r ace s h ave e nte r ed h as co njo i n ed with its
, ,

exce ss ively co mpou ndi n g p r i nci ple a fancy fo r ,

the u se of r ed uplic ation of m any fr eq u entatives

,

and du al s of gender i n the ve r b and o f the s u b

, ,

s tant ive as a verb .

 S UM M A R Y 3 43

T he B an tu l angu age s would s eem to be a r e

m ar k able ble n di n g of holop hr as tic powe rs with
the o r di nar y aggluti native fu nctio n s and an ad
v anc e in a p ec u li ar di r ection tow ard genuine
i nfl ection .

I n the H am itic l ang u a ge s we se e pe r h ap s the

e mb ryo n ic cond iti o n of the Se m itic as the r e is ,

evide nt in the m a li n e o f d evelop m ent fr o m m o n o

s yll able s u p i nto biliter al and t r ilite r al r oots In .

o n e of the lowe s t typ e s the an ci e n t E gypti an the

, ,

r oo t
, as i n th e to n g u e s of the yellow r ace s ,

r em ain s u n ch an ged and the nu mbe r— fo r matio ns

ar e by affixe s .

I n the Semiti c l a ngu a ge s we find the hi ghe s t

exp an s io n o f the trilite ra l r oot s y s tem and along
-

with it a r e m ar k ably eup ho n io u s s ys tem of vowel

,

i nte r ch an ge W e al s o find th at note mar k o f gen

.
-

d e r in the ve r b ch a r acteri s tic o f holop h r as ti c

to n g u e s and th at i niti al infl ectio n whic h p r ev ail s
,

in the B an t u to n g u e s A s s yr i an h ad te r m i nal
.

i nflectio n fo r c as e s ; H eb r ew h as it fo r gender
a nd nu m be r .

I n A ra bic we fi nd p o s itio nal g ra m m a r — the

ch ar acteri s tic o f Chine s e — pl ayi n g a l ar ge p ar t
in the s tr u cture of s e nte n c e s .

E nte r in g upo n their c ar eer as civilized r a ce s

l ater th an A kk ad E gypti an and H ittite the Sem
, , ,

itic r ac e s beg an with l an g u age s at a higher s tage

of evolu tio n ; b ut i t is evide nt th at their to n g u e s
h ad once p as s ed thro u gh s ta ge s id entic al with
those o f B as q u e and B antu .
3 44 T H E S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

The A ryan ra ce s were s till mo r e fortun ate They .

did no t re ach fu ll civil o r g an iz atio n and lite rar y

exp r e ss io n u ntil thei r l ang ua ge s h ad p ass ed th r o u gh
a ll the lowe r s t age s fr o m the mo n o s yll abic to th a t

co m plex sy s te m o f i nflection p ec u l iar to the m .

A fte r p ass i n g th r o u gh a g r e at hi s to r y a nd fi nd
ing exp r e ss io n i n m o n um e n tal lite ra t u r e s the s e ,

inflected to ng u e s h ave ge n e rally give n bi r th to

a nalyt ic l an g u age s n o w di s trib u ted by th e ge n i u s
,

and e n te r p r is e o f the le adi n g A r y a n n atio n s ove r

the whole wo r ld so th at no p ar t o f it is wholly fr ee

,

fr o m the i nfl u e n ce of A r y an s peech .

By far the r iche s t o f the s e A ry an i nfl ected

tong u e s is G r eek . B ut a s the o r g anize r a nd the
l awgive r o f mode r n E u rope and as the ance s to r
of m any E u r ope an tong u e s L ati n h as gr e ate r
,

i mpo r tance in o ur pl an of s u r vey Its v al u e in .

r e s pect to it s c ap acity fo r r heto r ic al fini s h is a l s o

to be take n into acco u nt .

A ki n to the D o r ic di alect of t h e H elle ni c s tock a nd

prob ably to the Illy r i an the Italic g ro u p of di alects
,

to which it belo n ged in the I tal ian pe ni ns u l a c am e

i n co n tact with E tr u s c an the to ng u e o f a r ace
,

the n fa r s u pe r io r to the It ali ans in civiliz atio n .

N o d o u bt L ati n d r ew m o r e l ar gely fr o m thi s

s o u r ce th an w e c a n n o w at all e s ti mate C e r t a inly
.
'

m u ch th at belo n ged to R o m e s l ang u a ge of ce r e

’

mo ny and o f law w as of E tr u s c an o r igin .

M a ny c i rc u ms t ance s co nc u rr ed to m ake the

L atin of lite r at u r e in its p almy d ay s a highly ar ti
fi c ial and hide bo u nd l angu age
-
Thi s p u rely co n
.
 S UMM AR Y .
3 45
ve ntio nal purity co u ld not however be long , ,

m ai ntai ned In p ro ce ss of ti m e G reek words and

.

idioms and p rovi nci al exp re s s i on s —t h eextremes

,

of over c ultiv atio n and r u dene s s

-

appe ared in
gre at n u mbers eve n in litera tu r e ; and the lan
gu age w as al r e ady on the p oint of lo s ing i ts rigid
syntheti c fo rm thro ugh n a tu r al c au se s when the ,

i nflux o f the G e r m an ic ra ce s a cceler ated the p ro

c ess i mm ensely I t b r oke u p i n to as m any di alects
.

o f R o m ance as the r e we r e i n depen d ent n ation alitie s

in the old R o m a n do mai n s t r iving to eme r ge from
th e ch ao s of i mp e r i al r u in I ts hi gh qu alities of .

dignity preci s io n and force we r e i n gr e at me asure

, ,

i nherited by its d a u ghte r s while their sh are of ,

an alyti c s tructure e n abled them to exc el it i n e ase

and fl exibility .

Infl ected E ngli s h nec e ssari ly is o f importance

, ,

to u s w h o u se the r ip e r to n gu e i nto whic h it de

v e lo e d Bu t never did wilde r s tock b e ar throu gh
p .
,

gr afting n oble fru it and foli age

, Tou ghness o f .

fibre and s tron g vitality ar e its o n ly virtues .

The enemies o f th e r a ce were i n the end its

benefactors Kelt D ane N o r m an and A qui tani an
.
, , ,

bestowed ric h gifts u pon the blood of the r ace and

u po n the textu re of the l an gu age The i nfl ection s .

were ne arly all elimin ated the g u ttu r al s s o ftened , ,

the acce nt v aried the s tr u ct u re o f the sentence

,

lightened and the voc abul ary e nr iched Poetry

, .
,

without alto gether lo s i ng the o r nament of allite ra

tion received the fai ry gift o f r hy m e Above all
, .
,

thro u gh French both l angu age and liter ature

,
3 46 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

e n te r ed u po n the gr an d i nhe r itance of the conti

n e nt and La ti n l ike a feud al s u z e r a i n took s ei s in
, , ,

o f E n gl is h .

F r e nch w as an an alytic d evelop m e n t o f Latin ,

wh ile E ngl is h w as s till in its i nflected s tage .

H e nce in l a r ge me as u r e the r e a dy t r i u m p h of
, ,

No rman F r e nch when b r o u ght i nto co mp etitio n

-

with the othe r to n g u e tho u gh th a t w as o n its ,

own s oil and w as s poke n by m u ltit u d e s It m ad e .

E n gli s h eve n m o r e analyti c th an it s el f and the n it ,

s u cc u m bed to E n gli s h Still its lite r atu r e and its

.
,

s oc ial p r e s ti ge h ave alw ays l a r gely affected b oth

E ngli s h lite r at u r e a nd E n gli s h u s a ge s .

E ngli s h the hei r of all the s e to n gue s

,
Lati n , ,

F r e n ch Lo w G e r m an Sc and in avi an Keltic

, , h as , ,

n o t been co nte nt with the i mm e n s e g a i ns of s u ch

he r itage b u t h as take n fr o m all l an d s and all

,

to ng u e s wh at wo r d s we r e need ed to n am e ne w
thi n gs It s till goe s o n th u s fr o m d ay to d ay
.
,

t aki n g s po il fr o m all fo r m s o f s peech an d r e p re

s e nti n g all in it s o w n hete r o ge n eo u s m ake — up It .

is as r ich in di alect s as in idi o m s a nd sy n o ny ms .

Its o nly s e r io us l a ck is th a t the w r itte n l a n g u a ge

h as no r atio n al alp h abet a nd th at hence E n gli s h ,

s pelling is ve r y ve ry far fr o m bei n g co ns i s te nt

,

with the s o u nd of s p oke n E n gli s h .

 APPE N D IX .

B I BLI O GRAP H Y O F AU TH O R ITI ES .

A n d e rs o n : T h e Younger Ed da ; No rse M yth ology .

B ak er T h e N ile T r ibutaries o f Abyssinia .

B an c r o ft : H istory o f M ex ico ; H istory o f T exas ;

N ative Race s .

B r int o n : R ace s and Peo ple s The American Race .

B ruce T rave l s in Abyssinia .

B ut l e r : T h e Land o f th e Ved a .

C een o l a : Cyprus .

Ch ar n a y : T h e R uins of Ce ntral Americ a .

Ch ae l e e Litté ratur e Francais e .

C o nd é H istory the Arabs in Spain

of .

Cr aw f o r d T h e Kalevala .

Gr e as y H isto ry o f t h e O ttoman Turks .

C u r ti u s H is to ry o f Gr eece .

D arw in Naturalist s Vo yage round the World

’
.

D av ie : Car thage and h e r R e main s .

D a w k in e : Cave H unting .

D aw s o n Sto ry o f th e Ear th and M an .

D o n al d s o n : N e w Cratylus Varro nianus .

D r u mmo n d : T h e Ascen t of M an .

Eb er e : H i sto ry of E gypt ; U arda .

Edw ar d s : A T housand M ile s

the Nile up .

P e l t o n : G reece Anc ie nt and Mode r n

,
.

P is k e ; Myths and Myth make rs -

.
 Y OF L AN G UA GE
3 48 T H E S T OR .

P o r e e t ie r : Echo es fro m Mist Land .

F r e e m an : H isto ry an d Co nque sts o f the Saracen s H is

torical Essays .

G r ay China .

Green : H isto ry of th e Engl ish People ; The Making of

E ngland .

Gri me : Mikado s E mpire

T he
’
.

G r o t e : H istory o f Gr eece .

H ae c k e l A T rip to I nd ia and C eylon .

H ar p e r : T h e Stud y o f H ebre w by th e I nductive

Method .

H o l c o mb e Frid th io f s Saga
’
.

K e nn a n : T ent Life in Sib eria .

K ings l e y : At Last ; T o wn G eology ; M adam H o w and

Lad y Wh y .

K unz Kunst sc h ne ll Bo h misc h z u le rnen

D ie .

L ane Arab ian N igh ts .

L an g : Custo m an d Myth .

L e gar é : Wr itings .

L e n o r m an t : I ntrod uctio n to O riental H isto ry .

L itt r é H isto ire d e la Langu e Francaise .

L ub b o c k Prehistoric T ime s .

M ain e Anc ient Law .

M ane t No rthern Antiquitie s .

M ar c h Engl ish Lan guage

: .

M e ik l e jo h n E nglis h Language and Literature .

M o mms e n H isto ry o f R o me .

M o r ga n Anc ie nt So c iety .

M o r ris Ch auce r P rologue Knigh t es T ale , .

M fi ll e r : Chip s fro m a G erm an W orkshop .

M u r r ay : O rigin and G r ow th o f the Psal ms .

N e v in s Ch ina and th e C h in e se .

N o t t an d G l id d o n : T yp es o f M ank ind I nd igenous

R aces o f th e Earth .

O t t e Sc and inavian H isto ry .

O rt o n T h e Ande s and th e Amazo ns .

R aw lin s o n : Seve n G re at
Monar c h ie s H e rodotus .

R e cl u s T h e E arth and its I nh ab itants .

S ay c e Principle s o f Co mparative Ph il o logy ; Mo nu

me nts o f th e H ittite s .

S c h lie m a n n Ilio s ; T roj a

: .

S c h u y l e r : T u rk istan .

S p e nc er : D esc rip tive Soc iology .

S q u ie r : Pe r u ; N ic aragua .

S t a n l e y : T h ro ugh th e D ark Co ntinent T h e Co ngo .

S t ep h en s C e ntral Ame rica an d Yuc atan .

T r e n c h : O n th e Stud y o f Wo rd s .

T y l o r : An th ro p ology .

V am b é ry T ravel s in C entral Asia .

V in c e n t : T h e Land o f th e Wh ite E le phan t ; T h rough

an d T h ro ugh t h e T ro p ic s .

W al l ac e T h e M al ay Arc h ip e l ago .

W h it e : Ph ilo sop hy o f English Lite ratur e .

W h it n e y : Language and t h e Stud y o f Language ; Life

and G r o w th o f Language O r ie ntal an d Linguistic
Stud ie s .

W h y m p e r : T ravel s in Al ask a and o n t h e Yuko n .

W il k in s o n : T h e An cient E gyp tian s .

W il s o n : T h e Ab ode o f Snow .

W in c h e ll : Pre Ad amite s -
.

W in s o r : N arrative and C r itic al H isto ry o f Ame ric a .

W r igh t T h e H ittite E mp ire .

T H E LAN GU AG ES O F T H E AM ER I CAN S .

As I r egar d the Q uiche Maya c ivil iz atio n as olde r and

-

highe r than that o f th e Azte c s o r even than that o f th e,

fore runner s o f the Aztec s in Anah uac I s h all invite yOu to ,

begin with the to ngue s o f the se advance d southe rn race s .

3 50 T HE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

Q uich e
ge nde r is ex presse d by pr e fixing zx OR,
'

In ,

“wo man ” if t h e fe minin e is to b e ind ic ated as ce /z

I

, ; ,

lio n ; z x OR ( O R,
“ l io ne ss ; o , m n, s ve ; ix o k
'

r a la
7

ma n, “wo man slave T h e p l ural is for me d vario usly, .

fix e s aO eO z O GO zeé be ing gene rally us ed T h us

'

t h e af , , , , , , .
,
'

z x OR
“ w o man ;
” “ w o men
”
Adj e ctive s ar e
‘
.
,

l l z fi T h u s zzz m gr eat
' ' '

p ura i e d by af x ing a R Za k z e z ze , , ,
.
, ,

“ ood
m w a k Ea “ gre at h o use s ;
' '

zeta g ; a iz l e O a
‘
, , ,

“ ood victuals 77 71 2,
“o l d rz lz z z a k m n a /
e
“o ld ” ' ' '

g ; ,

p e o ple Ab strac t te rms ar e fo r me d by add ing to t h e

.

adj e c tive G ! el 17 O! o r a l T h us m m gre at mma l

' '

, , , ,
.
, , ,

great ne ss w hite w h ite ne ss

'

z aR z a fez l ,
u tz , ,

“ ood ” a tz z l “ o o d ne ss Any no un m ay b e mad e

'

g ; g ,
.

an adj ective b y ad d ing a l a /z O l a /z

'

e l a il zZ a lz o r u lafi , , , , .

T h us a fi a a k ing ; afia aaZ a /r

“ro al ” T h e se ter
, , y ,
.

minat io n s ar e some time s ad d ed to t h e adj ec t ive s o f o ne

s ll able T h us m ma la /z ma k gre at s in ;
' '

y .
,
a tz z l a /i ,

ae/z z
“ o o d man ”
'

T h e n ame s o f col o rs e x p r e ss t h e
, g .

sup e rlativ e b y r e p e titio n T h us r a x r a x v ery gree n .

, ,

z a ie z a é
“ve r wh ite T h e c o mp arative is ex p re sse d
”
y , .

by th e u se o f th e w o r d s fo r sur p as sing
”
or
“ e x cee d

ing th e sup e rl ative by pre fix ing ma il: o r a z m “ gr e at ”

’

, ,
.

D iffere nt p o ss e s siv e fo r ms ar e u se d acco rd ing as the ,

n o un b egins w ith a co nso n ant o r with a vo w el T h us .

me ma n , “m l ’ “ m w r ath
y s av e v oy o na l ,
y
. .

a 7 m m, “th y s l av e . a v o o na l,
y
’ “th
y wr at h .
”

a ma n , “h is s l av e . r o
’

y on a l ,
“h is w rath .
”

lea m u m O, l
'
’
o u r s av es . R oy o n a l . o ur w r at h .

m b “ o ur s l a’

y v oy cma l ,
’

yo ur w r ath
y u n z v es
y
'
.
, .

o u z m u /z z b ,
’

“th eir s l av e s
'

“th e ir w r at h
e oy o mz l ,
’
. .

T heverb h as in Q uiche no inflection T h us the .

,

e t te ve “to be ”
p r e s n nse o f t h e rb which as in ,

Sp anish h as two fo r ms — r u ns
,
:
 AP P E N D I X .

3 51
“I a m, in ax o r in qo lz e
’

th ou ar t, at we o r at gOlze
'

”
h e is, we
'

are o r a re
go lz e .

”
we O i: ax o r 0k
'

are ,
galz e .

”
yo u are , y x w e o r
’

y x go lz e .

“th ey are ire ax o r Iz e go lz e

'

, .

In M aya gender is denote d by pre fix ing in the case

, ,

o f rational be ings G A fo r mas c uline an d in: fo r fe , minine .

T hus a!: ca mbez alz in structo r ; zx ea mOez a k “in ’

, , ,
”
I n t h e c as e o f animals x z Oz Z is prefixed fo r
’ ’

structress .
,

males and ci m p ul fo r f e m ale s T h e w o r d s bo y

”
and .

“ i rl ” follow t h e r ule fo r animals as th e

g y did no t see m ,

to be regarde d as ration al be ings T hus x z bzl p al “the

' '

.
, ,
”
b y;
o e /z a
p pul a l t h e
gir l , .

Nouns fo rm t h e p lural by adding 05 T hus z e/z .

,
'

,
“e e i d : 5 “ e ye s
"
Adj ective s end ing in na e form
y 0 ,
.

th eir pl ural by c h anging t h e las t two syllable s i nto lae .

T hus ka / mmde an id le thing dle ” '

,
RaR/a e
, i th ings , .

When adj ective and noun occ ur togeth e r th e noun alo ne ,

is pl ural ized T hus u tz u l oo d d m m ” ’ ’

.
g ; a n u z e , an , , ,

when u sed sep arately but a zazél az meo b “go od me n

’ ’

, , .

T o fo rm the co mp arative th e p rono un o f the th i rd p er ,

so n u o r y
, is p refixe d an d a l 11 0 1 o r a! aflix ed
, , , , ,

T hus tz Oz l a goo d th ing ; 12 a bette r th in ;

’ ’

3‘
, , g
a lz ood u lz ul bette r Z OO “b ad ulOOOI
, g y ; , , ,

“wo rse R e
“u l uk az a l ugl ie r The super
; a gy; , ,

l ative is expressed by p r efixing Iza elz T h us lo b “bad .

, ,

[tar/1 105 very bad

,
.

Abstracts are fo rme d by affi xing 17 T hus a z me

’ ’

.
, ,

“man uimezl
“ humanity ”’ '

.
,

The forms o f pronouns are very various but the no rm ,

is en eelz ay o n ex 05 T h e ve rb h as l ittle o r no in
, , , , ,
.

flectio n and al ways p r ecede s its p ronoun

,
T h e ve rb .

“to be h as so me irre ularit T h e p re se nt ten se runs

g y .

thu s
3 52 THE S T OR Y O F L AN G UA GE .

ten , I am . Mo n , “ w e ar e .

tee/z , th o u ar t . teex , yo u ar e .

”
l ay , h e is . 1606, th e y ar e .

T h e Aztec language l acks th e s ix co o t f r

’
ns nan s, O, a, , ,

g s
,
I t is c o p io us and p artic u l ar l y r ic h in d iminutive s
.
,

an d augme ntat ive s as w ell as in ve rbal no u ns and ab ,

s t rac t ter ms for med fro m sub s tantive s I n p ro nu n c iation .

it is so ft and mu sic al and fr ee fro m n asal sou nd s ,

.

Agglutinatio n is carr ie d t o a gr e at ex te nt I t p ro .

c e ed s h o w e ve r no t b
, y simp le j ux tap o sit io n b ut b y t h e
, ,

o missio n o f c e r tain lette rs o r even syll able s in co nso ,

nance w ith t h e pr inc i le o f e u h o ny

' '

p p T h u s teop zx ga z is .
,

co mpo se d o f teo tl go d and p ie guard an d m e an s

‘
, , ,

“ r iest e co o “ m ”
h b m
'

p t n y p u d g
n i n , no y tl az o zlz , , ,

lo d “ r e ve r ed
” ”
p riest
' ’

v e , feep zx gaz , , ,

ea a ligat ure c o nn e ctin

, g w o r d s and h e re m e aning so me ,

th ing l ike “w it h “ r e s ec t t h e Az tec built

” "
a n d lz z n
'

p , , ,

up th e w o rd w h ic h me ans my
dee pl y love d and re ve re d p rie st I n animate obj e c ts .

u su al ly t ake no p l ur al An imate obj ec ts fo rm th e p l u ral .

in s eve r al w ays P rimitiv e w o r d s affix me o r gue o r

.
,

c h ange in into tin T h us z eiz ea tl a sh ee p z e/z ea me

' '

.
, , ,

“s h e e l n
“a u il
'

l l n
“ uails top z le
' '

p; z O z q a ; z o z, q , ,

a c on stab le cons table s W or d s e nd ing

’

top z legu e ,
.

in to mlz c h ange th is e nding t o to te n tz n in t h e p l ural

' '

'
.

T h us “ a l amb “ l am b s
;
T h o se e nding in Mz m‘
.
,

lz c h ange t h at e nd ing to
' '

T h u s tla ea z z a flz “ p e r so n ; p erso ns ;

' ’

, ,

T h o s e e nding in {o n c h ange th e te n into to to n T h us .

,
'

elz z elz z to n
“ a little d o
'

“littl e d o s ”
, g; g .

T ho se e nding in c h ange th is te rminatio n into fz z tz z n

’ ’

T h us old man ; old

me n .

Wh e n th e po ssessive p ro no un fo r ms p art of a wo rd ,
 A PP E N D I X .

3 53

l
th e p ura e n s l d in va n o r fi aa n ; as , my
sh e ep ” So me adj ec tive s h ave several diffe rent forms
.

for the p l ural .

G e nder is ex p r e sse d by add ing th e wo rd s meaning

male and “fe male w h en ne ce ssary .

T he re is no d e c le nsion p ro p e r Particles and pre po .

s itio ns o r el s e mer e j ux tap o sition

,
ind ic ate th e re l a ,

tions expre sse d b y c as e s in inflecte d language s .

Co mp arative s ar e e x p r esse d b y p re fix ing th e w or d fo r

mo re ” D iminutives are fo rmed by th e e nd ings fan o r
.

d o g ; eiz z eiz z te n “l ittl e do g ; ea llz

' '

te n/ll ; as
’

, , ,

“house ea ee n flz
“ l ittle house ”
Col lec tive s are
’

; ,
.

fo rme d by th e e nd ings lla o r l a as e /z l ll flow er ; , ,

”
fl o we r bed Abstracts e nd in o tl ; as qua/l l
-

.
, ,

”
g ood gu a l e t g oo d n e ss .

M o st pre po sit io ns are used as affi x es T he re are fe w .

irregul ar ve rbs T h e ve rb alo ne h as inflec tio n

. T h us .
,

”
the pre se nt tense o f te mz e lz a to kill r uns
' '

, ,

I kill .

th ou kille st .

e mz etz a
”
h e kill s
' '

.
,

w e kill .

a n te mz e l z a yo u k ill
' ’

, .

te mz el z a they kill
' '

, .

T his s eems to r e se mble th at le ft hande d inflectio n so -

largely used in th e Bantu l anguage s o f Afr ic a .

T h e re see ms no need fo r s e parate me ntion o f any o f

t h e l anguage s o f the h unt ing tribe s It will be sufficient .

to cl assify th e m in a gene ral way T h o se o f N or th .

Ame ric a co mprise the Athab ask ans o r T inn é h th e , ,

Algonkins th e I ro quois th e D ako tah s t h e Chah ta

, , ,

M usko kis and oth e rs al re ad y e nume rate d

,
T h e ir cl assi .

ficatio n will be unde rstood best by re fere nce to the

23
 3 54 THE S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

l anguage c h art th at accompanie s Ch ap te r X No pl ace .

h as b ee n fo u nd the re however fo r the N atchez , T h is , .

tr ibe stand s apart fro m all th e hunting tribe s as a pec ul iar

p eo p l e p robably an offsh oot fro m s o me c ivil iz ed tr ibe o f

,

t h e M e x ic an are a T h e race too that built the t o wn o f

.
, ,

M avila w h e re Mobile no w stand s and fo ught D e So to

, ,

so s tou tly must h ave made so me p rogre ss in c ivil iz atio n

, .

T h e se tr ib e s may h ave b e e n de scendants o f the mo und

builde rs h aving much mo re th orough social organization
,

an d a h igh e r c ulture t h an t h e me re hunt ing tr ibe s As .

in M ex ico sun worship pr evailed amo ng th e se mor e a d

,
-

vance d tr ibe s The ir l anguages to o see m to h ave dif

.
, ,

fe re d fro m th os e o f the wild no mad s .

As to th e hunting tribes o f South Americ a t h e unifying ,

tende ncy amo ng the m w as s o sligh t t h at we have count

le ss names o f band s rath er than o f nations o r eve n tribes .

Among th e m all o nly the Arawaks and th e Caribs h ad

,

any s o rt o f c ivil o rganiz at ion and th ey it will b e r e me m

, ,

b e r e d w ere settled in t h e h isto ric p e r io d no rth o f th e

,

Amazon .

T h e I roquo is o r Six Nation s o ri inall

g y Senec as , ,

C ayugas O no nd agas O ne id as M ohawk s and Tus c aro ras

, , , , ,

w h o l ive d co mmu n istic all in lon te ne me nt h o u se s de

y g -

s e rve s e c ial co nsid e ration o n accou t

p n o f the ir p ow e r ful

confe de racy T hey w ere th e terro r o f th e oth e r tribe s

.

o f th e Atl antic co ast in th e

n o rth e rn co ntine nt
; fo r ,

t h o ugh st ill k ee in u
p g p t h e p r inc iple o f d e sc e nt in the
fe mal e l ine — the earliest o r anizatio n o f th e e m o r
, g g ,

clam— and there fore at a lo w stage o f soc ial develop

ment th e ir pol itical union as tr ibes ave th e m an im ulse
,
g p
th at migh t have e nd e d in t h e cre ation o f national life ,

h ad no European s eve r co me to this l and .

 AP P E N D I X
3 55

T HE MPO N GWE LAN G U AG E .

T he o have five mo de s o f deriving th e pl ural fro m

n uns

the singular T h e fi rst o f th ese de cl ensio ns if we may

.

ap pl y a te r m d e signat ive o f affix e s t o a s s te m o f

y p re
fi xes incl udes all n o uns th at p refix z o r 3 2 to fo rm th e
' °

p l ural as nago ho use ; z nago o r s z nago h ouse s ;

' ' ’

, , ,

co w co
'

”
'

ny ar e z ny a r e o r sz n a r e ws
, y , .

T h e seco nd inc lud es all nou ns t h at fo r m the pl ural b

y
d ro pp ing initial e as ega r a c h est ; ga r a c h e sts ;
, , ,

o r by al so c h anging z afte r e into

y as ez aw a th in g , ,

d m a
“ t h in s bo o k bo o k s
y , g ; ez a n o
g .

y a ngo , , .

T h e t h ird incl ude s all no uns th at w ith z fo r initial

'

lette r c h ange it into a to fo rm th e plural as {Randi ,

plantain ; a /eafz aa plantains t admbe sh e e p ;

’ ’
'

, ,

a dambe sh ee p
, o r h av ing 7) after i al so c h ange th is
, ,

conso nant into mp as z zf a nga law a mp a nga

'
”
,
law s , , .

T h e four th in cl ud e s all no uns th at h aving 0 fo r init ial ,

l etter change it into i to fo r m th e plural as o la mba

, , ,

cloth z l a mba cloth s o ma mba s nak e

'

, ,

z ma mba
'
“ s nak e s
”
.
,

T h e fi fth incl ud es all no uns w ith a fo r initial l e tter .

T h e s e r e main th e same in the p l ural T h us a m ago

’

,
.
,

”
water rum h ave no d istinctive p l ural
”
and a l aga
, , ,
.

I t w ill h e re mark e d that as co mpare d w ith th e u sual ,

fo r ms o f Aryan infl e ctio n th e Mpongwe l anguage h as ,

w hat may b e de s c r ib e d as le ft h and ed inflec tio n

-
.

T h e adj ective s and th e p ro nouns foll o w th e same law

o f inflection and h ave nu mbe r ,
but are w ith o ut c ase s ,
.

Adj ective s h ave r egul ar degree s o f co mpar is o n b ut in ,

this inflectio n th e affi x is u sed and no t th e prefix T h e ,

.

”
and th e sup erlative by d ding me T hus
a .
,
ml a , “long ;
“l o n e r ”fl a me
“lo n e st
ml akw e,
I v I V

g ; g ,
.
 3 56 T E F S T OR Y OF L AN G UA GE .

d iffe rent cl asses o f nouns

Adj e c tives h ave fo rms fo r th e
w ith w h ic h t h e y are u se d T h is c an b e st be ill ustrate d
.

b y using th e prono min al adj ective my w ith so me o f the

no uns al re ad y give n T hus .

d o

my co w
ny a r e y a m, m, my co w s
'

z ny a r e 3 a .

“m ch e s t
e ar a z am ,
g y ; ga r a y a m , my c h e s ts .

z a dmOe ”
'
'
y am my s h e ep ; ,
a drim O e ma m , my s h ee p .

m “my s nak e s
m a mOa w a m , my s nak e z m a ma
'

o a ,
.

m ng o ma m , my w ate r a nz fzg o m a m , my water s

’ '

a ; .

As toverb its infl e ctio ns are al mo st in te r minable

th e ,
.

M o r e th an fo ur h und red d istinct fo r ms c an be evol ved

fro m o ne ro o t eve ry o ne o f w h ic h s h all be c h aracte r ize d
,

by a w ell d e fine d meaning o f its o wn

-
.

All th e verbs ex cep t th e ve rb “ to be

,
ar e r egul ar , ,

t h e initial co nso nants h av ing e ac h its r ec ip roc al le tte r

into w h ic h it is c h ange d in t h e co urs e o f inflec tio n .

T h us O always c h ange s into w a into l f into 2) o r m

’
, , , ,

j into y it in to g 72 in to 721 p into

, ,
s int o 2 t into r
, , ,

3 12 into zy .

T h e imperative is al ways de r ived fro m th e p r es en t

ind ic at iv e by th is s imple c h ange o f co ns o n ants
,
T h us .
,

mz {Zen /l a I d o it ; do it ! and again mz

' ’

,
l e nd a , , ,

Ra mOa I sp eak
, ga mOa sp e ak ,

T h e ve rb in all its p ar ts h as a negative fo rm to co rr e

sp o nd w ith t h e affi r mative T h e active voice in e ith er
.

o f t h es e fo r ms c an be made p assive in a ny mood o r te ns e

s imp ly b y c h anging fi nal a into O T h e n e gative fo rm is .

d istinguish ed fro m th e affir mative by a pro lo nged intona

t io n o n th e fi rst syll abl e T h is in th e p ub l ic atio ns b y
.
,

th e missionar ie s is indic ated to th e e ye by t h e u s e o f an

,

Ital ic vowel wh e n the oth e r l e tte rs are R o man o r by a ,

R o man vow el wh e n t h e oth e r lette rs ar e Ital ic T h us .

 A P PE TVD I X .
3 57

mz I lo ve
’

act. l o nda, .

ma to na’o , I m
loved
'

pass . a .

ac t . mi to na’a , I d o no t love .

mz ma de “I am no t loved
'

p ass . , .

T he re are six s imp e l

twelve compo und conj uga and

tions T h e simple are : i st th e radical as mz Ra mOa

'

.
, , ,

I sp eak ; 2 d th e c au sative derived fr om th e rad ic al

, ,

by changing a final into z ea as mz Ra mOz z a I c ause to

' ’ ’

, ,

sp eak ; 3 d t h e frequentative o r ha b itual d e rive d fro m

, ,

t h e rad ical b y adding ga as mz Ra mOaga I speak fre

’

, ,

quentl y ; 4 th th e r el ative derived fro m th e rad ic al by

, ,

c h anging a final into z na as mz ka mOz na “ I s peak to

' ’ ’

, ,

o ne h ighe r t h an mysel f ; st h th e rec ip roc al de r ive d , ,

fro m th e r ad ic al by add ing a m as ml ka mOa a a I sp eak , ,

with oth e rs ; 6 th th e indefinite, derive d fro m th e rad i

,

cal b y its r e dup l ic atio n as mz Ra mOaga mOa I sp eak at

’

, ,

"
rando m .

T h e co mpo un d co nj ugations are formed by co mb ining

two o r mo re o f t h e simpl e conj ugatio ns T h us th e c o m .

bination o f th e fre quentative and th e ind efinite give s

ka mOaga mOaga “ I spe ak habituall y at rand o m ; th at
,

o f the fr equ e ntative an d t h e c ausative give s ka mOzz aga

’

I cause o ne to sp e ak habitually ; that o f th e rel ative

and the c ausative give s ka mOz naz a
“ I c aus e o n e to ’

sp eak to G o d th at o f th e indefinite and th e c aus ative

gives ka mOaga mOz z a I caus e o ne to sp eak at rando m
'

that o f th e rec iproc al and t h e c ausative give s ka mOa naz a ,

I l ead in co nve rsatio n that o f the freque ntative and

the rel ative gives Oa mOz naga I sp eak to Go d o fte n
’

that o f the freque ntative and t h e rec iproc al give s Iz a m

Oanaga ,
I talk muc h in society ; th at o f th e indefinite
and t h e rec ip roc al give s Ra mOaga mOa na I gabble ,

gre atl y in soc ie ty ; th at o f th e indefinite and th e rel a

tive give s Ra mOaga mOz na I talk rambl ingl y in p raye r
'

,
3 58 T H E S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

t
th a o f the relative the c ausative and t h e fre quentative , ,

ve m m c ause o n e to s pe ak at rando m
’

g i s Ra Oag a O z z aga I ,

freque ntly ; that o f th e indefi nite th e r elative and the , ,

causative gives ka mOaga mOz naz a I c ause o ne to add re ss

’

Go d in rando m l anguage
”
.

Dr Wil so n illustrat es th e con cis ene ss w hich thi s fl ex i

.

bility o f the verb impar ts to th e M po ngwe l anguage by

,

stating that th e phrase U se n o t vain r epetitio ns in ,

prayer is fully ex pr ess e d by the single w ord aga mOa m

”
,

Oz na the phras e they held an interlocutory meeting ”

'

, ,
”
by ka mOa fl a and to le ad an ass embly in p rayer by ,

ka mOz naz a
’

language being s o symmetrical in structur e and

T he
so rich in expansive n e ss th e missionarie s fo und no diffi ,

culty in forming wo rd s pe rfe ctl y intelligible to th e native s ,

to express ideas neve r b efo re conce ived by th e m T hus .

,

fro m su nga to save a th ing o n th e point o f b ei ng lo st

,

o r d estro yed
”
they forme d es a nge “ th e Savio ur
”
and
, , ,

z m un r rz la Fro m da nduna
”
alvation to pay a
' ’

g s ,
.
,

ranso m
"
they fo r med Ola m mz z e
“ the R edeeme r
”
and
’
, , ,

zl a nazma
”
r ede mp tion
'
’
, .

It will be seen th at th is e lastic syst em o f ve rb ex pan -

sion is r e ally a fi ne examp le o f th e aggl ut inat ive syste m

and inasmuch as in many in stance s a w hole se ntence

,

can be thrown in to o ne w o rd it bel o ngs to that cl ass o f ,

aggl utinatio n w hic h H umboldt pro po s ed to c all holo

”
ph rastic O n this side o f its s tr ucture then the
.
, ,

Mpongwe resembles T urkish in so me par ticulars and ,

th e Ame rican l anguage s in othe r s .

But it al so h as th at pow e r o f inflec tio n by both vo wel

and conson an tal ch ange al r eady noticed O n this s ide .
,

th en it presents p o ints o f re se mblance to both the

,

Se mitic and t h e Aryan sys te ms o f inflectio n In its .

seque nce o f con so nantal int e r c h an e s th ere is al so a

g
resemblance to many o f th e aggl utinative tongues .
 AP P E N D I X .

3 59

T HE O AT H S O F ST R ASBU RG .

The Oaths of Strasburg eco rde d by N ith ard the

are r ,

so n o f Charle s the G r eat s d aughte r Be rtha b An ilbe rt

’

y g ,

one o f his gre at c aptains Nith ard wh o d ied figh ting

.
,

agai nst the No r man invas io n w rote th e H isto ry o f the

,

Di ssen sio ns o f the Sons o f Lo uis th e Easy N atured " In .

this work we have t h e first no t e o f the birth o f the

French to ngue T h e oath s wer e sworn on th e 1 sth o f
.

February 8 4 2 Lo uis using the R o mance (lingaa r e ma nd )

, ,

and Charle s th e G erman

(lz ngu a tlz eo tz sea ) T h e oath
' '

swo rn by Lo u is in t h e R o mance d ialect r an t h us

“Pr o D eo amur e t ro chr istian
p p o blo e t no stro
co mmun salvame nt d ist di in avant in quant Deus savir
, ,

e t po dir me d une t si salvarai e o c is t meo n fradre Karlo

,

et in adjudh a e t in c ad h un a co sa si c um o m p e rdreit so n
,

fraclra salvar d ist in o q uid il mi altr e si faz e t

, E t ab .

Ludh er nul plaid nu mq uam pre ndrai qui meon vol ci st ,

meon fre dra Karle in d amno sit ” .

The o ath sworn by t h e two p eo ples re presented by th e ,

armie s the n in the field ran th us in the R o mance d ialect

,

Si Lo dh uvigs sagrament q ue so n fradre Karlo jurat

co nse rvat e t Karl us meo s s end ra de suo p art no n lo s

tanit si io returnar int po is me io ne nuels cui eo returner

, ,

"
int poi s in null a adjudh a co ntra Ludh u wig nun lin iver .

It will easil y be seen that a large trace o f Latin still

re mained in the to ngue o f Western Frankland .

T H E ENG LI SH O F CH AU CER .

Be si de s a certain naive and chil dl ik e grac e that is

p eculi ar to the man and no t to t h e age there is obse rvable ,

in Chauce r s Engl ish no small d iff e re nce o f form from

’

that o f o ur mode rn w orld .

3 60 THE S T OR Y OF L A N G UA GE .

T h e following marks of d istinction fro m modern Eng

li sh may ote d :be n

T h e pl ural o f no un s ge n e rally h as th e end ing Er as a

sep arat e syll ab le t h ough s o me nouns e nd in S and a fe w
,

in en wh ile th o se th at still h ave t h e singul ar unalter e d in

,

the pl ural and t h ose th at form t h e pl ural by vo wel

,

change follow th e like laws in C h aucer

,
.

T h e ge nitive c ase also end s in Es as a separate syll able .

T h e dative cas e s o metime s occ urs and it e nd s in l ight ,

2 as a se parate syll ab le .

T h e d efinite fo rm o f the adj ective end s in th e same

light 2 .

T h ere are a fe w wo rd s th at fo rm the co mparative in r e ,

inste ad o f er T h e p l ural o f a dj ective s is marke d by a

.

final 2 sounded separately As in th e received ve rsio n

, .

o f the Bibl e y e is th e p l ural no minative and y o u the

, ,

obj ective o f th e seco nd p erso nal pronoun and his is used

, ,

wh ere we no w use its in t h e th ird I n the p lural o f the .

third p e rson [zer is use d inste ad o f th e mode rn tkez r and

'

, ,

Oem fo r ilz em .

I n th e p re se nt ten se o f the verb, fi nal 2 is sounded as

a se parate syll ab le , o il: is t h e t er minatio n o f th e th ird

p erson singul ar, and en is s o m etimes th e e nding o f the

pl ural throughout .

T h e pr efix y o r i (a r e mnant o f the old ge) is o ften

given to th e past p ar tic ip le .

T h e negative o ften blend s with the verb as na m am , ,

”
no t .

Adverbs arege nerally fo r m ed fro m adj ective s b y the

ad d itio n o f z, se par atel y sou nded So me few e nd in ly ,
.

so me in e n and so m e in es
, .

T h e double negative a s a stro ng n e gatio n , , is co mmon ,

as it was l ate r with the E l izab e t h ans .

 AP P E N D I X
361
.

BO R R O WE D WO R DS IN EN GLI SH .

T heborro we d words in l anguages al ways h ave an in

te resting h isto ry T h us ta r o up e w h ic h
.
in Fr enc h ,

signifie s the h air b et wee n th e e ebro ws r e minds u s at

y ,

f h “ i ”
o ce
n o t e jo n e d eyeb ows e stee med a mark o f
r ,

b eauty by t h e tale telle rs o f th e “ T h o usand an d O ne

-

N g t and de mands an Arabian o r at least a H amitic

i h s
”
,

origin fo r th e word Yet I am no t aware that th e wo rd

.

h as survive d in Spanish in any o f its dialects T he .

Spanish to ngu e h as suppl ied u s with a lliga to r a r ma da , ,

Oa r r ica de , Or a ua do , ca rgo ,
g
ci a r , desp er a do ,
duenna ,
eldo r a do , e mOa rgo , fi liOus ter , fl o till a , galleo n , gr a ndee,
indigo , j enne t, ma ta do r , mo s quito , negr o , octo r o o n,qu a d
r enega d e, s a va n na, sh er r
r oo n,
y , to r na do , va nill a , and

a gre at many mo re .

Fro m I tal ian w e have : a la r m, a le r t, Oa lco ny , Oa ndit,

ca meo ,
ca p r ice ,
d iletta nte, do mino , ex tr a vaga nz a , fi as co ,

f r escogo ndol a gu ita r , incognito , infl u e nz a , lago o n, la o a ,

, ,

ma dr iga l , mala r ia , niclze, op er a , o r a to r io , p a lette, pa n ta

s e r e na de,
lo o n, qu a r to , r ega tta , ru fi a n, so n net, teno r ,

ter r a -
co tta , u mOr el/a , o er milio n, vir tuoso , z a ny , an d

countle ss oth e rs .

T h e D utc h to ngue h as give n us se a te rms : Oallas t, -

Ooo m, li oy , l ufi , f pp er , s lo op, taf r a il, w ear , y acli t,

s ki
'

r ee ,

y aw l .

Fro m H ebrew w e ge t : a me n, Oelz e mo tk , c/z er uO, lz a lle

l uj a li , q ilee ge/z enna , leo ia t/z a n, ma nna, p k a r is ee, r aOOi,
,

sa dducee, ta l mud .

Ger man furnishe s : co Oal t, f el spar ,

lz o r nOlende, l a nd

gr aue, ma rgr a o e , nickel, p l under , qua r tz , z i

nc .

Arabic , t h rough o the r langu age s ge ne rally, h as su ppl ie d

us w i th a gr a e t many wo rd s . So me of th e s e are : ad

mir a l, dr ago ma n, elix ir , mir ,

a lco li o l, ca li p/z , car a t, e
 Y OF L AN G UA GE
3 62 T H E S T OR .

f akir , f ga z elle, gir af e, li a r e m, k o oka /i , ko r a n, l t ,

el u cca , u e

magaz ine, mina ret, na Oo O, nap/z t/z a , s af r o n, slzer Oet,

ta lis ma n, ta ma r ind, viz ier , z e nit/z , z er o .

Fro m Americ an tongue s p Oucca neer , w e ge t : al a ca ,

cacique, gua no , h a m mo ck, j a l ap , lla ma , ma /z oga ny , ap os

s um, p o ta to, r a cco o n, s qu azo , to Oa cco , W igw am .

From Afric an to ngues we ge t a Oa O, ca na ry , go rill a,

kr a al, o asis, qu agga , z eOr a .

Fro m C hine se w e ge t : Oo lz ea , c/i ina , kyso n, j oss, j u nk,

nankee n, silk, tea , typ /i oo n
/ .

From J apane se we ge t : da imio , s li ogu n, sa mur ai,

'

lia r ika r i, j inn kzls lz a , j apa n .

Fro m Malay w e ge t : a muck, Oa mOoo, ca day , d ugo ng,

gamOoge, ma nd a r in, o r a ng o uta ng, r a tta n, s ago , u p as

-
.

Fro m H indoo tongue s co me : a va ta r , Oa ny a n, coo lie,

_

dur Oa r , j u ngle, lo o t, p a la nqu in, r upee, sepoy, tli ng, to ddy .

Fro m Pe rsian ar e de r ive d : a w n ing, Oaz aa r , ca r a va n,

dervis k, fi r ma n, ko r de , j a r , le mo n, o r a nge,
pa r adise, r o ok,

saslz , taf eta, ta r Oa n .

From T urkish co me Oey , ca f ta n ,

dey , j a niss a ry , kios que,
odalisque, tulip , y a taglia n .

Fro m the Po l yne sian tongues we have : Oo o mer a ng,

ka nga r o o , ta Oo o , ta tto o .

C o ming bac k to
Euro p e, we fi nd P ortuguese giving us
alOa tross, cas te, f eticli , l ass o , ma r ma la de , pa la ver ,
po r t .

H ungarian pplie s
su us with : li us sa r , sa Or e, s k ako ,

R ussian gives : cz a r , d r osky , kno u t, mo rse, r o uOle,

s teppe, ukas e, ver s t .

Fro m Gre e k, fo rc ie ntific use w e ar e constantly co in

s ,

ing ne w words such o f t h e m as ar e app l ied to p ractic al

,

inventio ns b e co ming ver y sp eed ily famil iar eve n to chil

d ren So me o f co urse re main me re bo o k te rms o r are
.
,

rese rve d sol e ly fo r te c h nic al use T elegr a m telepko ne .

, ,

pko togr ap/z, dy na mite, a t/z lete, e s t/ze te , e mpy r eu ma tic,

 AR R E N O / X .

3 53

pa ranomasia, a r cli ceolo

gy , cli ir o ma ncy , are a fe w out of

thousands .

So me time s as in case o f Oz cy cle the coinage is a

th e
’

, ,

hybrid both Greek

,
and Latin be ing rep re se nted in the

word .

PRESENT TENSE O F T H E ARYAN VERB

”
TO BE .

Note the likene ss running thro ugh th e following exhibit

o f the Ind icative Pres ent o f th at ve rb in a numbe r o f

Aryan langu ages the du al s being le ft o ut

,

fl igk Ger man .

ich bin,
du bis t,
er is t,
wir s ind,

ih r seid,

s ie s ind .

je suis ,

tu e s ,
ii e st,
no us s o mmes,

vo us etes ,
ils so nt .
3 64 THE S T OR Y OF LAN G UA GE .

A r menia n .

L it/iua nia n .

H EAD M EASU REM ENT .

Wh at isc all e d th e c e p halic index is the bre adth o f th e

h e ad above th e e ars ex pre ss ed in p e rcen tage o f its l e ngth
‘
fro m fro nt to back th e l atte r be ing es timated as t o o
, .

Wh e n th e d e c imal denoting br eadth is ab o ve 8 0 th e ,

h ead is c alle d sh o rt o r bro ad w h en it is b e lo w 7 5 t h e ,

head is c alle d l o ng T h e long he ad is gene rally associ

.

ate d w ith an oval face ; th e sh o r t h e ad , w ith a ro un d

 I N DE X .

ABBEY of Peterborough , 257 . l o v

Agg utinati n, ariet in, 3 41 , 3 52 y .

Abipo nes , 1 50
Abrah am, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 8 5
. l v c
Agg utinat i e h ara ter o f B as u e c q
. x
e emp i e d , 1 2
3 lfi .

Abram th e H ebrew , 1 1 0 , 1 8 2 . l v
Agg utinat i e t ngues , 7 1 , 8 1 , 1 06 o
Ab senc e of dial ec t in Latin , 23 9 . 1 63 , 2 01 .

Abstrac t terms, 3 0 5 . Agr eement of Amer ican languages

Abu Fara , 1 8 9
-
j . in s tr u c tu e r
, 1 38 .

by
A ssinia, 1 8 1 , 1 8 6 . col
Agri a, 241 .

cc
A ent, 48 , 2 1 1 , 252 , 28 9 , 3 3 8 . c l
Agri u tur e am ng Western Ar ans , o y
cc
A ent and rh me g ern ater L atin y ov l 2 0 8 , 2 29 .

v
erse, 2 3 8 . Aino s , 1 2 0 .

cc k
A ent ep t after th e ss o f uan lo q Ais ne, th e ri er, 262 v .

tit y , 266. Akaiush a, 1 70 , 209 .

Acc ent of L atin k ep t in French , 266, Ak erblad, 1 74 .

28 9 . kk
A a, 1 6 1 .

Accentuation in Fr en ch , 1 9 4, 2 8 9 . A ad, ‘
kk 8 4, 9 5, 1 1 0 , 1 8 2 .

Acc entuation in H e br ew , 1 9 4 . kk cvlz o

A ad i i i ati n, 1 1 0, 1 65 .

Ach aemenid dynas ty, 8 6, 220 . Akkadi, 1 06, 1 8 0 , 3 41 .

Ach aian mas ters o f Pelasgi c H am Ak sfim, 1 8 6 .

ites, 1 68 . lb ll
A a as ter o n wa s o f U r, 1 1 0 .

Ach aians , 1 70, 20 9 . l k

A as a, 1 43 .

Ach aian tongue, 22 8 . lv

A a a, 1 3 1 .

Addis on , 3 20 . lb o
A a L nga, 2 28 .

Adelung’ s M ith ridates , ” 26 . lb

A anian race , 2 1 3 .

Aden, p rimal s eat o f Arab rac e, 1 8 4 . lb c

A igenses , r usade against, 27 1 .

Adj ec tives us ed as n ouns , 240 . l

A e utian s , 1 1 8 .

lElfric, lx
A e ander , 1 74, 203 .

Aeiz anas, 1 8 6 . lx
A e andria, 8 8 .

IE o lic, 8 8 . l
A fr ed ,K ing, 2 51 , 257 , 3 00 .

Afgh anistan, 1 1 5 . l o k
A g n ins , 1 44, 3 53 .

Afghans, 52 . l o q o
A ice B adingt u u ted, 57 .

c b
Afri a, Sa a an ru e in, 1 8 6 l . lc o l
A i e in W nder and " 29 8 . .

c
Afr i an Latinit , 240 y .
ll l
A emans in Gau , 8 9 , 26 1 , 262 , 264 .

o q
After th e C n ues t, I n e ted E ng flc All ite tion giv es pl ac e
ra to rh yme ,

lish , 2 76 . 2 79 .
“ iers Plowman "
Agas siz c ited, 1 47 . All it e ratio n in P ,

Aggl utination by suffix es , 1 13 . 28 7 .

 1 NOE X
3 66
.

All iterativ e coupl Antar , 1 8 8

’
e ts, 26.
3
.

l c
A sa e , 264 Anth olo y b o
g o f Ara p ets , 1 8 9 .

o olo y b c c
.

l
A satian, th e , 2 60 .
Anth r p g in de ted to t h e s ien e

lk o f l ng g 35 ua e ,
Ama e ite, 1 9 0 .
a .

zo
Ama n , 1 43 , 1 46, Antill s 3 7 e ,
1 .

zo
Ama nia, no an rent cm h z atio n c in An till e L es e 45
s, s r, 1 .

A tioch
n 7 1 1 .
1 49 ,

Ao i t lo t by L tin 1 3
.

Ama zo i n n a ,
1 43 .
r s s a ,
2 .

Ama zoni ns a and negr o s contr

e as ted, Ap ch a 43 es , 1 .

Ap p l c h ian 43
a a 1
48
.
1 . ,

zo
Ama nians , t ngues o f th e, 1 46 o
App en dix , 347 . .

zo
Ama nian s , t p e o f, 1 48 y
App ius C audius , 2 02 .
l .

b y
Am iguit in Ch ines e, 1 0 1 Ap u eius , 2 3 7 , 2 40 .
l .

bo
Am r se, 242 .
Ap u ia, Asculum in , 2 3 2 l .

c cvlz o o
Amer i an i i i ati n imp r ted, 1 3 7 A u itaine, 26 1 . q .

c l c c
Amer i an anguages , h ara teris ti s Ara B ed uins , 1 8 1 c b o .

o f, 1 43 . Ara ia, 8 5, 1 1 0, 1 8 1 b .

c l o
Ameri an an guages gr up ed, 1 43 Ara ian r u e in er sia , 20 4 . b l P .

c o o yll b c o
Ameri an m n s a i t ngu e, 1 04 Ara ia, S uth ern, 1 76 . b o .

c y
Ameri an m th s , 1 40 Ara i , 1 8 1 , 1 8 9 . bc .

c l
Ameri an N atura ist, ” 57 Ara i h ar a ter used aa . bc c c by M l y s,

c c
Ameri an r a es , 7 7 1 26 . .

c c o o
Amer i an ra es m re unif rm th an Ar a i in ers ia, 20 4 bc P .

ol c
Old W r d r a es , 1 3 9 Ar a i in er sian, 2 2 2 . bc P .

c lc o
Ameri an red up i ati n, 1 42 Ar a i in S p an is h , 1 9 7 . bc .

c o
Ameri an t ngu es differ w ide in Ara i s up p ants Ar amai , 1 9 7 ly bc l c .

voc b l y
a u ar , 1 42 Ara i t ermina in e ti n , 1 9 3
. bc l flc o .

c y
Amer i an t p e , 1 48 Ara i w r ds in H indus tani, 2 22
. bc o .

c
Amh ar i , 8 5, 1 8 1 , 1 88 Ar a s , 7 8 . b .

Ammianus , 242 Ara s .ntras t e d with T ur s , 1 1 7 b co k .

o
Amm n , 1 9 1 . Ar a s , N r th er n , 1 8 0 b o .

c
Anah u a , 1 41 , 1 43 , 1 53 , 1 56 Ara s , S uth er n , 1 64 . b o .

lo
Ana gues o f p r eh is t ri men, 56 o c
Aramai , 8 5, 1 8 1 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 5 . c .

lo y o
Ana g , p w er o f, 3 40 Ar amai , t pe o f, 1 9 7 . c y .

Ana ti ly c co n s tr u ti n in ater L atin c o

Aramai us ed in th e B i e, 1 9 5 l c bl .

2 3 9 , 2 40 . Ar an 1 1 8 y , .

ly c k
Ana ti G r ee , 8 8 Araras , 1 49 . .

ly c y
Ana ti t p e o f anguage, 7 1 , 7 2, Arau anians , 1 44, 1 49 , 1 58l c .

7 8 , 1 9 7 , 22 2 Ar aw a s , 1 46, 3 54
. k .

Anamese, 1 0 4 Ar iter, etr n iu s , 22 7 , 23 7

. b P o .

oc
Anam in C h in Ch ina, 1 04 Ar h ai s t e affe ted , 2 40
-
. c c yl c .

o cl
An at mi a s tr u tur e, di ersit o f Ar h aisms in c aut u s , 2 6
3 v y c Pl .

61 . Ar h ite tur e o f th e I n as , 1 57 c c c .

o
Anatt used as p aint , 1 49 Ardesh ir , 20 3 . .

Ancren R iwle, 2 8 3 A r e, w e get fr m D an ish , 2 52

. o .

An des , 1 43 , 1 49 1 57 Ar gentine R ep u i , 1 3 6
, . bl c .

v
Ange in d nas t , 2 55 y y
Ar ick arees , 1 45 .
.

Angilber t, 3 59 Ar is t ph anes , 2 1 1
. o .

l
Ang es , 245 . Ari na, 1 53 zo .

lo -
xo
Ang S a n a p r ter m, 245 Arme nia, 1 0 9 oo . .

jo
An u, 2 62 . Armenian m untains , xt c o .
 IN DE X .
3 67
Armenians , 52, 22 1 . Augus tus, 23 8 .

Arnaud, 1 8 0, 1 8 6, 1 8 9 . Ausar , or O s iris , 1 1 2 .

Arrested de v elopment, 200 . o

Aus nius , 240 , 261 .

Arrest o i p r ogres s by c iv il iz atio n, l

Au stra ian, 1 3 0, 3 42 .

79
1 . Aus tralian s u , 1 3 0 . k ll
Art, H e eni , 2 1 1 ll c . l
Aus tra ian t p e, 1 3 0 y .

Arth urian ta es , 20 2, l 2 05, 28 2. o

Aus tr H ungar ian emp ire,
-
21 7
.

Arth ur P nd agon
e r ,
2 02, 20 5, 28 2 , Auxiime, 1 8 7 .

3 24 . v o
A er r es , 1 8 9 .

Arth ur, P inc 8 r e, 2 2. v

A es ta, 220 .

Article B oh emian h as no 2 1 9
, , . vc
A i enna, 1 8 9 .

Ar ticl e L tin h as no 23 3
,
a , . y l
A mara anguage, 1 50 .

Artific ial langu ges 69 a , . y

A maras , I 3 9 ) 1 45, 1 49 '

Ar vad 1 9 4 ,
. y y
A mara, t p e of, 1 50 .

Arv al B o th 33r er s , 2 . M o
Ayo go or p ngwe, 1 62 .

Ary an 26 8 6 , , ,
22 0 . z c
A te , 1 43 , 3 52 .

A yan co q
r t o f th e Akkadi
n ue s
, 1 1 0. z c
A te s , 1 3 9 , 1 53 .

A yan D a gh t
r 30 u er, . z c o
A te w r sh ip , 1 57 .

Aryan infl c tion 4 74 e , 0, .

Aryan numeral s 9 ,
2 .

A yans o f S o uth E ur ope 1 68 B AB E L, confusion o f tongues at 62

Aryan t ongues 1 99 —
r , . ,
.

225 , . Ba B emba 1 62
-
, .

Asar i th e same as Osiris, 1 1 2 . B bylo nia 1 8 3

a 96 , ,
1 .

Ascania, 23 2 .
Babylo nian c ap tiv it y 1 9 6 , .

Asc anius , 2 3 2 .
B bylonian c ub it 1
a , 1 1 .

As cent o f M an,” 60 .
B bylonian l anguag 1 8
a 1 96 e, 0, .

Asch am’s pr os e 3 1 3 . .
B bylo nian talent 1 9
a ,
0 .

Ascoli, 2 23 .
Baco n 3 2 7 , .

B ac tria 8 8 1 9 9
Asculum, 2 3 2 . , ,
.

B ac trians 3 3 2 0
Asia M in or , 1 68 . , ,
2 .

Asiatic S oc iety , 27 B aeda, 2 57 .

—
.

Asi go ds , 3 4 B a Farami. 1 62
—
.
.

Ba Fiot 1 61
As sh ur , 1 8 1 . ,
.

Assimil ation, N orman c apac it y for, B agdad, 7 1 1 .

29 7 .
Bagistana, 1 8 3 .

Assinibo ins , 1 45 .
k
B a airi, 1 46 .

B K al ah ari 1 6 1
Ass ociation o f ideas, 6 1 a -
.
,

B a—
.

Ass onan c e, 8 0 Kal e 1 62

Ba—
.
.
,

Ass unknown to th e Americans , 1 3 9 .

Kisk 1 62 ,
.

Ass yria, 8 5, 1 73 , 1 8 3 .
B a Koko 1 6
-

,
2.

Ass yrian, 8 5, 1 8 0, 1 93 .
Ba Kundu,
- 162 .

Atch ines e, 1 2 5 .
l M al ay
B a i, 1 6 s o f, 2 .

Ath abas k ans 3 53 , .

B ll ads 23 4 29 6
a , ,
.

Ath anas ius , 1 8 6 .

B a L olo 1 62
-
,
.

Ath ens, 1 1 7 B a L o ng 1 6
-

,
2.

Bal tic dial ec ts f th

.

8, 2 1 6, 220.
Atlantic , 1 45, 1 64 o e, 1 1
. ,

Atl antic Amer icans , ty pe o f, 1 47 . Ba L uba 1 62

-

,
.

Attic , 88 Ba Mbuk u 1 62
-

,
.

B anana e v iden c e f by
.

ur nish ed th e,
Attic us , 23 8 .
,

Attius, 2 3 5 .
1 47 .

Augustine, 242 .
Ban croft c ited , 1 42 .
 IN DE X
3 68
.

l 1 61
Ba N ga a,
-
.
l
B ind H ar r , 2 9 4 y .

Ba N oko 1 62 .
lo
B nd H amites, 1 65 .

loo l l o
-
,

to ngues 76 60 63 , 3 43 B d e tting, re igi us , 1 57

, 8 4,
.
1
-

Ba nt u 1 - .

Ban tu t y pe 1 6
,

1 .
l
B ue ename o n wa l s o f U r , 1 l l 1 0.

B ap tism, 57 1
,

,
B o dingto n, Ali e , u ted, 57 c q o .

Ba -
P kou 1 62 .
B o th i s 2 57
e u , .

B ogo ta 1 3 9
,

B ar b aris ms in L atin, 23 7 . ,
.

B ar bo 288 ur , .
B oh mi n s 8 8 2 1 9
e a , ,
.

cl y 9 5 B ob ic 14 a, °
B ar a 2 .

B o il e
,

th el my 1 8 319au ,
B ar e 0.
B okh a a 1 6
,

B as a l t l b 1 74 s a .
r , 1 .

B o mb y 22
,

h ki
a 0
B as 82 rs , . ,

B as ian s , 1 1 6 .
B ook f Co mmo n P ray e
o r,
312 .

Bas q u e, 8 4, 1 1 9, 3 42 .
B ook o f S o ngs 89 ,
1 .

B as q ov inces 78 B ook o f th e D ead 1 78 , .

ue pr ,
.

B as q ue s y ntax 1 3 2 .
B op p 2 7 , .
,

B a S ut
-
o 1 61 .
Bo d r x 261 9 7
eau , ,
2 .

B o eo
,

Ba —
T k e e, 1 6 1 .
rn 5 ,
1 2 .

B atta, 1 25.
B ot ta 8 ,
1 0.

B att l e of Mal don T h e, 2 58 . B o gogne

ur 6! .
2
,

B é am , 1 1 B rah mans , 222 .

3 .

Be
a u f r t, o L ad y j ane 29 4. B r ah mi, 1 2
5 .
,

B e Ch u ana,
-
1 61 .
B randt, S e b stian 29 5 a , .

Bed o u ins
,
1 81 .
B r ea th g o ps 3 3 8
r u ,
.

B eh is tu n, 1 83 .
B ret agne , 8 7 , 2 0 5, 262 .

B elgia, 8 7 .
o
B re t n, th e, 260 .

B e gi l cKl
e ts , 20 5, 2 1 0. ll
B ri ian cy
o f F r en h , 2 60 c .

B elo o ch is tan, 1 2 5 .
B rin t on ,
28 , 1
3 7 , 1 65 .

l
B enga i, 8 6, 2 2 2 .
B r itain , 1 3 7 , 1 7 1 .

B ow l f 2 2
e 55
u ,
0 ,
2 .
B r itis h Amer i a, 1 43 c .

B b
er 8 5 64 er , , 1 ,
B r it ish C um ia, 1 43 ol b .

B er enik 75 e, 1 . o z
B r n e in u se in E ur pe , 1 68 , 1 7 1 o .

B th
er P ince s 3 59
a, r s , . o
Br wne, Sir T h mas , 3 1 3 , 3 1 5, 3 2 7 o .

Bibl f U lfilas 2 6
e o ,
1 . B r unett L atini, 2 69 o .

B ibl q ot d 1 9 5
e u e , . B ru nne, Rob ert o f, 2 8 4 .

Bibl T h e e,9 3 ,
1 0, 1 2. oy
Bru tu s o f T r , 2 84 .

B ibl io g p h y f A th ors Co ns l ted

ra o u u y o cKl
B r th n i e t s , 20 5

3 47 .
-
b
Eu B ang i, 1 62 .

Big w r ds p referred o bad tas te , by B ubas tis , 1 73 .

2 3 7 , 240 c
B u h anan, 2 41 .

i
l l
B it era f m ts i 3 43
f B uddh is m, 9 3 , 1 2 1 .

Bi olo y oc
g , its p r ess es used by
th e B u ddh is t a mu Kl ck s , 1 1 5 .

c c l
s ien e o f anguage,
35 . B ufi o n , 5 27 .

B
i 1 14
rars , . Bu gis , 1 2 5 ,

B
i y 1 25
s a a, l
B u gar ian, 88 , 1 0 6, 1 1 7 .

B c y 84
s a an , Bu lg a r ians (S lav s ) ,
i 1 1 7, 21 9 .
B c y n S panish 1 6 lg
B l d‘
is a a
5 s, , . Bu 7
ar s , 1 1 .

D th
a 35 ea , 2 Bu ny
an, h n, 3 20 , 3 2 7 Jo .

B l ck mo e o f
a L o rna D oo ne 3 4r
, ,
”
2 . B ur d iga a, 26 1 l .

B l ck c es f th e B antu stock 76
a ra o , . B urgundian dia e t, 268 lc .

B l emmy s 1 8 6 e , . B urgundians, 8 9 .
B urgundians in Gau l ,
2 62, 264. Car th aginian , 1 8 1 .

B uriat s , 1 1 5 .
o c
C ar t u h e, 1 74 .

Bu r ke
E dmu nd, 3 2 1 , 3 2 7
,
.
vi g
Car n s in u Y c atan, 1 56 .

B ur mah , P
egu in , 1 0 4 .
Casas G ran des , 1 53 .

B urmese , 1 0 4,
333 .
Cas es eft in R manl o c e tong u es , 2 67 .
B ur mese st r oy , 66 .
Caspian , 86 .

B u rn o u f , 27. Cas te , o igin

r o f, 22 3 .

B ur ns , 2 77 . l
Cas ti ian, 21
5 .

B ur ns , infl nc f ue e o , 2 54 .
C t l n
a a a ,
21
5 .

B ur n R ob e t 3 3
s, r 2 Cath ay 94
.
, , .

Bu tl e Bish o p 3 6
r, ,
2 .
oo
Cath erw d th e draugh tsman, 1 54 .

ll
Catu us , 2 3 6, 24 1 , 294 .

c
Cau as us r ange , dia e ts o f, 8 5, 2 2 1 lc .

CAB U L, 1 1
5 .
Causati v es,
3 57 .

Caddo es , 1 45 . Cau s es o f tr iumph of Fr en h c ov er

z
Cadi , 1 9 4 . P r o vengal , 2 71 .

C aacilius , 2 3 5 . x o 7 7 9 94 96
Ca t n, 2 ,
2 2, 2 , 2 .

Cmdmo n , 2
56 , C x ton q o t d 9
a u e ,
2 2 .

C ae re, 3 03
23 1 ,
.
Cel eb s 5 e ,
12 .

C a sar , 28 , 23 8 , 3 0 0 . C nt l Ame ic 7 7
e ra 39 r a, ,
1 .

o
Cair , 1 72 . C erea l g in nknown t ra s u o Ameri
Caish anas , 1 49 . c n 39 a s, 1 .

Cak ch iquels , 1 53 . C m o y R om n 3
er e n ,
a ,
2 1 .

l o
Ca ed nia, 8 7 , 2 06 . Ce ylo n b n i 47,
a an a n, 1 .

l
Ca endar s t ne, 1 57 o . Ceylo n B ddh i t i ,
u s s n , 22 2 .

l o
Ca if rnia, 1 43 . Ce ylo conq t f
n, u es o , 20 2 , 2 2 1 .

Cam boja, 1 0 4, 1 40 . C ylo n M l y i

e 5,
a a s n, 1 2 .

Cambo jan , 1 0 4, 1 0 8 . C ylon t d ing w ith Y m n

e ra e e ,
1 85
.

Cambo jan r igin o f Ameri o c an civ il Ch ah t a M u s k o k is , 1 45, 3 53

-
.

iz at io n, 1 08 . l
Ch a daean i i i ati n , 1 64 cvlz o .

by
Cam s es , 1 74 . l
C h a daean s , S emiti , 1 8 3 c .

l k o
Came u n n wn to Amer i an s, 1 3 9 c . Ch a ld aean s , T u ranian , 1 0 9 .

Campania, 23 1 . Ch a lm ers , 3 26 .

C anaanite, 8 5, 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 0 . Ch amp agne, 2 62 .

C anada, 1 45 . Ch amp i n, 1 7 5 oll o .

Cana e , l M
ar tin de, 269 o . Ch anda a o r l
imp ur e , ” 1 23 .

”
Canar es e , 8 4, 1 2 4 . Ch anes o r S erp en ts , 1 51 .

Canarie s , 8 5, 1 6 5 . Ch ange in l anguage , 3 36 .

bl
Canni a feas ts , 1 57 . Ch ange in l anguage , const nt 3 a ,
2
5 .

bl
Canni a ism in th e is h ed St ne Pol o Ch ange in l an gu age co sp ond rre s to

Age , 1 66 .
ch an ge in nati na o l s pir it , 2 74 .

Canni bal s , 49 , 57
1 1 . Ch ange of co on ns an ts in M p ongw e,

Capa c ity o f L atin fo r rh et o ic l fin

r a
3s
is h , 22 7 . f
Ch ar ges fr m O l d to idd e E ng o M l
Cap e C olony , 1 60 . l
is h , 2 78 .

Cap e Pal m as , 1 33 . Ch anges in meanin g, 23 7, 3 08 .

Cap et, H ugh , 26 5 . Ch ant o f th e Ar a B r th er s , 2 3 3 vl o .

Cara, 1 58 .
c c
Ch ara teris ti pr eferen es in co n c
b
Car i s , 1 46, 3 54 . st r u c tio 3 3 5 n, .

lyl
Car e’s gr tes ue E ng ish , o q l 1 01 , 3 5
2 .
Ch ara c t i tic
er s s of Ameri c an lan

Carth age, 8 5, 1 9 4, 23 5 . guages, 1 42 .

 INDEX
3 70 .

c c
Ch ara teristi s o f Gr ee , 2 1 1 k . C is sanceas ter , 245.
c c
Ch ara teristi s o f R man, 2 1 3 o . Cis ter ns in u atan, 1 55 Y c .

c
Ch ara ters , Old E ng is h , 2 9 3 l . l c l
C ass i a Ch ine s e a r ad, bo 1 03 .

l
Ch ar es th e Ba d, 262 l . Clas s a ic l
C hin ese no t used collo
l
Ch ar es th e G r ea t, 2 62 , 2 64, 3 59 .
q uially, 1 0 2 .

l
Ch ar es th e S e nd , o f E ng and, co l C l
as s i c Latin l argel y an ar ti ficial
l 23 6.
—m
anguage ,
319 .

C h armers e i ed x l by
G udea, 1 1 2 . C la s s na es o
fr m Fren h , c 29 3 .

y é é
Ch arna , D sir , 1 54 . C l audian
,
2 40 , 2
42 .

o
Ch ase, w rds o f th e, 3 0 1 . Cleam es s of Fr en h , c 23 9 , 2 60 .
c
Ch au er , 2 3 6, 2 7 7 , 28 7 , 2 8 9 , 2
93 , l ck 3 4
Ci s, 1 .

3 07 . C l m inu o f th e T euto nic s enten ce

s ess ,
’
c l
s h , 2 7 7 , 3 59
Ch au er s E ng i . 2 99 .

ok l
Ch er ee anguage, 7 2 . C o l c nc
a es e e of ar t i cl e w ith o
n un,
ok
Ch er ee S e quo yah , 9 7 , 1 44
- -
. 1 31, 1 93 .

ok yll b y
Ch er ee S a ar , 9 7, C o l c nc o f p rep osition w ith
a es e e

Chiapas , 1 51 no 96
un ,
—z
. 131 ,
1 .

c
Ch i h en i t a, 1 53 , 1 55 . C o l e cen ce o f v erb an d p ono minal
a s r

c
Ch i h es ter , 245 . obj c t 9 3 e , 1 .

c c
Ch i h ime s , 1 3 9 , 1 53 . C och in C hin b nana in 47
-
a, a , 1 .

Ch ih uah ua, 1 53 . Coch in Ch ina e cl ssica l Chinese

-
us s a ,
l v
Ch i dren’s in ented anguage s, 57 l . 1 0
3 .

Chillingw o r th , 3 26 . C o co mes , 1
53 .

C h ina, ar ea o f, 9 4 . o
C inages no t co nfi med r
, 31 5 .

Ch inese, 9 3 , 3 3 4 . ol b ook 7
C e r e, 2 .

Ch ines e and R man empires co m o C ol idge 94 3 7

er ,
2 ,
2 .

p ar ed, 1 04 . Colo ni E n gl i h 3 24
es , s , .

cvlz o
Chinese i i i ati n, 9 3 , 1 54 . C ol mb u
39 us , 1 .

x
Ch inese e tens i n, 78 o . C o m nch a45 es , 1 .

c c y
Ch ines e in apa it to s o und c e tainr C mb h
o g o s 337
a e e ne r e , .

l etters, 67 . 0, C omm c infl ce f

er e, u en o , on Eng ish , l
Ch inese c s rip t, 9 7 .
3 24 .

y
Ch ippe w a s , 1 45 . o o P y
C mm n ra e r, B ook
o f,
312 .

q l
Chi uimu a, 1 52 . o cl
C mmunis ti ife, 1 3 9 , 3 54 .

ol l y
Ch u a, p r amid o f, 1 53 , 1 56 . o
C mmunit y
of l
anguage no sur e
Ch oso d, 1 1 5 . oo co
pr f o f y
mmunit o f ra e, 52 c .

o c
Ch w , t h e ra e o f, 9 3 o c
C mp a tnes s o f Latin, 2 2 7 .

Ch ris tian Mly

a a s , 1 27 . o v
C mp arati e p h i lolo
gists , 1 9 4 .

Ch ris tian m n s , 1 40o k . o o b o

C mp aris n etw een N rth er n, M id
c o
Ch ur h o f R me uses Lat in, 226 . o lc
dle, and S uth ern dia e ts , 2 8 0 .

c
Ch ur h terms , 3 03 . o v x o
C mp e titi e e aminati n, 9 3 .

c o
Ci er , 2 1 3 , 24 1 . o o
C mp u nd co j
n ugati ns, o 3 57 .

c o oo
Ci er o n g d s pea ing, 23 8 k . o o
C mp und t enses gained by
Ro
c o
Ci er ’s pr se, 23 9 o . c o
man e t ngues , 266 .

lc
Ci i ia o r Kil ikia, 1 9 0 . o o o
C mp u nd w r ds in Gree , 2 1 2k .

Cingh alese, 8 6, 22 2 . o o l oo
C n diti na m d gained byRo
c
Cir ass ian, 8 6 . m c t o g es 266
an e n u ,
.

cl
Cir e, great, der i ed fr m A v o kk ad , C on t o ga es 1 45 s, .

1 09 . Co nf d tio n f t ib es 1 3 9
e e ra o r , .

c
Cir um isi c on , 1 57 . C on f io n ess
57 ,
1 .

Cissa, 245 . C o nf c i u K ng f ts 9 3
us o r u -
u-

,
.
 IND E X .

37I

C ongo bas in , 1 61 . Cr oyland ,

2 57 .

C onj gations
u ,42 . C rus ade s , 271 .

C onne ctiv e s, all t ong es h v e 3 3 4 u a ,

. C uk ulcan, th e M ya c l t
a u ur e -
h er o ,

C onnec tiv e i s n E ngl i h e T t o nic s ar eu , 1

50 .

275 . l
C u de es f I on 56 o a, 2 .

C on e vatism R o m n
s r ,
a ,
2 29 . Cu l in y t m 3 5
ar er s, 0 .

C on e v tive tend ncy

s r a e of l it e rature
,
Cu lt e f P ov nc 7
ur o r e e, 2 0 .

2 68 . Cu mb l nd K l ts c o wd d back ln
er a ,
e r e

C on on ntal ch nge 2 3 55
s a a ,
1 2 ,
. to , 2 45.

C o n o nantal h e v in s avo id d in
s a es e o
Cune if r m r e r ds , 1 8 2 , 2 20 co .

G eek r , 21 1 . Cu pra, th e E trus an j un , 1 7 1 c o .

C ons o n nt c h ang in J p n e
a s, e a a es ,
1 22 . Cu zco
,
1 57 .

C on onants P n c 9 4
s ,
u i , 1 . y l
C new u f, 2 56 .

C o nstantino pl e G eek in 8 8 ,
r , . C y p ian r 4 ,
2 1 .

Con t ntino p l
s a nde th e T ks e u r ur , C z ec h s 8 8 , ,
21 9 .

1 1 7 .

C ons tanti s 8 6 u ,
1 . D AC A , 2 1 5I .

C o nv ntio al s y mbol ic o
e d n s un s, 61 . D ai N ipp n, 1 20 o .

C o nv atio nal e
ers e f F enc h as o r , 2 60 . ko
D a tas , 1 45, 3 53 .

C oo k e y 3 4 r ,
0 . c
D amas us , Aramai o f, 1 9 6 c .

Co p n 5 a 54 ,
1 2, 1 . D amas us h e d c
N a ataeans , l by b 1 96 .

C o pp n il s in U
er 1 a r, 1 0. D anao i, 1 7 0 , 2 0 9 .

C6r do va, 1 89 . l
D ane agh , th e , 2 46 .

C o rean, 8 1 , 1 2 0 , 1 23 . D an es , 246, 2 7 6 .

C o rean k
a in to sp ee h c of th e D ra i v D anie u t ed,lq o
318 .

da, 1 2
3 . o
D an is h w r ds in E ng ish , l 247 , 2
52 ,
C o a s cl a ical Ch ine 1 03
re us e ss s e, . 28 3 .

Co ill e 2 7 5
r ne ,
. D ans k , 9 0, 21 7 .

C o n l ia 3 8
r e ,
2 . D ante, 20 2 .

C o nw ll
r
5 9 a ,
20 ,
20 . D an u b e, 2 1 5 .

Co nw all th e ch ool mast

r 85 s er , 2 . D an u bia
n B u gar ians ar e S l l av s, 1 1 7 .

Co p S mitic um In c ip tio
r us e ar s r D ar dans , 1 69 .

num,
”
1 80 . D ar ius , 1 8 3 .

o c
C rsi a, 1 67 . D audet, 2 60 , 2 7 5 .

o
C r tona ui t b l by
H amites , 1 6 7 . D aunia, As cul um in, 23 2 .

o o o y
C sm g n o f th e Q ui h es , 1 51 c . D aurians , 1 1 4 .

o l
C u anges , 2 23 . Da s y co
me fr m A ad , 1 1 0 o kk .

o l
C up ets fr m G ree , 3 1 5 o k . D ead S ea, itumen fr m, 1 9 6 b o .

o l
C up e ts in E ng is h , 3 0 7 l .
D ead , T h e B o f th e , 1 7 8 ook .

o l
C ur an d , s pe e h o f, 8 8 c . o
D eath fr m u s ing th e w r ng pr o o
o
C ur t dia e t of Ch ina, 1 03 lc . o
n un , 6 6 .

o
C w per , 3 2 7 . cl
D e ens i ns , 42 o .

oz
C ume , t h e is and o f , l l o l
D e C u anges , 2 23 .

Crania o f Ch inese , 9 5 . fi
D e n ite ar ti e r eep ing int L atin, cl c o
yfi
Cr a sh , 2 8 2 8
3 it
. .

k
Cree s , 1 4 5 . De n e ar ti cl e n on ,
e in G ee z ,
1 87 .

Cr ees , 1 45 . D e Foe , 3 20 .

Crete, 1 68 . D egrad ati n o f w rds , 3 0 8 o o .

D egrees , th e th ree h un dre d and

Cr is t , ” th e p e m, 2 57 o .

o
Cr ats , 8 8 , 2 1 9 .
si x ty
fr m A ,
o kk ad, 1 0 9 .

Cr ow s, 1 45 . D elago a B ay, 1 63 .
 INDEX
3 72
.

l
D e igh t in mere w r ds , 68 , 3 3 9 o . D on g l 1 6 7
e a ,
.

l
D e t a o f t h e N i e , 1 7 0 , 1 7 3 , 1 74 l . Do i r an s , 2 2
9 .

D emo th s en e s , 2 1 1 .
D o ic 8 8
r ,
.

D m o tic c ip t
e 74 s r , 1 . D o bl ts d
u t o cont actio ns 3
e ue r ,
1 7 .

D nm k 9
e 6 ar 0, 2 1 .
D o bl t d
u t d iff
e s n c e in ue o er e s pe ll
,

C o mp l i t ing, 3 1 6
’ ”
D eo r s 55 a n , 2 .
.

D Q inc y 3 7
e u e ,
2 .
o bl
D u ets du e t o differ en c e of pro
D Q i c y c it d
e 5 7
u n e e ,
1 1 ,
22 .
n unciatio n , 316 .

D Q i c y cl im f
e L tin
u n e
’
s a or a ,
22 7. o
D ugh t , 1 8 5 y .

D c t
es ar es w ot i L t i 6 r e n a n, 2 2 .
v
D ra ida, 1 0 8 , 1 2 3 .

D S o to 3 54
e , .
v
D r a ida , t pe o f th e, 1 2 4 y .

D t min tiv e 3 3 3
e er a ,
.
v
D ra idian , 8 1 , 1 2 4 .

D vo n h i e K l t d iv n int o
e s r ,
e s r e h igh v
D ra id ian w e h ange e vo l c -
x emp l ifi ed ,

l d i 45
an s o ,
2 .
1 24 .

D h ti N u as , 1 8 6
’ ’
-
.
D raw ing th e l
we vo l 5 ,
1 .

l
D ia e t, 3 3 6 c . D r umm nd s th e r
’
o oy fo o r igin
,
60 .

Di la e c t bs nc e f in Latin 3 9
,
a e o ,
2 . y
D r d en , 3 1 9 .

“T h e o
Di l c tic v i tio in C h i 9 6 F
’
a e ar a n na, . D u r ba n a ir a a , or ur

Di la e c t in G k nd i E gl i h ree a n n s ,
A ies ,ll 1 1 5 .

Du tc h Sp r un g o
fr m L o w G erman s ,
3 23 .

lc
D ia e ts , diff er ent in th e same h o us e 90 . 21 7 .

ol
h d, 3 3 6 . D yk a verb making p r efix x
e e mp li
lc
D ia e ts us ed in it er ature , 3 2 3 l . fi e d, 1 26 .

D ic tio nar y E ng ish l mainly L atin, Dyk a s, 1 2 5 .

2 76. Dz g u n ar , 1 1 5 .

D ie t of H ungar y ,
L at in us e d in
2 41 . E AR LY l if e of Ar yan s , 2 23 .

D iffere n c es b e t w een Ko p tic and E as t I l er s an d , 1 2 5 .

E g p t ian, 1 77 y . E as t M id l and, 2 7 8 , 2 8 3 .

D ignities , ter ms fo r , 3 04 . E as t M o n t o l s . 1 1 5 .

D iminuti es , 2 3 6, 3 52 , 3 53 v . E as t S l v ic
a ,
88 .

D ip h th o b
n gs a un d an t in G ree k .
21 1 . E a th e go d , 1 1 2.

D isap p ear a nc e of fi na l e in Englis h b

E er s , 1 7 8 .

292 . E ccl i tic l

e s as a L at in , 2
3 7 , 2 50 .

c l
D is ip in ed h ar a ter c c of L at in , 23 9 . E co omy in n utteran c e, 49 , 3 3 7 .

D isintegrati n o f I n o fl ec t ed E n g ish l E c do
ua
39 r, 1 ,

2
52 . E ddas , 34 3
b,
20 2 , 3

(
) .
21 7 .

D iss ensi on s of th e s on s of L o uis th e E de ss a, 1 9 6 .

y N t d 3 59
E as a ure , . o 9
E d m, 1 0 .

D i yll bic fo m tio n

ss a r a s,
50 . E d omit e, 1 81 .

D iv ity o f c
er s r a e a cau s e o f d ia l ect s E do mite 96 s, 1 .

63 . E dw ard th e C onfe or
53 29 3 ss ,
2 . .

Di v e r sit y of c e in ra uttering s o unds , E dw ar d th e Fi r s t o f E ng and, 28 4 l .

be t 46 Eg r , 2 .

Di v e r sit y o f us age under th e e ly E gy p t 3 7

ar ,
1 1 , 1 1 .

T o
ud rs , 2 9 2 . E gy p t G k in 74 ,
r ee ,
1 .

j
D ami, 2 22 . E gyp t i n b l i f 7 5 a e e , 1 .

D jurjura, 1 65 . E gy pt i n c bit a u ,
1 1 1 .

D o g un k own t n o th e Americ ans , 391 E gy p ti n en gine ing

.
7 a er ,
1 2 .

D oko 6 s, 1 1 . E gy p t i n infl enc in a u e th e ear ly

D o l d on
na s
,
2 7. H e ll enic w o l d 1 68 r ,
.
 IN D EX
3 73
.

y
E g ptian anguage, 1 7 3 , 1 76, 1 79l . E ng is h l o r dered to be us e d in co ur ts
y
E g p t ian iterat ur e , 1 7 8 l . of law, 28 5 .

y
E g p t ian mummie s, 1 7 8 , 1 9 6 .
l
E ng is h , ar iame nt P l
pe n ed in, 28 6 o
y y
.

E g p tian t p e , 1 7 5 .
l
E ng ish p oe tr , eginnin o f 2
g , 93 y b
y v by P l
.

Eg p t in aded e as gians , 1 69 . E ng i
s h ls pe in
g, th e a mina e ll bo bl
y
E g p t p ss i o bly kk
A ad ian at rs t, fi ch ar a c te r of
, 3 2 8 , 3 46 ,

1 09 . E nniu s , 2
35 .

E gy p t under T ur k i h le
s ru , 1 1 7 .
v o
E n ir nment , di ers it o f, 6 1 v y .

E l mite dy t y
a n as , 1 1 1 . E r as mus 24 1 , 2 9 , 1
4 3 3
, .

E l am mo t in
,
f 8 un a s o , 10 .
c
E re h o f th e Cha de es , 1 1 0 l .

E l eg nc e o f mo d
a P in er n ers a ,
222 . E r idu o f th e C h a dees , 1 1 0 l .

El ne
57
e, 2 . E r ies , 1 45
Elf L eyl h w —
.

L yl h 89 e a e e
”
1 E rs e,
, . 20
5, 20 9 .

E l iak im 95 ,
1 . k o 8
E s im ,
1 1 .

E l iz b th n l it
a e t e 3 a e r a ur ,
1 2 . E k imo lo ng k ll d 9 5
s -
s u e .
,

E l iz ab th n h to ic 3e
3 7 a r e r ,
12
,
1 . E th oni n
s 8 a s, 1 .

E ll 45
a, 2 . E th io p i n 8 5 a , .

E ll io tt o K al m cks s,
5 r u , 1 1 . E th io p i n d y n ty in E gy pt 1 7 3
a as , .

E loq ence K l tic

u ,
e , 2 1 0. E th io p ic 8 87 ,
1 1 , 1 .

E loq nc e o f ue th Ap p al c h i n e a a s E th nology inde b t d t th sc i n c f e o e e e o

1 44 . l ng g 3 5
a ua e , .

Em b yonic t ype
r of S emiti c Sp e c h e ,
Et r us can 8 4 8 , ,
22 .

3 42 Et c n book 7
r us a ,
1 0.

o onal e xcl mation

E m ti a s, 61 . Et r us c n c iv il iz tion p oss ibly f
a a o

E nch o i l c ip t 74 r a s r , 1 . Ak k di n o igin 68
a a r ,
1 .

E n gy f th T
er t on o e eu s, 2 1 8 . Et can my s tery n
r us ol tion ea r s u ,

E ngadine, 21
5 . 1 70 .

E ngineering o f th e I n 57 cas ,
1 . E tr usc n w o ds 7 1
a r , 1 .

l
E ng and, t h e Danes in, 2 46 . E tr s c n
u 68 7
a s, 1 3 9 ,
1 0, 2 1 ,
22 .

l
E ng is h aff e t ed L at in, 8 8 c by . Et c n inv ding E gypt 69 7
r us a s a ,
1 , 1 0.

l
E ng ish a m st fre e fr m in e ti l o o fl c on ,
Et c n p tly Akk di 68
r us a s ar a c, 1 .

E t s c n pa tly H mit ic 68
3 28 . ru a s r a ,
1 .

E ng ish l a lo w G e rman o ff h oo t s , 9 0, Et c ns p tly L w G m n 68

r us a ar o er a ,
1 .

E ty molo gic l in fl c tio n t attaine d

a e no
721 .

Eng ish l a l ph abe t wh olly in ad e u at e , q by th Am ic ns 4 e er a ,

1 2.

E ph o nic ch n ge o f vo w el 4 a s, 1 2
3 46 .
u ,

Eng ish l and Fren h d eri c vativ e s fr m o 3 4!

L atin co mp are d , 266 .
o cl
E up h ni aws , 8 0 .

E ng ish l and Fren h c w o rd s l a g lyr e o o

E uph ni us agg utinati l on ,
1 2 4, 3 41 .

identi , 36
c l a .
E up h rates , 1 09 , 1 7 3 .

l
Eng is h and G er man w o r ds l ar ge ly o
E ur p ean Ar y an s no t s a ages , 208 v .

identi cal , 36 .
E usai ldun ac , 23 2 .

l
Eng is h dia e ts , 3 2 3 lc .
E us k ara , 131 .

l
E ng ish e tensi n , 3 28 x o .
Eu sk ar ia n 8 4 , .

l
E ng is h , h arm ni effe t s o f, 29 1 o c c . E us k ar ian K l ts e , 73 .

l l
E ng ish anguage , eginning o f, 29 4 b . E us k arians in G au l ,
26 1 .

E ng is h l iteratur e , eginning l o f, b sk
Eu arians in Ire and, 8 7, 2 0 5 l .

29 3 E u ting, 1 8 5 .

vol o o flc l
.

l
E ng ish man, 1 E u t i n fr m I n e t ed E ng ish to
99 .

E ngl ish m o no yll abl s es th e res u t l of ly c

ana ti , 29 8 .

E vol tio n in l
ph o netic de ca y 1
u anguage, 32 .
01 .
,
 IN D E X
3 74

E vol tion u of E ng ish , 3 48 l . F ox es 1 45 , .

E x c tne
a ss x
o f e p ress i n in L atin o F n ci
ra 6 a, 2 1 .

F nk 8 9
ra s, .

E xog my a th e law o f, 65 . F nk be yo nd th Rh ine 6 1

ra s e ,
2 .

E ye wo d r s an d E ar o
w r ds , 3 1 5 .
F k in G l 6
r an s au , 2 1 .

F do m in a
re e ng m nt d e to in rr a e e u

F A B L AU X , th e, I 27 1 .
fl ect io n , 43 .

Fa i it cl y of F r en h , c 260 . Freed m o f th o o ugh t, He ll en i , 2 3 2c .

Fa l t ff ’
ck Fr e n h , 8 7 , 260 —
c 275
s a s sa 79 .
.
,

Fannius agains t Gra cch us , 2

38 .
c cc
Fr en h a ent , 2 8 9 .

Farrar , F n ch bi th f 3 59
re r o
2 7, 35
.
. , ,

Farrar q o u t ed , 3 5, 2 1 3 . F enc h
r ly p op l ity f 69 ,
ear u ar o ,
2 .

Far th er Ind ia, 2 2 2 .

F n ch g ft o n th E ngl is h s t ock
re ra s e ,

Fas ting, 1 57 .
29 7 -

310 .

Fe i lx ,
2
57 . Fr enc on t ion 3 3 8
h in t a ,
.

Fema le d es ce n t ear l ie r th an mal e in F n ch l it

re t 6 er a ure , 2 0 .

th e gem , 3 54 22 9 , . F ch monar c h y b gi ning f 65

re n ,
e n o ,
2 .

Feminine gen der, 6 7, 1 25 . F e ch a l o nd

r n 64 n sa s u s, 2 .

F erdo u s i, 2 0 4, 2 22 . F nch p o e q l iti

re f 6 r s ,
ua es o ,
2 0 .

Fer vo K l t 47 8r of e s, 2 ,
2 2. F enc h ich in T
r to nic w o d
r 65 eu r s, 2 .

F d l wo d F n h o m nc s p o p l ity f 8 4
'

re c r a e u ar O , 2
eu a 3 r s, 00 . ,

F w K l tic wo d in E ngl i h
e e 45 r s s ,
2 . F ench
r R o man in W es t F nc i
,
ra a

Fick 3 3
,
22 ,
2 2.
p c iv d t b
er e 63 e o e, 2 .

Fi l d ing 3
e ,
22 . F nch w o d 3
re r s, 00 .

Fig p o itio nal v l e o f de ive d

ur e s , s a u , r F q
re t t ivu en a3 6 34 3 57 es , 2 ,
2, .

f o m Akk d
r 9 a ,
10 . F ie i n p ng f o m L o w G e m n
r s a ,
s ru r r a ,

Fij i 8 3 , . 217 .

F ij i i l nd 8 Fr ies ian, t ongu e of Ang es i l lk 48

s a s, 1 2 . e, 2 .

F ind i g f th C o n
57 o e r ss , 2 . Fr onto ,

Fi ni h d cl n ion
n s 7 333 e e s ,
1 1 ,
. Fuegians , 1 50 .

F i i h o ft nd m lo dio
nn s s7 a e us , 1 0 . F us i n o f o
h a e w ith in n it i e t o v fi v
Fi ish t o ng
nn l ik th t of Akk d ue e a a o
f r m future in R man e t n u es o c o
g ,
1 06 z 6
.
5 .

Finnmar k , 78 .

Finn oH -
ungarian
, 81 . GA B O O N R I VE R , 1 62 .

F inp s , 8 1 ,
1 1 4, 1 1 7, 1 68 . G ades , th e w es tern K ade sh , 1 94
oots lc
.

Fix it y of r , 1 79 . Gadh e i , 2 0 9
l d
.

F an 6 er s , 2 2 .
Gae i lc , 87 20
5
Fl tt n d f o h d
, .

a e
55 e re ea , 1 .
G aimar , 28 2 .

F l x ibil it y L ti d fi c i nt in
e , a n e e ,
21 1 . G aiu s , st yl e f o ,
2 40 .

Fl x ibil ity f M p o gw e v b
e x o n er m l
G a atia K lt
, e a . e s o f, 2 1 0 .
p lifi ed, 3 57 .
G al il aaans 1 91
l P
. .

F inder s etr ie , 1 1 1 .
ll 9
G a i ee, 1 2 .

o
F r eign marriages of th e nineteenth ll
G a as , 1 7 9
y y
.

d n as t ,
1 78 .
Ga ll i a, 2 1 0
o mosa 8 3
.

F r , .
Ga l w y 67a , 1 .

Fo mo M l ay in 1 5 n o w anian
r sa, a s ,
2 . Ga Fami ly or Americans ,
F o ms ely
,
r ed 3 5 r ar us 2
,
471
.
.

F o il infl c tio in E
gl i h
ss “Gar d y loo l
44, 3 28 ,
e n n s
310
-

, .

335 .
G arnett, 27.
F o x , Ge o r
ge , 3 22 .
Gas con ,
th e , 2 60 .
 I ND EX .

375
Gasc n , 26 1 o y . Great Py
ramid, 1 72 .

Gau , 8 7 l . bo
Gre , 1 3 3 , 1 60 .

l
Gau s , 2 1 0 . k
Gree , 2 1 1 .

z
G ee , 8 5, 1 8 1 , 1 8 7 . k
Gre e Ch ris tians , 1 1 4 .

G ender by
h igh as te and lo w c c aste Gree k
1 24 . k
Gree par ti les and Gree c '

k preci ion s ,
Gender in th e er , 1 42, 1 9 3 , 3 42 v b . 21 2.

v
Geniti e re ati n in He re w p ecu l o b k c o
Gree , use o f by Ci er , 2 1 3 .

l
iar , 1 94 . k o
Gr ee w r ds in L atin, 23 7 .

o
Gen es e Ri iera, 1 66 v . k
G ree s , 52, 1 9 9 .

oo
Gent , or T e ugu, 8 4, 1 24 l . k
Gr e e s in Gau , 26 1 l .

o y
Ge ffr e o f nm u th , 2 8 2 , 2 84 Mo o . k ly
Gree s o f i ta , 2 1 3 .

o
Ge r gia, 1 4 5 . o
Green di rite , s tatues o f, 1 1 1 .

Ge o gian r ,86 . l k o
Green and E s im , 1 1 8 .

Ger man, and Lo w , 8 9 , 2 1 7

H igh . q o
Green , u ted, 257, 2 7 5 .

c c
Ger mani ra es, th eir ear in uen ly fl ce oy o
Gre g r o f T urs, 2 6 1 .

o n Latin, 2 4 1 . oy
Greg r th e G reat, 2 57 .

Ges t ur e, 6 1 . c
Griflis ited, 1 20 .

Getu lians, 1 6 5 . G rimm, a J cob

,
2 7, 3 2 ,
33 8 .

z v c
Gh a ne id p r in e, 20 4. Grimm’s law for th e sh ifting o f
Gibb n 3 1 o ,
0. mutes , 3 3 8 .

G il R iv e
a
53 r
,
1 . o
Gris ns, dia e t o f th e, 2 1 5lc .

Gilde l eev 8
rs e, 2 . o
Gr up s o f Amer i an anguages , 1 42 c l .

Gill Alex and

, 314 er , . o
Gr up s o f Semiti anguages , 1 8 2 cl .

Girgeh , 1 7 2 . Guan h es , c 65
1 .

z
Gi eh , 1 72 . Guaranis , 1 46 .

l
G as er 1 8 5 . . yc
Gua uru s, 1 50 .

o lcK l
G ide i e ts, 20
5 . Gucumatz , 1 50 .

ol l
G d p at es o n wa s o f U r , ll 1 09 . Gudea,
ol
G ds , 1 1 4 . Gudr un, 3 3 , 20 2 .

ol
G dsmith , 3 22 .
o
Gues t, Ge r ge , or S e quo yah th e -

Gfind 1 24 , .
Ch er ee, 1 44 ok .

Go o mtee R i er , 58 v .
Guiana, 1 46 .

o cc
G th i ath edra s , 20 2 l .
Guipu zco a, 1 3 1

o clk
G th i i e G re e in s me k o r esp e ct s l M x co
Gu f o f e i , 14 3 .

21
7 .
l
Gu f S tates , 1 4 5 .

o
G th s , 8 9 , 2 1 6, 2 64 .
G uth lac, 2 57 .

o
G wer 28 8 . .
Gu th r um , A f r e d’
l
s w ar s w ith , 2 57 .

cc
Gra h us, Caiu s 2 3 8 . .
Guttura lc
h ara ter o f I n e ted E ng c flc
c
Gra e, Latin de id o f, vo 23 9 . l
is h , 2 7 8 , 2 8 0 .

Grace c 6 of Fr en h , 2 0 .
ll
Guttur a anguage, 1 50 .

Grad ted s c l e 1 1
ua a ,
1 .
y
G psies , 22 3 .

Gramma E gy ptian 79 r, ,
1 .

Grammar p e c i ion f L ati 2 3 9 ,

r s o n
,
. H AD R AM AU T , 1 84 .

Grammar P nic 1 9 4 ,
u ,
.
fiz
H a , 222 .

G mmatic l connec tiv es 6

ra a ,
1 . H aidah s , 1 1 8 .

Grammatic l gender 66 1 24 3 41 a , . ,
.
l vy
Ha e , 1 80 , 1 8 7 .

Gramm tical tr uct e 2 8 a s ur ,

.
ll q o
H a am, u ted, 29 5 .

Grammatic al struc t re simil arit y u ,

ll ob
H a , R er t , 3 2 7 .

in , 3 8 , 78 .
H amites , co
ntrast o f S emites to ,

Great M ogul , 94 .
1 76 .
3 76 I N D EX .

Hamites in Ch a daea l and in E g pt, y oc

H er i Age, 271 .

165 . v
H er as , h is catalo gue of l ang uages

H amiti c l ik
, e ness o f S emiti t c ong u es 2 6.

to ,76 1 . H ey mann, 2 23 .

c
H amiti , m as ter y o h e Ak kadi 9 zk
H e e iah , 1 9 5
76 g
,
10 . .

Ha mitic c ra e s , 4 c y
H ierar h , grade d, 1 7
5
64—
.
, .

Ha mitic t o gu s 8
n e , 1 79 3 43
0, 1 , . o ly c yll b y
H ier g ph i s a ar , 1 7 5 .

H aran , 1 1 0 . o ly
H ier g p h s, 7 8 , 1 1 2, 1 74,
3 42 .

H ar p er , D r , ited, 1 93 . c . H igden, 2 8 5 .

’
l
H as t ing, A fr ed s defeat o f, 2 57 . lk
H i iah , 1 9
5 .

v
H a et , 2 2 3 . y
H im ar , 1 8 6 .

H awaii, 8 3 , 1 2 5, 1 7 1 . y
H im arite Ara , 1 61 b .

i c
H aw aiian n apa it to s und ertain c y o c y
H im ariti , 8 5 c .

let te r s , 68 .
y c
H im ariti ins ripti ns , 1 80 , 1 8 5 c o .

H aw es , 2 9 4, 2 9 5 . H ind i, 8 6 , 2 22 .

o
H aw th rne , 3 26 . H ind oogenius f or gra mmati a c l
z
H a ara, 1 1 5 .
y
s tu d , 3 1 .

H earn, L af a di , 3 26 c o . H ind oo
in cap a it fo r po iti a p ro c y l c l
H ear n th e p h i lolo
gis t, 223 .
gr e ss , 2 0 7 .

b
H e r e w, 8 5, 1 8 1 , 3 3 4 . H ind oo Koo sh , 1 99
-
.

b l
H e rew a dead anguage, 1 9 1 . oo
H ind s , 51 , 1 9 9 , 22 1 .

b cvlz o
H e rew i i i ati n, 7 7 . o
H ind s t an, 2 03 .

b
H e rew co ntras ted with y
Ar an H ip p o 8 5 1 9 4 , ,

t ong 1 93
ues , . H ipp o ph gy in a th e Poli h ed s St o ne
H eb w i adeq t fo sc ienc e
re n ua e r or Age, 67 1
‘
.

p h ilo oph y H isp ania I arraco nens is , 1 3 1

'
s 93 ,
1 . .

H b w in th e s ch ool s o f th e R bbi
e re a s, H is p anian L atinit , 240 y .

1 92 .
H ittite i i i ati n, 1 1 2 cvlz o .

He b re w o f th e B i bl e, 1 8 0, 1 90 . H itt ite in uen e in th e earfl c ly H el

H eb r ew on ce h ad t er m inal infl e ction , l enic w r d, 1 68 ol .

1 H ittites at w ar , 1 69
93
.
.

He b rew vocabul a y limit d 1 9 3 r e , . H itt ites in Eg p t , 1 7 3 y .

He b re w w o ds in A yan t ongu
r r es , H ittit e s yll b y
a ar , 1 1 3 .

Hog nk n own to th e Ameri c

77 3 6 "
1 9 u an s ,

He b rid e s ,20 5 .
1 39 .

l
H e ian d , 9 0 .
H oll and 247 , .

ll
H e en es , 20 8 .
H oll and s 8 er , 21 .

ll
H e eni , 8 6 c .
H ol mes Ol iv er W ende ll q o t d
, ,
u e , 7 .

l cc c
H el en i h ara ter is ti s, 2 1 0 c .
H olo ph astic t o ng e 7r 77 u s, 2, , 8 4,
l cc
H el eni ities o f Ita , 2 3 2 ly . 1 36
l c c
H e l eni ra e, 20 3 .
H ols tein ,
2
59 .

lv
H e etia, 8 6 .
H omer 1 ,
2 1 .

lv
H e et ians , 2 1 0 .
H o merites, 1 8 6 .

lv
H e e tiu s , 2 1 0 .
H mer p ar died in “T o m
o o J ones ,

H e nges t and H rsa, 245 o .

3 22 .

y
H en r D r umm nd on th e r igin o o of o
H mer ’ s s ia w r d, 1 68 oc l o l .

l
anguage , 60 . o l
H mi ies o f W olfstan and o f JE lfric,
c
H ep tateu h trans ated, 2 58 l . 2 58 .

H er at , 1 1 5 . o o
H nd , 1 2 0 .

H eritage o f Gree e , 20 3 c . o
H nduras , 1 52 .

o o
H er d t u s , 56, 2 1 1 . o o yc
H n rar h anges in addr es s, 1 2 2 .
 IN D EX .

3 77
H o o p ah s , 1 43 . Inde finite a ticl e c r reepin
g int L atin, o
o c
H ra e , 2 4 1 . 2
38 .

o c q o
H ra e u t ed, 3 2 5 . Inde nite fi ve b r s, 3 57 .

o K l ck
H r de s , a mu ,
1 1
5 . India, 22 1 .

o
H me T ook e,
31 . I ndia, Aim s fr o om ,
1 20 .

o k o
H rs e un n w n t o th e Amer i can s I ndia, A y n la g
r a n uages in, 8 6 .

139 . I ndian (Eas t ) , 220.

H o rs h es u, 1 72 . In d ian O c 64 ean , 1 .

o
H t tent ts , o 34 1 . I ndia, w il d c h il d n in re , 58 .

Ho uses o f th e S un and M oon ,

1
56 . I ndi c 86 , .

H uaz tecs , 3 3 1 I nd o Ch in 4 es e , 1 0 1
99
—59
-
. .
,

b
H u er , 1 8 5 . I nfl ec t d E ngl i h e s , 90 , 21 8, 24
5 2 ,
o
H uds n s B ay, 1 43
’
. 2 7 6 29 6 -
.

o
H u g , 2 60 , 2 7 5 . In fl c t d E gli h p oet y of 9
e e n s , r , 1 0.

H umanis t s , th e, 24 1 . Infl c ted F nch

e 66 re ,
2 .

c fic
H uman sa r i e s , 1 3 9 , 1 57 . Infl ec t d to ng 7 7 9 49e ues , 2, , 2 .

H um bol l l
dt W i h e m vo n, 2 7 , 8 4
, . I nfl ti n ill t at d 4
ec o us r e , 2.

H um r , o Kl c
e ti , 2 1 0 . I fl ti n i Old E gl i h
n ec 49
o n n s ,
2 .

o k
H um r o f E us arians , 2 47 . Infl cti n it k ind co m p ed 4
e o ,
s s ar , 1 .

H ungarians , 1 1 8 . Infl ectio n, its 3 8, 3 3 3 nat ur e, .

H u ngar , 78 y . Infl ectio n , its rigin, 40 , 3 3 3 o .

H uns , 1 54 . I nfl ectio ns s t i eft in E ng ish , 44, ll l l

H unting ter ms , 3 0 1 .
3 27 .

o
H ur ns , 1 45 . In fl ue n e o f c Danish s ett ements , 2 8 3 l .

zv
H u ares h , 2 2 2 . In fl u en e c of S emiti t ngues o n c o
yb co
H r id inages , 3 63 . Ary 99 an , 1 .

yk o l
H s s h e d E g p t, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 y . I n iti l infl c tio n
a e , 1 92 .

I n—
nu it , -
1 1 8, 31, 1 1 4 1 , 3 42 .

I BE R A I NS 65
, 1 . I ns c ri
p ti on s, th eir l anguage ar ch ic a ,

b
I erians o f B r itain (Si ur ians ) , l 20
5. 1 95 .

Ic l
e an d , 90 . I nser ted p l l 8 ura , 1 1 .

Ic l
e and , Ar y an lang uage in, 21 7 . int er a ati c l v tong 77 e u es , .

I dentit y of r oot 3 8 s, , 46 . I nter c h ng f co n on nt 8

a e o s a s, 0.

Identit y of s o nd f u o r di v ersit y of I nter comm nic tion e l ie t mod u a ,

ar s es

idea, 9 9 . o f,
33 1 .

y o
Identit o f s und mis eading, 28 , 3 7 l . o on 8 9 9 3 4 3 3 3 4
in t nat i , 0, . 1 ,
2, 1 .

y
I dentit o f w r ds , 3 7 , 2 29 o . Int o n tio n f n g t io n 3 56
a or e a , .

o o
I de p h neti s , 9 8 c . I nt o tion i G bo
na 33 n re ,
1 .

ol
I d s , 1 55 . I t o at io
n n v i tio i 3 3 7 n, ar a ns n, .

l
I iad , 3 3 , 2 0 2 . Inv ntio n o f l
e g g 69 an ua e , .

lly
I ra i n, 8 8 . I o nic 8 8 , .

lly
I rians , 2 08 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 9 . I ot a,ch c t i tic o nd in mod n
ar a er s s u er

Imaz igh an, 1 6 5 .

G eek 8 8
r ,
.

v o
I mitat i e s unds , 6 1 . I ni n t ib
ra a 2 r es , 20 .

bl l
I mp erish a e par ts o f anguage , 3 40 . I nic 8 6
ra ,
.

c co
In as o
mp ared to R man s , 1 58 . I l d
r e an 4 67 9 ,
1 0, 1 ,
20 .

c
I n as , th e, 1 3 9 1 57 . . I la d D n
re n i 46 ,
a es n, 2 .

c o b
In as , t m s o f th e 1 47 , . I o n nk no w t th Am ic ns 3 9
r u n o e er a , 1 .

c v
I n ense w a ing, 1 57
-
. I oq o is 4 3 53 3 54
r u ,
I O, .

I nd finit
e ticl comes
e ar e o
fr m N o r I
rra w add y lov d o wned in th e ,
a er r ,

mans , 2 7 8 . 66 .
 IN D E X
3 78 .

v
Ir ing, W ash ingt on, 3 22 . J l iana and J udith
u ,
”
2
57 .

I s h mae l , 8 4, 1 9 1
1 . J ul i n th e E mp o 64
a er r , 2 .

I s h mae l of e r s ia, P 20
3 . J t 45 47
u es , 2 ,
2

I sis , 1 75 .
J t Ch isti niz d 46
u es r a e ,
2 .

Isle of M an, 8 6, 2 1 0 .

I l
s e o f M an, D an es in th e , 2 46. K A BA H ,
1 55 .

K byl s “T r ibes ”
I l
s e of F ran c e , 2 62 , 2 6 8 , 2 9 9 . a e or , 1 65 .

I ol
s del L ir i, s u s at , 1 66
a k ll . Kad h es on th e O c ean, 1 94 .

I ol
s ated gr u p n w h ere e is ts, 6 3 o o x . Kd ha es on th e Or on t s e , 1 1 3, 1 69 ,
Is p ah an, Ab u Fara o f, 1 8 9 -
j . 1 78 .

Is rae l ,
1 73 , 1 91 . K affa, 1 61 .

I srae l it e, 1 90 . K l
a ah , 1 8 1 .

l
I ta ian, 8 7 , 2 1 5, 268 , 3 6 1 . K a e lv l a a, 1 1 8 .

l l
I ta ian iterature, in uen fl ce o f,
312 . K a lk 5 a, 1 1 .

I ta li na 8 s, 2 0 ,
21
3 . K a lm ck u s, 1 1
5 .

It a l ic 8 6 3
, ,
21 . K a mbo j a, 1 0 4 , 1 0 8 .

I ta ly H mit
,
a es in, 1 69 . Kambo jan, 1 04, 1 0 8 .

Ita , ly K lt f
e s o ,
87 . K annad i, o r Canare se, 1 24 .

z
I t as , 1 53 . K an s as , 1
45 .

I z amel, 1 55 . Karak alp ak s , 1 1 6 .

K ar a Ki gh iz r
, 1 17 .

J AM E S T H FI ST f E gl nd 3 3 E R o n a ,
1 . Karch emis h on t h e E uph rates , 1 1
3 .

J m th Fi t f S cotl d 9 4
a es e rs o an , 2 . K ble
3 27 e, .

J pn
a a t 3e s e ar , 12 . Keltiber ians , 20
5 .

J p n l ng g
a a ese 334 a ua e , 1 2 0 , . Ke l tic blood , 21 0 .

J p
a o igi f th
an ese , r n o e, 1 2 0 . K l tic di l c t 8 7
e a e s, , 1 21 .

J p n e s k é 79
a a es a ,
. K ltic l it t
e er a ur e , 2 1 0 .

Jpn
a a yll b y ese s a ar ,
1 21 . K l tic my th 8
e s, 2 2 .

Jpn
a a y nt x es e s a ,
1 22 . K l tic t ong
e 8 u e , 22 .

Jp
a t yp
an es e e, 1 20 . K l tic w o d i E ngl i h 2 50 54
e r s n s , ,
2 .

Jpn
a a s cl ical Ch in
es e u e 1 3 ass es e , 0 K l ts
e
.
, 5 20 .

Jv
a a, 1 2 5 .
K l t f B t gn 8 7 45
e s o re a e, ,
2 .

J v n 83
a a e se , . K lt f B it in 8 7 45
e s o r a , , 2 .

Jvn
a a
5 s, 1 2 .
K lt f C o nw ll 8 7 45
e s o r a , ,
2 .

Jv
a a, o r M l y t o ng 8 3 a a ue
, . K l ts f G l ti 8 7
e o a a a, .

J ngh i K h
e
5 z an , 1 1 .
K l t f G l 8 7 26
e s o au , , 1 .

J lm 7
e r u sa e , 1 1 .
K l t f It ly 8 7 3
e s o a , ,
21 .

J th o p i t ki g 8 5
e r a r es -
n , 1 . K lt f M 8 7
e s o an , .

J w i h A m ic 8
e s -
ra a , 1 1 .
K lts f S cotl nd 8 7 45
e o a , ,
2 .

J w 98
e s, 1 . K l t f th P 8 7 3
e s o e 0, , 21 .

Jo h 9 5
a , 1 .
K lts f W l es 8 7 45
e o a , ,
2 .

J oh H opk in U niv sity 9

ns -
s er ,
1 1 . K en i 43 a , 1 .

J oh n on S m l 3
s ,
a ue ,
21 . K nt 45
e , 2 .

J oi ed y eb ow 3 6
n e r s, 1 . K y 67
err ,
1 .

Joinv ill 3 8 e, 0 .
Kh t 7 a ra , 1 2.

Jolly 3 ,
22 . Kh i ban n in 47
as a, a a , 1 .

Jo Si W ill i m
n es , 7 r a ,
2 . Kh tti H ittit
a or es, 1 1 2 .

J o n on B n 3 3
s ,
e , 1 . Kh it H ittit
a or 1 69 78 es , 1 1 2, , 1 .

J o ph 73
se ,
1 . Kh ita i 3
-
s ra, 1 1 .

Jov i n gods 3 4
a , . K h iv 6
‘
a, 1 1 .

J ud h 9 9 9 5
a ,
1 0, 1 2
,
1 . K o K oin 3 4 6
h i h
'

,
1 , 1 1 .
 IN DEX
3 79
.

Kh o kand, 1 1 6
Kh o anguage l
.

10 .
L anguage i e s iet
, 70
l k oc y .

, 4 L anguage mus t be ear ned l

o
K h nd , 1 2 4 , 2
3 .

K h u fu , 1 1 1
.
L anguage no t a s ure tes t o f ra e
22 c
7 2. , .
1

Kick p oos 45 a
,

1
L anguage, ra e c c city in 7 ap a
, 1 .

L anguage,
g p o in t in y
, .
s ta tin r s t ud
Kio w y s 45
-

a , 1 o f,
.
2
5, 7 0
Ki gh iz 8 1 6
r
, 2, 1 .
L anguage, y f 3 5 s tud
.

o
K i gh iz K z aks
r a
,
1 1 7 .
L ng g
a ub j c t t ci
ua e s e
,

o
1

r s es 2
,
2 .

Kirgip a, 1 1 3 73 , .

L ang ge s ff s f om low
.
ua u er r er ed
Kisfaludy, 1 1 8 .
n tio n l t o n
a a e, 21
K it timCyp or
3 .

r us
, 1 90 .
L angua e written 20
g ,
Kobo J ap ane , se s ch ol ar , 1 21 . L angue d ’ O c 2 6 2 6
, .

Ko p ts , , 5, 7 .

1 75 .
L angue d ’ Oil 26 2 6
'

Ko an 1 89
, 5, 7 .
r , .
L anier, Sidne 2
95 y
Kata 4 , 1
2 .
L app and , 7 8
,

l
.

K all P of o
.

r r es s r, 1 70 L ap p s , 8 1 , 1 1
7, 1 68
, .

Kumuk s ,
.

1 16 .
L arsa o f th e Ch a dees l 1 1 0, 1 1 .
3
K ng f t Conf c i s
u ~
u -
s or u u , 93 L ars r s ena 1 1 Po
,

3
.

K di t A m ic in , .

ur s an , ra a
, 1 7
9 .
L as s en, 27
K ds 2
.

ur
,
21 .
L atenes s of Ameri can de v elop ment
K il i l nd
ur e s a s, 1 20 .

40 1 .
,

Kush ite, 8 5 .
L ath am, 27.
K tc hin 43
u s, 1 .
L at imer , 3 2 6
Ky m ic 8 7 9
.

r 20
, , L atin, 8 7 , 2 1 , 2 2 6 2
3
.

44, 3 3 4
-

Kyp i t e c h a ac t
.

r o r er s, 1 1 2 .
v b l
L atin ad er ia en din s made
g ni u
fo m i R o m nc
r 66 n a e, 2
NA
.

L AB 1
55 L t in b b iz d 6
a ar ar e 2
3
.
,
, .

L actantius , L t in g amm p c i io n f 3 9
2
41 . a r ar , re s o ,
2 .

L adin , 5 21 . L ti i B
a tt o
n 69, r un e , 2 .

L adr o ne s , 8 3 . L tin in E ngl i h

a
49 3 4 s ,
2 , 1 .

L ee lia, 2
38 . L atin L gu f th i t y c iti
ea 8 e o r es , 2 2 .

l
L ae ius , 39 2 . L tin f th e Sch ool m
a o
9 en , 1 2.
La ke Vic to i r a N yanz a, 1 60 . L tin p
a iv e j c t d by R o manc
ass re e e e,
La l
a, 1 1
3 . 2 66 .

La mp ong 1 s, 2 5 . L atin p r s e, 2 3 9 o .

L amu ts , L atin s h ar e in s p re adin

4 1 1 .
g Ch ris
Lan c as h ire , 28
3 . tianity, 21 5 .

Land -
b r idge a r c oss th e Atl anti c , 1 37 .
L atin th e la n gua e o f
g law , 21 4, 2 2 7,

L ang Andrew , 3 4
. .

l
L ang and , 2 8 6 , 29 3 , 3 26 o c yll bl b com F nch . L atin t ni s a e e es re

L anguage an ar t , 1 3 fi l yll bl 66 . na s a e, 2 .

L ng g
a n c
ua e , aity t ea ly man La T o L nd y G o ff y de es s87 o r ur a r ,
e re e, 2 .
,

55 . L w L tin t h l ng age f 4 a ,
a e a u o ,
21 .

Lang ge ch an ge in 63
ua L w f xo g m y 65 3 3 9
, , . a o e a , , .

L ng ge ch ck d in g o w th by L w f th T w lv e T bl
a ua e 33 e r a o e e a es , 2 .

civ il iz tion 6 a L w f vow l c h ng

, 49 8
1 34 . a o e -
a e, , 0, 1 .

L ng g cl
a ua e , ific tio n o f 8 L aw f E th e lb t nd f I me 57
ass a ,
1 . s o er a o ,
2 .

L ng ag defi nitio n f 4 3 9
a u e, L w t m 3 o , 1 ,
2 . a er s, 02 .

Lang g fo il emai
ua e , in 44 L y mo n 58 8
ss 8 r ns , . a a ,
2 ,
2 1 ,
2 2.

Lang ge h is to ic s ignific anc e f L y d 8

ua , r o , a ar ,
1 0.
I

15 . L y f R ol nd 7 a o a ,
2 1 .
 IND EX
3 80 .

L az ian, 8 6 . L o i th e G m n (Ludw ig)

u s, er a ,
2 62.

Le b on
an ,
1 80 . L o v e th
u r83 ,
e, 1 .

Le ch 8 8 s, .
L o w ll c it ed
e 97 ,
2 .

L eft h anded in
-
fl ection , 40, 7 6, 3 53 , L o w e E gy p tr 78 ,
1 .

L o w Ger man, 8 9 , 2 1 6 , 21 8
3 55
.
.

L egar é q ot u e d, 2 2 7 . c
L u an , 2 2 7 , 240, 2 4 1 .

L ege nds of th e S aints , day o f, 260 . Lu cian ,

21 1 .

Lei bnitz ,
2 6, 24 1 . Lu c idity of Fre n h , c 2 60 .

Le k 7 a, 1 0. Lu c idity of g ood L at in , 2
39 .

Le k 7 u, 1 0. L u d w ig, 223 .

L ena, 1 1 4 . Lu koi ,
or L yc i n a s, 1 69 , 1 70, 2 09 .

L e nap e, 1 45 . Lu ls e 50 , 1 .

L ep tis , 8 5 . L u th er ’ s G e r man , 64 . 21 7 .

L eSgh ian , 8 6 . L yc i n a s, 1 69 , 2 09 .

L es ser Anti ll es , 1 45 . L y dgat e , 29 1 .

L e tt i , 8 8 ,c 2 20 . L yly 3 , 1 7 .

L etti Ar c yan s , 2 20 .

L ett s , 20 8 , 2 1 5, 22 0 . M A IN O G I O N 3 3
B 6 , , 20 2, 2 0 .

v
L e ant , 1 8 4, 20 5 . M c 5
a ass ars , 1 2 .

v
L e antine , 1 69 . M c l y D J oh o n 3
a au a on r . ns ,
21 .

L iby an , 85 . 1 64 . M c l y n L ti
a au a 4 4 o a n, 2 1 ,
2 2.

Liby an s , 1 65 . M c l y q ot d 4 3 4 4
a au a u e ,
21 ,
2 , 2 2,
3 25 .

L ife of th e ear ly A yans r ,

22
3 . M c l y b ll ds 3 4
a au a
’
s a a ,
2 .

Ligur ians , 1 68 . M ck nz i R iV 43
a e e er , 1 .

L in col
ns h ir e, 2
53 . M a h e rs o n , 20 6 .

L ind is farne, 2
56 . M adagas ar , 1 2 5 c .

L ingua R om n 3 8 3 59 a a, 2 ,
. M agian r e l igion ,
20
3 .

Linnaeus r w o t in L tin 6 e a ,
22 . M ci n
agi a s, 1 1 1 .

L iter ar an y l g g ch g t 64 ua e an es oo, . M gya 8 6 7

ar . 1 , 10 ,
1 1 .

L itera ure, t H llenic e ,

21 1 . M gy di p l c ing L tin
a ar s a a ,
2
41 .

Lite ra t n t ind ig
ur e o s in R om o en u e, M h abh a ta 3 3
a ra ,
.

23
5 . M h mo d 4
a u ,
20 .

Literat ure o f In e t ed E ng ish , flc l 2

55 . M h tti 8 6
a ra ,
2 22 .

L iteratur e , R man , 2 1 4 o . M i 85
’
a n, 1 .

Liter atu r e s tu n ts l an g uage -

o
gr w th , M in 6
a e, 2 2 .

6
1 . M j t y f L ti 3 9
a es o a n, 2 .

L ith uanian, 88 , 2 20 . M lba a ar , 1 2

4 .

é
L ittr , 2 8 . M alagas s i, 8 3 .

L ittr écited, 2 68 , 2 7 3 . M l y 83
a a , , 1 20 .

L itt é q o t d 8
r u e ,
. M layal m 8 4 4
a a , ,
12 .

L iv f th S int
es o 58 e a s, 2 . M l y nd P p comp d 8 2
a a a a uan ar e ,
.

L iv i A d o ic
us
35 n r n us , 2 . M l y ch c t
a a 7 ar a er , 1 2 .

L ivo i p c h f 88
n a, s ee o , . M l y c iv il iz tion 7
a a a ,
1 2 .

L ivy 3 3 7 34
, ,
22 . 2 M l y Poly n i n 8
a a -
es a , 1 .

L oi Riv
re 6 er , 2 1 . M l y gio h om o f b a a s 47
a a re n, e n na , 1 .

L o mb d c iti 6
ar es , 2 0 . M lya a s, 1 2
5 .

L mb k M l y
o ocf 6 , a a s o ,
1 2 . M l y g t sailo s 5
a a s r ea r ,
1 2 .

L o g w o d in Am ic n to ng
n r s er a ues , M l y k ll 6
a a s u ,
12 .

1 42 . M al y ty p
a 7 e, 1 2 .

L o o Ch-
oo ,
or Kin iu Is k lands , 1 0 3 . M lo y S i T h om
a r
94 95 r as , 2 ,
2 .

L o ttner, 22
3 . M ma Ocllo 4
a ,
1 0.
 INDEX .

M an co C ap a c ,
1 40 .
M op otami 1 8 5 9 7
es a, 1
Mandman dial e c t,
, .

1 96 .
M et ic y tem o f Ch ldze
r s s a ans , basis
M andans , 1 45 .
o f, 1 0
9
M
.

andar in , 1 0
3 .
M ex ico 3 9 , 1 .

M an de v ill e , 2 69 , 2 8 6
,
2
93 .
M ye q ot d 3 9
e r u e , 2 .

M anegr s , 1 1 4 .
M iami 45 s, 1
l
.

M an, Is e o f, 8 7, 21 0 .
M ich l 8 6e 2
, .

M anning R ob , er t , 2 8 4 .
M icm cs 45 a , 1 .

M n el p d
a r a se
59 M ic on ian
r es
, ,
5 s, 1 2
.
.

M antch u, 8 2, 1 1 4 .
M iddl E ngl i h 48 7 7
e s 2 2
, , .

M antch ur ia, 1 0 3 , 1 2 0 . M idd le voic 3 3 e, 2

M anx 5
.

,
20 .
M idl nd di l ct 7 7 9 3
a a e , 2 , 2
M o i 83
.

a r , .
M ik do m d monk f 1
a s a e s o 1 2 .

M bl l abs 9
ar e s ,
10 .
M ilit y p omp o f L tin 3 9
ar a ,
,

2 .

M ch 8
ar ,
2 .
M ilton 6 ,
22 .

M co P 1 9 4 5 69
ar 0 0, , 1 2, 2 . M il to q ot d 3 9
n u e ,
1 .

M i h 86
ar a ,
1 .
M il ton e io n ss 3 6
’
s s r us e , 2 .

M a ks f S mitic tong es 8 2
r o e u , 1 . M il ton p o 3 3 3 7
’
s r se , 1 ,
2 .

M n R iv e 6
ar e r, 2 2 . M imic y o igi t m y w o ds 59
r r n a es an r , .

M o i
ar
3
-
s ra, 1 1 . M in z lph b t 8 5
e an a a e ,
1 .

M q ar 83 uesas , . M in n t ong
aaa
79 8 85 ue , 1 , 1 1 , 1 .

M a sh 8
r ,
2 . M ing li 8 6
re an , .

M in 8
ars a s , 22 . M in t th ix ty f om Akk d 9
u es , e s ,
r a , 1 0 .

M ti l 4 4
ar a ,
2 0, 2 2 . M i anh
r 49 as , 1 .

M tin L th Ge m n 64
ar u er s
’
r a ,
. M i ceg n tion f lt t b n v il 2 3
s e a e o e a e ,
2 .

M tin o d C n l q oted 69
ar e a a e u ,
2 . M i h na 9
s , 1 2.

M c l in gend 67 5
as u e er, ,
1 2 . M i i ippi 54
s s ss , 1 .

M a il i th mod n M a eill
ss a, e er rs e, 2 6 1 M i o i vall y 3 6
ss ur e , 1 .

M nde ill S i J oh n 8 6
au v e, r , 2 . M itl 56
a, 1 .

M it ni n 6 5
aur a a s, 1 . M itsjegh ian , 86 .

Maute nara, 1 1 3 . M ix d c
e ra es , 1 2 0 .

M v il th mod n Mobil e 3 54
a a, e er , . Mo b 9
a ,
1 1 .

M ay a ,
35 1 . Mo bite 8 1
a ,
1 .

M y p n 5 55
a a a ,
1 2, 1 . Mode n E ngl i h 48
r s ,
2 .

My 8 39
a as , 1 0 , 1 . Mo ia G oth s f 8 9 48
es ,
o , , 2 .

M ed f S sa 9
es o u ,
20 . M G o th ic
oes o -

7 48 ,
21 ,
2 .

M d s f th e N o th
e e o r 221 . Moh amm d 8 8 6 e ,
1 0, 1 .

M edi 9 8 3
a, 1 0 ,
1 . Moh mm d n conq o
a e a u er rs of I ndia,
M edian 8 3 , 1 . 2 22 .

M edit n n 7 e rra 73 ea , 1 0 , 1 1 2, 1 . Moh awk inc p c ity t o nd ce tain a a o s u r

M eiklejoh n c it d 7 8 8 83 3 e ,
2 ,
2 1 ,
2 , 0 7, l ett 68 ers , .

3 08, Moh g n 45
e a s, 1 .

M ln in 8
e a es a ,
2. Moloch 57 ,
1 .

M lch iz d k th
e e e ,
e p r ie st -
king ,
1 85 . Mol cc n M al ys 27
u a a , 1 .

M mph i 7 2
e s, 1 . Momms n h et odoxy 3e
’
s er , 2 0 .

M en 7 a, 1 2. Mon c n 45
a a s, 1 .

M en nd 23 5
a er , . M o ch y b ginning f F nch 65
n ar , e o re ,
2 .

M en pt h 69
e a ,
1 ,
1 73 , 20 9 . Mo ngol i n 8 4 3 a ,
1 ,
1 0 , 1 1 .

M enk era, 1 72 .
Mongol i n b oad k ll ed 9 5
a s r -
s u , .

M enton s ku ll t 66 e, s a , 1 . Man l ng aga 4 u e, 1 0 .

Me edith fantastic E nglish

r
’
s , 3 25 . Monogamo s Am icans 49 u er ,
1 .
382 INDEX .

Mon olithic monuments ,

1
57 . N asa l so u n ds in F ren h c an d Po rt i

M onos yllabic tong ues , 80, 93 —

1 0 6, gues e , 2 64 .

1 78 . c z
N at h e , 3 54 .

Mono yll bl es in E ngli h

s a s ,
ad antage v N v a ar ra , 1
31 .

o f, 2 9 8 . N v a ar r e , 1
3 1 .

Mono yll bl s a es , o igin of E ngl ish

r , 48 , N g o
e 47 r 6 33 , 1 , 1 0, 1 .

280 , 2 98 . N g o
e Io ng s k ll d 9 5
r es -
u e ,
.

M ont ign 6 74
a e, 2 0, 2 . N ej d 88 , 1 .

M o th c m f om Akkad
n s a e r ,
1 09 . N ologi m in F n ch
e 75
s s re ,
2 .

M oon w o h ip o f th e
,
rs , 1 1 0 . N eus tria, 2 64 .

M o vi ra
5 a, 1 1 . N e uter gender , 67 .

Mo vi n 8 8
ra a s, . N eut er lo s t in R man o c e tongues ,
M o Si T h om 3 3 3 7
r e, r as , 1 , 2 . 2 65 .

Mo g n c it d 47
r a e ,
1 . v
N e ius u ted, 1 0 3 q o .

Mo i W ill i m 3 4
rr s , a ,
2 . N ew Ca ed nia, 1 43 l o .

Mo c in M itl 56
s ai s a, 1 . N ew E n g and s und s l o fi ly na ,
28 1 .

M o ic in U
sa s9 r
, 1 0 . N ew G uinea, 1 28 .

M o l em c l t
s f s,89 u ur e o , 1 . N ew M x ico e , 1 40 , 1
53 .

M ty in Sicily 9 4
o a , 1 . Ne w to J oh n, n,
3 27 .

Mo nd b ild
u -

54 3 54 u er s , 1 ,
. N gatk o ns, 1 1 4 .

Mo nt P ind w il d ch il d on
u us , , 57 . bl
N i e ungen ied, 3 3 , 2 02 l .

M o nt St E l i 43
u . as , 1 . c
N i ar agua , 1 43 .

M o z cas , 1 3 9 . N ich o l e tt s , Cap tain , and th e wi d l

M p ongw e, 8 4. 1 62 , 3 42, 3 55 c l
h i d, 58 .

M u Fundu , 1 62
-
. b
Nie uh r , 2 3 0 .

M iiller , 1 8 5 . N igidals , 1 1 4 .

M iiller , M ax 2 7 , 3 0 8 ,
. o
Nig r i, 1 2 2 .

M lill q ot d 3
et u e ,
20,3 23 . l
N i e, 1 72 .

M l tip l ic tion f l
u a o angu ages, 1 41 . l b
N i e asin , 1 60 .

M mmie bit m
u s, u en for , 1 9 6 . N ineteen th d n as t y y ,
1 78 .

M nd c 48
u ur u us , 1 . N ine v
52, 1 8 0 , 1 8 1
eh , 1 .

M ur as , 1
49 . N ith ard , 3 59 .

M u r etus , 241 . N o gh aians , 1 1 6 .

M urra y P of o q o t d
,
r 91
es s r , u e ,
1 . N o h ar d and fas t ines , 3 3 4 l .

M yk e ze , n b il t by H mit u a es , 1 6 7 . N o h pat, 1 55 .

M yrgings , a L o w G erman tri e , b 2

56 . o
N madi tri es , 1 1 5 c b .

Mysi ns a ,
1 69 . N o n Ar an numera s , 3 0
-
y l .

o
N rman bloo v l
d, a ue o f, 247 .

N AB AT JE AN , 1 81 . o
N r m an co q o
n uer r o f th e Canar ies ,

N abata an ins 1 9 6 co ,
. 1 65 .

b e ans , 1 9 6
N a at a . o
N rman co q
n u es t , e ff e t o f, 2 7 7 , 2 8 1 c .

-
c
N a h an , 1 52, 1 54 . o
N r mand , imp r tan e o f th e y o ss c lo
N adai a , 3 4 ll c . o f, 2 55 .

N aev ius , 2 3 5 . o
N r mand o f mi ed y
d , 262 , 264 x bloo .

N ah uat l ,
1 43 . o
N rman Fren h , 9 0 , 2 52 , 2 68
-
c .

N ame s of p a es : 2 51 , lc 2 52, o
N r man Fr en h , in u en e o f, o n
-
c fl c
N ames o f r i er s , 2 64 v . l
E ng ish , 24 7 , 28 1 .

N ana, 1 1 3 . o
N rman p r nun iat i n, 269 , 2 8 1 , o c o
N an ti coke 45 s, 1 . 29 9 .

Na p ol eo n B o p a t na r e, 1 74 . No r man, th e, 260 , 2 9 7 .

N aram Sin, 1 1 1 . No r man w o r ds , c h ar ac ter o f

3 00 , .
 IN DEX .
383
N o sk 9 2 7
r ,
0, 1 .
l
Osman i T ur s , 8 2 , 1 1 6 k .

N o th n di l c t 2 7 7
r er a e , ,
2 79 .
O s seti , 22 1c .

N o th mr 46 en , 2 .
O s s ian , 20 6 .

N o th S e
r 6 a, 2 1 .
k
O s tia s , 8 1 , 1 1 7 .

N o th S a co t
r 47 e as s , 2 .
o
O t es 1 45, .

N o rt h mb i n c l t
u r a u ure , 2 48
,
2
51 , 2 56 .
o
O t mis , 1 0 5, 1 41 .

No w y 9r a , 0. O ttaw as , 1 4 5 .

N b ian
u c 78 r a es , . O ude , w i d l boy
in, 58 .

N m u l a good g id
era s u e, 2 9 , 3 40 . v
O id , 3 3 , 22 7 .

N umidians , 1 65 . O w en , 3 2 7 .

k o
O x un n w n to th e Ameri c ans ,
O AJ A C A , 1 56 . x
O us , 3 4, 1 9 9 .

Oath s o f Stras bu g r , 3 59 .

bo o
O ng , 1 6 1 . P A C I FI C , 1 44 .

O ccl v
e e, 2 9 1 . P acuv iu s , 2
35 .

O co cin go , 1 54 . P inted w ll
a a s, 1 55 .

y y
O d ss e , th e , 3 3 , 2 0 2. P l c es ton
a a ,
s e, 1 6
5 .

Ofli cial , Aramai , c 1

95 . P alaio l o go s , 2 04 .

o b
O g w e as in, 1 6 1 . P l n q e 44 5 54
a e u ,
1 ,
1 2, 1 .

O h io 45 ,
1 . P al esti 8 ne , 1 1 .

Oi seR iv 6 er , 2 2 . P l t in h ld by E l mites
a es e e a , 1 1 1 .

Old E ngl i h 248 s ,

. P l tini n p op l s 9
a es a e e ,
1 0 .

O ld F nch 5 265 68
re ,
21 , ,
2 . Ply 3 6
a e ,
2 .

O ld N o se 7 r ,
21 . Pal i 8 6
, ,
22 2 .

Old P i n 88
r us s a , . P lm w ood afte s in U
a r r r, 1 1 0 .

Old S xon 9 a 8 ,
0, 2 1 . P lmy in c iption f 96
a ra , s r s o , 1 .

O ld T t ment l anguage m o re mo d
es a P almyr ite, 1 81 .

er n th an N ew , 1 92 . P mp t ibe 5
a as r s, 1 0.

O liots o r
’

a mu s, Kl ck 1 1 5 . P no mo s 9 4
a r ,
1 .

l
O iph ant, M r s , 2 7 7 . . Ppa 8
ua, 1 2 .

l o k ll
O m , s u s at , 1 66 . Pp n t 9
a ua ar , 1 2 .

Omah as , 1 45 . Pap an ch cte 1 9

u ara r, 2 .

O man , 1 8 4 . P p an langu g s 9
a u a e , 1 2 .

O rders , r e igi us , 1 57 l o . P p an 5 8
a u s, 1 2 , 1 2 .

Or do fi e z ite d , 1 51 c . P p an bmerged contin

a u su ent, 1 28 .

on 43
O reg ,
1 . P p an ty p
a u 8 e, 1 2 .

O ganiz atio n
r , L atin th e language of , P are ntin tfns , 1 49 .

23 9 . P ih 3
ar a ,
1 2 .

Organs o f s p ee h dif er , 6 7 c . P i 8
ar s , 1 2 .

Or igin o f gender , 66 . P i i n th 26
ar s a ,
e, 0.

Or igin o f in e ti n, 40 flc o . P i U niv ity f 7

ar s , ers o , 2 1 .

Or igin o f Mo
d ern Fr en h , 2 70 c . P l i m nt op ened w ith sp eech in
ar a e a

k y
Or ne s , D anes in th e, 2 46, 2 52 . E ngl i h 86 s ,
2 .

Or m and h is O rmu lu m, 2 8 3 . P ee 8 6
ar s , ,
2 20 , 2 2 1 .

Oro ch us , 1 1 4 . Pa th ian mp i
r 3 e re , 2 0 .

Orfimo , o r G a as 1 7 9 ll , . P ticl G k
ar es , r ee ,
21 2 .

o
O r n tes , 1 7 8 . P ting f th A yans 8
ar o e r ,
20 .

o
Or s ius , th e H is panian , 2 57 . P c l 6 75
as a ,
2 0, 2 .

o
Ors n , a m dem , 58 o . P amaq oddies 45
as s u ,
1 .

Osages , 1 4 5 .
P s iv lo st by G z 8 7
a s e ee ,
1 .

c
Os ans o r O s i, 8 7 , 1 7 0, 21 3 , k 23 2 . P iv e ep laced in R omanc e 66
as s r ,
2 .
3 84 IND EX .

P as s u mah s , 1 2 5 . Ph il ip pin 8 3 1 25 1 47 es , , , .

P a tag n i an s ,o 1 50 . Ph il i tin 7 s 9 es , 1 0, 1 0.

P at r iar c h l gov a er n ment re taine d by Ph nici n lp h b t 8 5

oe a a a e , 1 .

th e h ill t ib e r s of India, 1 24 . Ph nic i c o lonis ts 7 8 8 5

oe an , , .

P wna 45 ees , 1 . Ph nic i n infl nc e i th e

oe a ue n e ar ly
Pecc y t k 49
ar us s, 1 . H ll nic w o l d
e 68 e r
,
1 .

Pg e 4 u, 1 0 . P h cr mi i ins c ip tions 8
c an r , 1 0.

P h l vi 8 6
e e , ,
221 . Ph ic i n l g g 8 9
oen a an ua e, 1 1, 1 0, 1 94 .

P l gi ns 66 69
e as a ,
1 , 1 ,
22
9, 2
31 . Ph nic i n f S id on 64
oe a s o , 1 .

P l gic l me t
e as e e n ,
2 1 2. Ph nix 57
oe ,
2 .

P l gic c 67
e as ra e , 1 . Ph on tic conv ni n c e 3 3 7
e e e , .

P l gic typ e 68
e as ,
1 . Ph on tic d c y 49 73 58
e e a , . .
2 , 3 33 .
P eles ta, 1 70 .
3 36
P e nan e s , 1 c 57 . P y
h r gian w o d fo b ead r r r ,
”
56 .

P en crych t h e ch ool ma te
s s r, 2 8
5
. Ph y ic l incomp t n cy 63
s a e e , .

P t en au r , th e Poem f 78 o , 1 . P ic d di l c t 68
ar a e ,
2 .

P pi M
e er it a, 1 72 . Pica d y 6
r ,
2 2.

P q ot
e u s, 1 45 . P icenum , As cu lu m in, 23 2 .

P fect
er lost by Pic t t 8 3
p ar ti ip c le a ti e c v e ,
2 ,
22 .

L t in 3a ,
21 Pi dmon t egion f Ch i pas 54
. e r o a ,
1 .

P gmer a 7 us , 1 1 Pind . ar , 2 1 1 .

P mi n
er 7 a s, 1 1 P i d w ild ch il d on Mo nt 57
. n us , u , .

Pe p d ic l w iting
r en Pi t A b 8
u ar r ,
1 22 . ra es , ra , 1 1 .

P p t ity f Ch in s c iv il iz ation Pi o 49
er e u o e e r s, 1 .

c f
au s e o
4 Piz o 47
,
1 0 . arr ,
1 .

P i n G lf 6 8
ers a Pl nt g n t p ince 9 7
u ,
1 0 , 1 1 . a a e e r s, 2 .

P i l it t
er s an in H ind o st n Pl to e r a ur e a a ,
21 1 .

420 . Pl tt D tsch 6 a eu
,
21 .

P i mod n 9 7
e r s an , Pl t s 3 5 er ,
1 ,
222 . au u
,
2 .

P iner s a c it tion 3 re s u s Pl z a m yo f M exico 1 57 a ,

20 . a a r o
, .

P in 5
ers a s, Pl i y th E l d nd
2 , 2 0 2 , 2 20 . Pliny th e n e er a

P i n p ok n by t h e H z
er s a s 15 Yo nge 7 4e a ara , 1 .
u r
,
22 , 2 2.

P i w o d in H ind stani
ers an Pl med S e p nt 5
r s u
,
22 2 . u r e ,
1 0.

P s ifi ti
er o n o c e f gram Pl l i
ca m isfo t ne to h av e lost
on a s ur o ura n en
,
r u
,

mat ical gen der 6 7 , . 2 78 .

P er u , 1
39, 1 40 , 1 47 . P o e, E dgar A an , 3 26 ll .

P er u vi n57 a s, 1 . Po P
em o f entaur , 1 7 8 .

P e te r bo o
r ugh , A e o f, 2 7
5 bb y . Po c
in t o f Fr e n h , 2 60 , 2 7 5 .

P ‘
’
e te r s p r in ia dia e t , 1 9 1ov c l l c . Point in w h ich ths e R mano ce
P etofi , 1 1 8 . t o ng g 67 ue s a r ee , 2 .

P t 96
e r a, 1 . Pol bi n 88a a s, .

Pet ca 4rar ,
2 1 . Pol 8 8 9 es , ,
21 .

P t i P o f o F l i de
e r e, r es s r n rs , 1 1 1 . Poliz i no 4 a ,
2 1 .

P t oni A b it
e r 7 us
37 r er , 2 2 , 2 . Polo M co 69 , ar ,
2 .

P v e y th e N o m n l nding
e n se , r a a t
a ,Polyn i n 8 es a , 2.

2
54 . Polyn i n blood 7 7es a , .

P zz i 3
e ,
22 . Poly ynth tic to g 8 4
s e n ues , .

Ph oh s f th
ara o e eigh te e nth d yn as ty Pom ni co t 8
,
era an as ,
21 .

Po m ian 8 8 e ran s, .

P h eiclias , 20 2 . Ponca 45 s, 1 .

Ph il mon e
,
2
35 . Pop 3 9 e, 1 .
 I N D EX
385
Pop ol Vuh 1 51 , .
Q u ar a nu anv per iod, 1 3 6, 1 64 .

P o ph yr y 1 1 1
r , .
Q ueer c h anges in th e meaning of
Po sena Lars 1 1 3
r
, , . wo d 3 08 r s, .

Portuguese 8 7 2 1 5 , , .
Q et z alco tl 1 40
u a , ,
1
50 .

Pos itional gramma r

, 43 , 48 , 1 0 0, Q uich e 1 3 8 3 5 , , 0.

3 34 '
Q uiCh étM ayai '43 7 3 49 1
Po o l
s iti na grammar mes rs t, 3 3 2 co fi .
Q uich es , 1 0 8 .

Po siti na o l
grammar, G re e fr e e k Q uich ri a l anguage, 1 57 .

o
fr m, 2 1 2 .
Q uich ua ty pe, 1 49 .

Po o
siti nal grammar in Ara i , 1 9 0 , bc Q uich ri as , 1 08 , 1 3 8 , 1 49 .

3 43 Q uintil ian, 2 2 7 , 240 .

Possessiv e forms v ary ing 3 5 3 56 , ,

0, .

Pott 2 7 , . I S 2 74
R AB E L A , .

Poul try (except tu k y ) nk nown r e u Ra bbi inv ent vow el p oints in H

s e

to Amer icans 1 3 9 , . b w of th e Bibl e 1 9 2

re
, .

Poverty of Latin v e b infl ction r e , R bs a is 1 9 5

a r , .

23 2. Rab sh k h 1 9 5 a e , .

Pove ty o f Sass enach int lle ct 59

r e ,
2 . R c its s h e in l anguage 5 3 3
a e, ar ,
2, 2.

Powh atans 1 45 , . R ca eo f th e R o ugh St o ne Age in

P akrit 8 6 2 2
r , , 2 . E o p e 1 66ur ,
.

P recis ion G reek 2 1 , ,

2. R a ian,
-
1 73 .

Precision o f F ench s tyl e 26 74 r , 0, 2 . R ama an a 3 3 y ,

.

Precision o f Latin gramma 3 9 r, 2 . R ames s u, 1 69 , 1 7 3 , 1 78 , 209 .

P efixes Bantu 3 3 3 3 55
r , , , . R arato nga, 8 3 .

Prefixes written but not s o nded u , R as ena, o r E tr us cans , 1 13.

1 04. R as k
338 , 2 7, .

Preh isto ic life of Aryans 3 3

r ,
. R a, th e S un go d, 1 75 .

P eh is toric riv er names in Ame ica

r r ,
l o c
R aw ins n ited, 209 .

1 38 . R ayno uar d, 26 7 .

P s cott cited 1 05
re , . o
R eas ns fo r triumph of E ast M id
P iest kings of th e Akkadi 1 1
r -
. 1 . l
and, 2 8 3 .

P iestly rul e 1 1 1 1 56 1 8 5 b L ibyans 1 70

R c p it l tio n 3 2 9 —
r , , , . Re u, o r , .

P inting p ess its infl uence in m k

r -
r ,
a e a 3 46 u a , .

ing E ngl ish mo de n 29 3 r , . R e c ding b o w 1 55

e r , .

P ocess o f de v elopment in langu g

r a e, R c ent th ory of Aryan o rigin
e e ,
1 99 .

R ec ip oc l v b s 3 57
r a er
73
.
,

Pr o e orms R ec l cit d 3 2
p o etry th eir f 2
and us e
s
.
,
,

mingl ed, 240 . R ecl q o ted 3 0

us u ,
2 .

P ro vengal, 8 7 , 2 1 5, 2 60 , 265 .
R ed S ea , 1 09 .

P sammetich us , h is inguisti l c ex p eri l c tion

R ed up i a , 50, 1 42 , 21 7 .

ment, 56 .
R eg n atio ne er of P e sian r c
ra e, 20 3 ,

P ol
t emies , 1 74 .
2 29 .

P ueblos stone 1 53 .
R egn um, 24 5 .
, ,

P u blo tribes 40
e ,
1 .
j
R e angs , 1 2 5 .

P linalua s ys tem o f intermarriage , l

R e ap s ed man can be taugh t spee h , c
71
la
1
tion oric al o
.

P c 1 8 1 1 90 1 94
uni , .
Re of h ist transiti n to
, ,

P u itan enmity to art 3 1 9

r ,
.
lang age 2 70 u ,
.

P u upu us 1 49
r r .
R l t iv e v e b s 3 57
e a r , .
,

Pyramids 1 3 9 1 53 1 56 1 7 2. R ligion nd national ity

e a ,
2 03 .
, , . ,

Pyrenees 84 .
R enan, 28 , 1 80 .

,
 IN DEX
3 86 .

R es em bl nc e betw n B q e a ee as u and S AB A, 1 8 4, 1 8 5 .

J p ne y nt x 3 2
a a se s a ,
1 . Sab ze an, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 .

R e mbl c in
se mes o f Akk an e na a di Sabarites , 1 86 .

H itt it d Et cn 3 es , an rus a s, 1 1 . b
Sa ine, 2 2 8 .

R e e mbl c
s f R o m to Sp an e o e ar ta Sa cs ,
1 45 .

2
30 .
Sa cy , Si lv estre de, 1 74 .

Re vv l f t
i a o ar s and l earning, 2 0 4 . S adi, 2 2 2 .

R v v l f p
e i a o ur e L atinit y ,
24 1 . Sah agun , Fath er , ( 51 .

R vol t ion in J
e u ap an , 1 2 1 . Sah ara, t h en a sea, 1 64 .

Rh t o ic g ni
e r ,
e us o f L at in fo r , 227 . k
S a a, o r S th ians , 7 9 cy .

R h to ic t t
e r , as e o f th e E i lz b a eth ans ll
S a u st, 2 4 x .

fo r , 3 1 7 .
Salmas iu s w r te in Latin, 22 6 o .

y c o
R h t h mi p wer o f G r ee , 2 1 2 k . S alv ian , 2 42 .

y c
Rh th m i rep et it i n , 50, 3 3 1 o . S amaritan en tate u h , 1 9 7 P c .

R idd l e s , 2 57 . Samnites 22 8 .

R iu kiu , or L oo Ch -
oo Is l an ds , 10 ,
3 Sam a, 8 o
1 20 .
oy
S am ed, 8 1 , 1 1 4, 1 1 8 .

Ri v m s f E op K l tic
e r na 8 e o ur e e ,
20 . S anagirs , “4 .

R iv m c l in 6 7
e rs as u e, . San , o r B u sh men, 1 3 4, 1 6 1 .

R o d w y f om E o p t
a Ame ic
a r ur e o r a, San , o r an , 1 7 3 Zo .

1
37 . Sansk rit , 2 5, 3 x, 47 , 8 6, 2 02, 222 .

R ob t f G lo c t r
er o u es e ,
Sapalala, 1 1 3 .

R ocky Mo nt i ng 43 u a n ra e, 1 . c
Sara ens , 1 8 1 , 1 8 8 .

R og H n y 3 6
e rs , e r ,
2 . Sardin ia, 1 67 .

R ol d L y f
an 72 ,
a o ,
2 02 , 2 . Sar g on K i ,
ng o f th e Akkadi, u r .

R o m ic 8 8 a , . Sarg on Ki ,
ng of As s yi r a, 1 1
3, 1 85 .

R o man 63 ,
2 . S ar z ec, E r nes t de , 1 1 0 .

R o m c d i l c t 63 3 59
an e a e ,
2 , . S assanid d n as t , 2 0 3 , 2 2 1 y y .

R o m c di l c t f o m t ion
an e a e ,
r a o f, 23 8, S as sena h , 8 7 , 20 5 c .

263 . c
Sas sena h , d e niti n o f th e term, fi o
o c l g g 66
R m an e an u a es , 2 . 24 5 .

R om n c amo y i E tru c n 3 er e n s s a ,
2 1 . Satar o na, 1 1 3 .

R om c h c t i tic
an 3 ara er s s, 2 1 . S atir e r igina o l w ith th e o
R mans ,
R o m n l ita t l t in pp ar ing e ra ur e a e a e ,
244 .

23 4 . S atur na ia in A ad , l kk 1 1 2.

o
R mans , 52, 20 5, 2 1 5 . S atur n ian g ds , 3 4 o .

o c
R m ans h , 8 7 , 2 1 5 . S at urn ian e r se 2 3 5 v . .

o y
R man , 2 2 , 69 , 86, 2 23 . Sat ri n, ” y co attr i ute d b to P . Ar
R om 3 8
e, 2 1 ,
22 . b
iter , 2 3 7 .

R om l and R m
u us
59 e us , . Saxo 8 48
n, 2 l , 2 .

R ISOO 47 3 3 ‘
, ,
0 S xo n c h o nicl
a r e, 2 57 .

Ro n se
7 ,
2 . S xo
a 4 5 64
ns , 2 , 2 .

Ro W
s es , f th 9 ar s o e, 2 1 . S xon in G l
a s au ,
26
4 .

R o t t S to n
se 74a e, 1 . S yc
a 8e, 2 .

R nic in c ip tio n
u
5 s r s, 2 1 . S yc c it d n
a e e , o .

R ll b il t by H mite
us e a
:
u a s, 1 67 . S c nd i v i
a 6
na a, 2 1 .

R k in J oh n 3 6 3 7
us , ,
2 ,
2 . S c ndin v i n 8 9
a a a , .

R ussian, 8 8 , 21
9 . S ch ar a, 1 1 5 .

Russ ian it erat ure , 8 8 l . c l

S h l ege , Fr eder i ck ,
27,
32 .

R us s ian n e is ts ov l
er p raise d, ov 9 21 . c l c
S h ei h er , 2 7 , 7 9 , 2
32 .

R us ti L atinc us e d by ch o ic e , 2 40 , 26 1 . c l
S h iemann, 1 68 .
 I N DE X
387
.

c
S h midt , 223 . Sh e b q a, ue en o f, 1 85 .

c ol
S h ar s f r getting th at o language i s Sh e bn a, 1 95 .

a gr wth , 69 o .
Sh ee p un k nown to th e Ameri c ans
c o
S ip i , 2 3 9 .
391 .
,

S co t l and H igh l nd cl ns f a a o 20 S h ep h e rd ings , 1 73 K

, 9 , .

S co t
.

6
s , 20 .
S h iah h ammedans , Mo 2 03
S co t t
.

77, 85 9 5 3 5 3 3
2 ,
2 , 2 , 0 , 2 . Sh in to, 1 2 1 .

S co tt i h di l c t
s 77 3 3 a e ,
2
,
2 . Sh o sh o nees , 1 45
Sco tti h g tt l 5
.

s u ur a ,
2 0 .
S iamese , 1 04 .

S co t t W l t infl n c e f
a er, ue o b
Si er ia, 1 1 4
, 54 , 2 . .

Seafarer , T h e, 2 57 .
cl c v k l
S i i ian a es , s ul s in, 1 66
l b
.

Se ed ess ananas , 1 4 7 . c ly
Si i , 1 67 .

S eine , th e r i er , 262 v . y o
Sidn e ’s p r se , 3 1 3 .

l
S e a in Si i , 1 9 4 c ly .
o
S id nian, 8 5 .

lj k
Se u s , 1 1 6 .
o cvlz o
Sid nian i i i ati n, 8 5, 1 64 .

ol
S emin es , 1 45 .
o oll
S id n iu s Ap inar is , 2 42 .

c
Semiti and S u mirian, I t o .
o
S id n, th e H it tite s eap rt, 1 1 3 , o 1 8 0,
S emiti c co q
n u es t o f th e Akkadi 1 8 1
, . 1 9 4.

c fl c o
S emiti in e ti n, 3 9 , 49 . S ik els , 1 70 .

cl
S emiti ite rature , 1 8 0 . l
Si esia, 1 1 5 .

c c
Semiti ra es , 1 8 1 ,
l
S i es ians , 8 8 .

c oo
Sem iti r ts, 7 3 , 1 8 2 . Simp i it o f lc y agg utinati n e l o x e mp l i
c c ol
Se miti s h ars , 1 9 2 . fi e d, 1 1 4
Semit i p ee h , 1 8 0 —
.

cS c 1 9 8,
3 43 . Sirp urr a o f th e Ch a d ees , l n o, ” 3 .

c o
Semiti w rds in E g p tian, 1 78 y . Six N ati n s , T h e, 1 40 o .

c
S ene as , th e tw o , 2 2 7 , 2 3 9 , 2 40 . klo
S e t n, 2 9 4 .

Senefr u, 1 1 x . k
S ip etar , 2 1 3 .

S en l ac , th e figh t at, 2
54, 2
99 . l
S ang, 3 3 9
S ep timan ia, 2 61 . S l v e y mong th Akk adi
a r a e , 1 12 .

Se q ue n e o f c vo w l e s, 82 Sl v 5
a s, 7 5 8 2, 2 0 21 21

Se—
. .
, ,

qu o yah , th e Ch e r
-
ok e e, 1 44 . S l e m n C olo el 58
e a ,
n ,
.

b
Ser s , 8 8 , 2 0 7, 2 1 8 . Slo valt s , 88 .

Sereet ’ Antar , 1 8 8 . S mo l le tt’s H umph r e y l

C ink er,
o
S eri us temp er o f th e E ng is h , 3 2 6 l .
310 .

S er p ents , th e R a e o f th e 1 50 c , . S ol my th 4ar , 1 0 .

vc
S er i e o f th e G r ee s to th e h uman k S olo mo n 8 5 , 1 .

c
ra e , 2 0
3 . S om et 67 ers , 1 .

S eti th e 1 69 Fir s t, . S o g B ook f 8 9

n s, o , 1 .

v
S e ern, 2 0 5, 2 8 2 . S o p h ocl es , 2 0 2 .

Sh ah nameh 2 0 2
-

, . S o nd imp o ibl e f
u s ss or s ome r a es ,c
Sh ak alas h a, 1 70 . 67 .

k
S h a es p ear e, 2 0 2 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 9 , 3 2 7 . So uth Amer i a, 3 54 c .

k
Sh a es p ear e u te d, 3 1 9 q o . So b
u th Ara ia, 1 79 .

k
Sh a es p ear e ’ s p r s e, 3 1 2 o . So th C ol i
u 45 3 3 7 ar n a, 1 ,
.

c l o
Sh amanis ti re igi n, 1 1 2 , 1 3 8 , 3 42 .
“S o th e n P e by te i n
u r r s r a v
R e iew ,
Sh an s e, pr in e o f, 9 5
-
ov c . 62
1 .

Sh ar dana, 1 69 . o
S uth of Fr an c e, 1 67 .

Sh are o f L atin in th e p read o f S S p anish , 8 7, 1 9 7 , 2 1 5, 268 , 3 6 1 .

Ch r is t ianit , 2 1 5 y . Sp anis h s p ea ing a a s, 1 2 7

-
k Mly .

Sh aw nees , 1 4 5 . Sp e i c fic
t er ms T e ut ni , 3 0 5 o c .

Sh eba, 1 8 4, 1 8 5 . c o
Sp e tat r , ” o n w i d h i dren, 58 l c l .
 I NDEX
388
ll
S p e ing, E ng ish , 3 28 , 3 46 l . S ynt x f H ebrew 1 9 2
a o , .

ll
S p e ing ed fix by
printing, 29 3 . S yn t x f j apanese 1 22
a o , .

l
S pe l ing, O r m s s s tem o f, 2 8 3
’
y . S y th is decl ining 6 7
n es
,
2 .

S p ens er , E dmund, 3 1 2 , 3 26 . S ynth esis in l ang age 7 1 u , .

S p ir it s eer s e pe e d
-
G udea , x ll by 1 12 . Sy i 1 9
r a, 85 0 , 1 .

Sp ok n Ch inese 1
e ,
02. Sy i c 1 8
r a 1 97 ,
1, .

Sp oken Ch inese dial ec ts ,

diff er in S y i n l ng ge (Aramaic)
r a a ua
, 8 5, 1 81 ,
1 03 . 1 91 , 1 95 .

l
S tat e iness o f Latin, 23 9 .

l
St e e e, 3 20 .
T AAN AU , r yo .

S teinth a , 2 7 l .
T a bl e of Agg utinati l ve L anguages,
S teph en , ing, 2 57 K . 1
35 .

S te ph ens, th e e p rer , 1 54 x lo . T a bl e of Ameri can L anguage s ,

S terne , re ,
2 L aw nc e 3 2 . 1
59 .

v
S te ens , on R obert L o
uis , 2 7 7 , 2 6
3 . T a bl e of Ary an Languages , 9 2 .

. o
S t L uis, 3 0 8 . T a bl e o f Ar yan L anguages o f th e

S tra bo c
ited , 23 1 . E as t , 5
22 .

b
S tras ur g, 26 2 . T abl e o f Ar yan Lan ua es
g g of th e
b
S tras ur g, Oath s o f, 3 59 . W es t
'

, 522 .

S tre ss in E ng ish and German, 3 3 7 l . T a bl e of Hamiti c and S emiti c

y
S tud o f language, 1 3 , 2 5 . L anguages , 9 1 .

S uabian dia e t, 2 1 8 lc . bl c
T a e o f H amiti Languages , 1 79 .

S uanian, 86 . bl
T a e o f L anguages , 9 1 .

v
S ue es , 8 9 , 26a . bl
T a e o f L anguages o f th e Ita i lc
S umatra, a a s o f, 1 25 M ly . St ock
, 244 .

S umir , 8 4, 1 8 2 , 3 41 . bl
T a e of Mo o yll b
n s a i c L anguages,

S umiri, 1 06 . 1 0
5 .

S unda, 8 3 . bl
T a e o f S emiti L anguages, c 1
98
S undanese , 1 25 . T abo , 1 2 5 o .

-
o
S un w rsh ipers , 1 3 9 , 3 54 . T ac u ll ies , 1 43 .

o
S u mi o r Finn and, 1 1 7 l . T l
aga s , 1 2 3 .

S urre 312 y ,
. T ah iti, 8 3 .

Sw eden , 9 0 .
T akk ar u, 1 70 .

S w edish , 9 0 , 21 7 . l
T a mud, 1 9 1 .

S wift, 3 1 9 .
T amil , 8 4, 1 24.

b
S win urne , 3 1 8 , 3 24 . T ap ajo z Ri er , 1 46 v .

z l
S w it er an d, 2 1 0 .
co
T aras n E trus m , 2 2.
3
yll b y kk
S a ar , A ad, 1 07 .
T aras cos ,
1 43 .

Syll b y ok
a ar , C h er ee, 9 7, 1 44 .
T ar ch o n
3 , 1 1 .

Syll b y
a ar , Ch inese , 9 6, 1 2 1 . T are n tum, 23 5 .

Syll b y c
a ar , o uneif rm, t o , 1 8 2
g .
T ar gum, 1 9 6 .

Syll b y o ly c
a ar , h ier
g ph i , 1 7 5 . T ar k o ndémo s 1 1 3 . .

Syll b y
a ar , H ittite , r 1
3 . T ar o up e , 3 6 1 .

Syll b y J
a ar , apanese, 1 20 . T ar q u inii, th e it , c y 1 1
3 .

y bol z o
S m i ati n, 8 o , 3 41 . T ar q u ins E t us c an r , 2 0
3 .

y y c l
S mmetr in ea h inguis ti t p e , c y T arsh ish , o r T ars us ,
7 9 : 3 41 T ar sh is h , o r T ar tessus , 1 94 .

y
S mmetr o f p ngwe , 3 58 y M o . T ar tan , 1 9 5 .

y o
S nag gue, s emn h ant o f th e, ol c c
T ata ri tri es, 8 1 , 20 7 b .

1 92 . T atars , 1 1 5 .

y o y
S n n ms in E ng ish , 29 9 , 3 0 7 l . oo
T at t ing, 1 48 , 1 68 .
 I NDE X .

3 89
T auis m, 9 4 . Ti c unas , 1
49 .
Ta r,ylo J
ere m y 313 3 5 , ,
1 . 3 27 T lc é
igr dia e t, 1 8 7 .

Te n c h ical te m s void d r a e , 1 2. T lc
igrina dia e t , 1 8 7 .

T eima, 85 1 . T im E ngl i h
e t ook s to b come e

T e l 10 h , 1 0 6
-
. ly tic 9 3
an a 2 .

T im —
,
l
T e ugu, 8 4, 1 24 . no te l imit d in
e e th e
‘
He b r ew

l
T e mp e , S ir W i iam, 3 20 ll . v b 9 er , 1 2.

T e n den ies to dis s a i f c yll b c o r mation, T imur , 1 1 5 .

50 . T inia, th e E tr us can J up iter , 1 1 3,

T e ni, 1 72 .
71 1 .

T e nn es s ee , 1 45 . T innéh , 1 43 ,
T e nn y ons , A fr ed,l 29
5, 3 1 8 , 3 24, y b l by H mit 67
T ir ns u i t a es , 1 .

3 26 . cc
T iti a a, Lak 57 e, 1 .

T e nn y on s
s
’
N o r th ern F ar mer , ” l
T it es , 3 0 4 .

51 T be0in A y an t ong r ues , 64,

T en h tit an, oc l 1 53 , 1
57 .
3 63 .

o
T e t ih ua an , c p y ra mids o f, 1
53 , o
T da, 1 24 .

1 56 . ol o
T s t i, 2 1 9
'

T eo yao miq ui, 1 57 . T ol tec 1 3 9 53 s, , 1 .

T erah t h e H e b rew , 1 1 0 . T on 49 8 9 9 e, ,
0, ,

T eren e , 2 3 c 5 . T o g 83 n a, .

T ermina l in fl c tion in A y
e ss rian and T ook Ho n 3 e, r e, 1 .

He b r ew , 1 93 . T o p l dy 3 7 a ,
2 .

T ermina l infl ec tio n of Ar y an o

t ngue s , T o t mi t ic oc i ty
e s s e ,
1 3 8 , 3 42 .

49 , 1 93 T o ine 6ura ,
2 2.

T e r sen ess a res u l t f infl ec tion

o ,
21 2 . T o y, 2 8 .

T e rsenes s of Fr en ch 6 ,
2 0. T r ade in bit umen, my rr h , and s p i es, c
T er tiar 37 y p iod er , 1 . 1 96 .

ll
T er tu ian , 2 26, 242 . T r a an sj c p tu e f P
’
a r o e tra, 1 96 .

T euk ro i, 1 70 , 20 9 . T r a e erv l s S ong th ’

, e, 2
55 .

T eut n i , 8 6 o c . T ra e , v l influ nc f e e o , on E ng ish , l

T eut ni o
u p e ts , c co l
3 08 .
3 24 .

o
T eut ni gr up , 20 6 c o . T ra e v l to I t ly a ,
in
31 6 fl c
uen e o f, .

o c fl c
T e ut ni in uen es o n Fr en h , 2 72 c . T rees , f it b ru -
ear ing, feminine, 67 .

o
T eut ns , 52, 2 1 5 . T re n ch q o ted u , 3
27 .

x
T e as , 1 43 . T r evis a, 2 88 .

ck
T h a era , 3 2 6 y . T re v isa q oted 8 5 u ,
2 .

T h anet, I s e o f, 2 45 l . Tr ikal w il d ch il d at 57
a, , .

T h ania, 1 1 3 . T r il it l oots 68 3 43
era r , ,
.

“T h e As e nt o f M an c c
it ed, 60 .
T r ip l ets 3 6 ,
1 .

b
T h e an pr in es , 1 73 c . T r oj ans 69 , 1 .

oc
T h e ritus , 2 1 1 . T r o b d o s d ec y f
u a ur ,
a o th e ir ar t,

T hi ck
s p e e h o f th e G a i ean s 1
,
c 91 ll .
27 1 .

T h link e et s, 1 1 8 .
T r o v o
u eurs , r T r o ve e u r s, 2 7 1 .

o
T h r nwe , am es , 3 2 7 ll J . T u do p e io d r r ,
2 7 7 , 29
3, 31 1 .

T h o th m es th e T h ird , 1 7 3 . T uir sh a, 1 69 , 1 70 .

o
T h usand N igh t s and a N igh t , 1 8 9 , T u a, l l and o f, 1 0 5 .

3 61 .
T u a ln 52 ,
1 .

b
T i erias , U ni er s it o f, 1 9 2 v y . Tu lh a 2 1 4
, 1 5 , 5 .

b
T i etan 1 0 4 . . T ul o o m, 1 55.
b
T i etans , 1 04 . l
T u u, 1 2 4 .
 390 IN D EX .

T une s , 85 . U m Z ut i, 1 63
-
.

T un gus, 1 1 4 . o
U nif r mit o f a e nt, in L atin, y cc 2
39 .

T un gus i , 8 1 c . U n ite d S tates o f Amer i a, 2 0 2 c .

T u p is , 1 46 . v y b
U ni ers it o f T i er ias , 1 9 2 .

T uranian i ii c v l z tion a th e ol dest v y l

U ni ers it o f U p s a a, 2 1 6 .

1 06. U ra l Al t ic g o p
-
a r u ,
1 20 .

T uranian h rse eat er s , 1 66 o -

. U rd u , 222 .

T u r an ian an guages d e id l vo of gen U r ma N o fi rura, 1 1 3 .

der, 1 oo . U r o f th e Ch a d ees , l 1 10
,
1 82 .

T uranian r a es , c 76, 1 67 . U r uk i, 1 10 .

T u r an ian y
t pe , 1 12 . Us e bk s, 8 2, 1 1 6 .

T ur b t nd T g t K l m ck
e a ur u a u s, 1 1 5
. U tes , 1 45 .

T ur k y 78
e , . c
U ti a , 8 5, 1 9 4 .

T ur kom 8 6 an s , 2, 1 1 . l
U ti itar ian p h i lo oph ys of th e Chi
T ur k s4 , 6 1 1 ,
1 1 . n ese , 93 .

T ur k confo d d w ith T
s un e atar s U x mal ,
1
53 , 1 55 .

1 1
5 .

T c
u s an s , 2
3 2 . VANA GO S 34 D , .

T c o
us ar ras , 1 45 . Vand l i m y h v b
a a a e e en W ends ,

T u sc l m u u
3 ,
2 2. 2 2 4.

T Sh il o nge, 1 6 1
u -
. V o c
ar iati n, au ses o f ,
33 9 .

T utelo es , 1 4 5 . V ar a i tio i l n n an guage 62

, .

T ut u l Zi ns , 1
53 . V arie ties of l an guage f o r matio n,
c k
T w o as es ep t in Old F ren h c and 33 5
P r o v engal , 26 7 . V co
as nes , 1 3 1 .

y
T re , 1 8 0 1 9 4 , . Vera Cr u , 1 56 z .

T yr ian i i i ati c v l z on , 77 . Ved as , 3 3 , 2 0 2 .

z
T enda , 1 44 l . Vén edi, p r a ob bly W nds e ,
2 24 .

z
T en da s , 1 53 l . Veneti o f B it t ny m y r a a ha v been
e

T z e quil s , 1
52 . W end s, 22
4 .

Veneti of L m o b ar d ym ay ha v b e een

U A R D A, ” r om nce by a Ge og r e W ends ,
224 .

b
E er s , 1 7 8 . V b l infl c tio comp l
er a e n e te in Gr ee k ,

U gr ian, 8 1 . 21 2 .

U gr ians , 1 1 7 . V gil
er
3 3 , 2 0 2, 24 1
, .

U igur s , 8 2, 1 1 6 . Verne '

r s law fo r th e sh if tin g of

U l filas, 8 9 , 2 1 6, 248 s pir ants

.
, 338 .

l
U p ian, 2 42 . V satility Lati d void f 3 9
er
, n e o ,
2 .

l
U timat e r ts m n oo o o yllabic s , 48 . V tic l i d x f k ll 68
er a n e o s u , 1
.

Um b i 87 3 r an . , 21 , 2 28 . V t l v i gi 57
es a r ns , 1 .

U mb o S b ll ian r -
a e ,
23 2 . V ic to i N y nz a 6
r a a ,
1 0.

U m gababa, -
1 63 . V i gini 45
r a, 1 .

U m h lu tane,-
1 6
3 . V i igoth in S o th Ga l 6
s s u u ,
2 2.

U m k amaz i -
. 1 63 . Vi igo th i Sp in 6
s s n a , 2 2.

U m k o manz i 1 63
-

, . Vit v i 4
ru us, 2 2 .

U m us i, 1 63-
k .
Viv idn f F nch 6
ess o re ,
2 0.
U ni la ut , G th i h ad no , 8 9 o c . Vizc ay a, 1
3 1 .

U m a i, 1 63
-
lz . Voc b l i diff nt f m l e a
a u ar e s ere or a nd
U mp u as q , f m l
e
5 a e, 1 0 .

U m te ut a, 1 63
-
. Voc b l y E gyp ti
a u ar
79 , an , 1 .

U m v 010 5i, 1 63
-
. Voc b l y L tin 3 3
a u ar ,
a ,
2 .
 I N DE X .
39 I

Voc b l a y los o f by I nfl ec ted

a u r ,
s , W est I ndies, 1 46 .

E ngl i h 54 s , 2 . W es t mor el an d 245 , .

Voc b l y o f H b w l imit d 93
a u ar e re e , 1 . W e st Saxons 246 ,
.

Voc b l y P nic 9 4
a u ar ,
u , 1 . W es t S l av ic 8 8 , .

Voc l iz tio n diff n c e o f ac e in

a a ,
ere r s , W h ee l er , D I I qu o ted, 2 59 .
-

.
, .

33 0 ' W h ite fi el d, 3 2 7 .

o l
V gu s , 1 1 7 . W h ite rac es , 7 5 .

ol
V ga, B u gars o f th e, l 1 1 7 . W h itne y , 28 , 72 , 3 3 6 .

Voltair e, 2 60, 2 7 5 . W ids ith , 2 56 .

Voltan , th e T enda z l c ul t ur e -
h er o ,
W ife’s C o mp laint , T h e, 2 57 .

50
1 . W il d man d oes n o t s p eak , 59 .

Vo rbs mas ty , 8 W ill iam th e N o rman 2 53

'

1 1 . .
,

Vot my th f 1 5
an , o , 1 . W il s on , J o h n, 2 7 7 .

Vo w l cco d x mp lifi ed
e a r e e , 1 1 4. W il s on R ev D r J R , c ited, 1 62
, . . . . .

Vow l ch ng 49 8 3 4
e a e, ,
0, 1 . W innebago es , 1 45 .

Vowe l nding l ng age 3

-
e a u s, 1 0. W is hitas , 1 45 .

Vow l infl c tion 3 8 3 3 3

e e , , . W itc h es ex p elled by G udea, 1 1 2 .

Vow l p oints i se t d by
e n r e Ra bbi s, W it K e ltic 2 1 o
, ,
.

1 92 . Wo guls , o r Vogul s, 8 1 , 1 1 7 .

Vow l e s in T ur k ish h arm onic , 1 1 6 . W olfs tan 2 58 , .

Vul fila, or U lfilas , 21 6 . W omen eq ual w ith men in S ir purra,

\
1 1 2.

V AC E , 28 2 . W oo d en s w r ds , o ob s id ian -
o
p int ed,
W al e s , 1 6 7 , 2 0 5 . 1 56 .

W all ac e c ited, 1 28 W or ks and D ay s o f H es iod , 3 3

\
. .

Val lace q otu e d, 82 . W yatt 3 1 2 ,

.

W all ac h ian ,
S7 2 1 5 , . W ycliff e , 2 8 7 , 2 9 3 , 3 26 .

W all ac h ian l c l w i d h i d, 57 . W ynto un, 28 8 .

Wa l p ol e H o c 3
,
ra e 10 ,
.

W anderer , T h e 2 57 ,
. N
XE O P H O , 2 1 1 N .

W ar ne c es sar y fo r dev e lop ment , 20 1 . Xe r es , w ine o f, 79 .

W ar , w or ds o f 3 0 0 ,
. x
Xer es , 1 8 3 .

Was h ash a, 1 70 .
Xibalba, 1 51 .

W as h ingt on , 1 43 .
oc c lco y
X hi a , p
r amid o f , 1 53 , 1 56 .

W ater o f E uph rates , 1 09 .

W at ts 3 2 7 Y AC AN N AC U N N E E , 1 50 .

‘
.
,

W a—Buma 1 6 1 ,
.
Yk
a ut o f S i er ia inte igi b ll bl e to T ur k
W a G anda 1 62
-

, .
o
o f C ns tan tin p e, 1 1 6 o l .

W a—N anda, 1 62 Yk t 8
a 4
u s, 2, 1 1 .

Y m t o con q ing t ib f
.

W a N yor o , 1 6 2
- a a ,
ue r r e o , 1 20 .

Ye div ision o f th com o

.

fr m
W a Poko mo 1 6 1
-

, .
ar , e, es

W a—San gara, 1 6 1 Akk d 9 a ,

1 0 .

Yeddo p ech f 1 2
.

W a Zin z a, 1 6 1
-
. ,
s e o ,
2 .

W eddah s o f C e ylon 2 2 .
Y llow c 7 5 65
e r a es , ,
1 ,

Y llow Riv 9 5
,

\
W eek s co me fr om Akkad , 1 09 . e er , .

V lle e Ri ve r, 1 61 Ym e
e 45as s es , 1 .

Ym
.

l c name 8 84 96
We sh th e Sasse na h fo r e en, 1 0, 1 ,
1 .

K el t s , 2 46
Y eni i 1 4 se , 1 .

Y o Ain in 2
.

W en d ic 8 6 220 .
es s ,
os , 1 0.

W ends 8 8 20 7 , 22 4
,

,
,

.
Yi g t 1 3
-
an -
z ,
0 .

W es l ey, 3 2 7
,

.
Yo k 8 8
r ,
.
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Yo k h ir e 1 67 3 3
r s
-
, ,
2 . Zend 8 6 220 2 21
, , , .

Yo g D T h oma
un ,
r. s, 1 74
. Z nd Av ta 3 3 0
e -
es
, ,
22 .

Y c t n 7 7 1 3 9 1 55
u a a , ,
'

, . Zoan o S an 1 7 3
,
r , .

Yu p i ta tz e,
- -
- 1 1 4 . Zo oa t i n faith 22 0
r s r a , .

Zul 8 5 3 3 4
u, ,

ZAM N A th e M ya C lt
,
a u ur e -
h er o , 1 50 . Zulus 6 1 ,
1 .

Zap otecs 1 56 , .
 ( I
A w o nderfully us e u l f boo k fo r bus y p eop le .
”

AL EPI
BY KAT E MILNER RABB .

1 2mo , 3 9 8 pa ge s ,

Mrs Rabb’s tr eatment o f each epic consists o f (1 ) A des crip tive sketch o f th e
.

poem ; (2) An outline o f th e hist orical narrative e mbrac ed in it ; (3 ) Sel ections, each o f
c
wh i h narrate s a co l o b bl o y c c o
mp e te in ide nt ; (4) A sh rt i i graph of ea h p e m ; (5) A ist l
l o
o f standar d E ng ish trans ati n s o f th e f r eign e p is c l o
T h e las t t wo o f th ese items
k
ma e th e book v l bl
a ua e as a w r ok c
o f re fere n e o o
T h e au th r h as perf rmed h er h ea vy .

k c l c l y bl y
tas w ith s u h di ige n e and ite r ar a i it as wi ll c
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w in mu h r edit to h erse f, l
a nd b th m e f difyi g
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T hi i xc ll t g id t k ow l dg d pp ci tio f th wo ld g t
s s an e e en u e o a n e e an a re a n o e r
'
s re a

e pic po m T h Hi d
e s. G k R om Fi i h S xo G m F ch Sp i h
e n u, r ee , an , nn s , a n, er an, ren , an s ,

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a an, Po t g E gl i h
r u uese , d P i pic f di ti ctiv ly
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po m e Th R i w o
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f R i w N w Yo k
e ev e ev e s, e r .

T h book i di ti g i h d by
e s l m it T h ol m m y b h tily m
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m nd d
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se ti g om f
n n ts whiche t it p t f om imil
e a ur es co d tio P bl i L dg
se a ar r s ar n ensa ns . u c e er ,

Phil d l phi
a e a.

K te M il n R bb h do
a good t
er f a b y p p1 d f th o wh o
as ne a ur n or us e0 e an or se se
lit y i cli tio
erar n t t o g
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pic wh ich
n en u o s us a n a e s re o r ea e e s

are th b i e f lit t
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M R bb
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a su ee s a ra n su ar z n e s r es o e e cs . e as

end vo d t
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a d t
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th t h
a b ief p o p ph
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rases re n o ne a es o e so -
a e e s o
”
Ossian . N ew Yor k Co m me rcial A dver t iser .

T h e idea is an ad mirabl e o n e, and is w e ll c ar ried o ut . T h ese sh o t to i ca ot

r s r es nn

l
fai to aw a en a k c i o ity w hich will o ly b
ur s n e satis fied wi th a l ar ge r s u t dy f th g t o e rea

epics of th e w r o ld . T he A d va nce .

Aw o nder u f lly usef u l book f b y p op l or us e e. S t P a ul P io neer P r ess

. .

T he w ond er is tha t it w n t do lo g g
as o ne n a o . Ch icag o T r ibune .

For sal e by booksel l ers gener al ly o r will be sent post , ,

paid on receipt of the pr ice by the publ ishers

, , ,

A C McCLURG
. . CO .
, CHICAGO .
 B y M rs . ELIZ AB ET H W LAT IM ER .

S p a in in t h e Nine t e e nt h Ce nt u r y . Handso me y i l ll ustrated . 8 vo .

$2 50 . .

M r s Latime r h as ch i v l cc
igna s u es s in t h is, th e a tes t o ne o f h e r e r p o p u
a e ed a s l v y
c y v o bo c
.

lar nine tee nt h e n t ur h is to r ies , in th at it gi e s inf r ma t io n a ut th e r e e nt h is to ry o f

c
S p ain t h at an no t b e fo und in any th er ume no w a es s i e o vol
T h e s t r ugg es e t we e n cc bl . l b
abs ol c
u t is m and o n s t it u ti na is m, o l b
e t w e e n t h e C ar is t s an d t h e C h r is tin o s , a nd th e l
man re y vol o u t i ns d uring t h e re ign o f I sa e a, mak e u p a i e b ll
an d in t e r es ting, t h o ugh l v ly
oy
t u r b ule n t s t r y
T h e h is to r o f Cu a is r o ugh t d w n to re e nt t imes and a h ap ter b b o c , c
vo c lo o
.

15 de te d to t h is a nd a no th er to th e Sp an is h o nie s in S uth A me r a ic .

It a ly in t h e N in e t e e nt h C e n u r y Handso mely ill us rated w ith t . t

tw enty fo ur full page h al f to ne po rtraits 8 v o
-
4 3 6 pages - -

. . .

y
I tal in t h e N in e te e nth Centur , is as fasc mat in g as a ro mant i no e I ndeed y ”
c vl
v y
e er c h ap t er is a ro man e fro m h ist o r c
mad e a mo s t in o ur o w n d ay I t 1 5 h ar d t o y l
cl k c o vol c ly v
.

imagine a mo re diffi u t tas th a n to o mp re ss I nt a s mgl e u m e t h e ri h ar ie d

o
s to r ie s o f S t ate s a n d m e n and w me n t h at w e n t t o t h e ma ing o f t h e U nite d I ta of k ly
to day
-
. T he P r ess , h i ad e ph ia P l l .

E u ro p e in Af r ica in t h e N ine t ee nt h C e nt u r y Handso mely .

ill ustrated w ith tw enty th ree full page h al f to ne po rtraits 8 vo - - -

. .

4 56 pages .

lz b
E i a e th W o rme le y
Latimer h as mad e a a ua e v l bl co d tio f th h i t y n ensa n o e s or of
x lo
E uro p ean e p ratio n and o n uest Sh e a s h e r b c q c ll ook vol m f h t y a u e o s or ar ns ,
"

o c c z o c t th kilf l mmi g p
.

b ut t h is m de st h ara t eri at io n d es n o t do ju s t i e o e s u su n u of
c v
a hie e me n t in t h e D ar C o n tinen t T /ze A d i/ a n ce k . .

E n gla n d in t h e Nin et e e nt h Ce nt u r y Handso mely ill ustrated .

w ith tw enty five ful l page h alf to ne po rtraits 8 vo

-
4 52 pages - -

. . .

W h at a lo t kn o w s And h o w righ tl s h e tells it all I W e s e em t o b e r e ading

sh e b y
c o
o nte mp r an eo u s o nfi d e n t a t c
e t e rs t o an nt imat e fr e n d , w r itte n ill
“
n o t fo r p u i a i i bl c
t io n by
a ny m e an s ,
— th e s tvl e ts to o g o d fo r th at , — bu t s nmp ly e au se t h e w rite r o bc
v
is interes ted , and n e er imagines th e r ead e r t o be o t h er w ise T rt e ”J a il a nd E x pr e ss , .

Ne w Y k or .

Ru s s ia a nd in t h e N ine t e e nt h Ce nt u r y
T ur k e y Handso mely .

ill ustrated w ith twenty —

th ree full page h al f to ne po rtraits 8 vo - -

. .

41 3 pages .

T h ere is yw i
no t a a n n its f o
h undr ed p age s
ur T h e auth r d e a s w ith th e end ess o l l
b
.

s trife etw e e n th O tt m e o an an d th e R us s ia n in t h e mo o d o f a p a nt e r ; a n d h e r w o rd i
pa int ing is l w y b igh t
a a s r a nd o ften r b ll
i iant a n d p o w e r fu Ch icag o E ve n ing P o s t l . .

Fr a n c e in t h e N ine t e e nt h C e nt u r y , 1 8 3 04 8 9 0 Beautifully -
.

ill ustrated with tw enty tw o full page h alf to ne po rtr ai s 8 vo - - -

t .
.

4 50 pages .

ll i g it tio
Fo r te n s ua fo r star tl ing effe ts s h e er tain do es n o t a
ns and c c ly l ck Sh e
i l w y pic t q ly c c ly o gh m t y
.

s a a s I ur es ue n h er an a sis o f h ara te r s h e d is p a s a t h o r u as er
bj c t x ly book wh i h
.

of h e r su M e rs La time r h as w r it t e n an e t re me in tere s t ing c

w ill b o o
. .
,

d w it h
e r ea g e a e r ness T h e D a ily A d ver t is e r , B s t n
. .

Sol d by booksel l er s generally or w il l be sent pos tpaid , , ,

o n r eceipt of the pr ice b y the publ ishers , ,

A C McCLU RG 65 CO
. .
"
.
, CHICAGO .
 By M r . G EO RG E P . U PT ON .

T he Stan da rd O p e ras : T h e ir P lo ts , t h e ir M u s ic , a n d t h e ir
o m po s ers

g
. A Handbo o k 1 2mo Flex ible cloth , yellow edges . . .

A m ong th mu l ti tude o f h db k w hi c h are p bli h d

e
y y ear and d ib d an oo s u s e e v er escr e
by easy g i ng wr i ters f b k n o ti c es suppl ing a long fe l t want we k w o f
,
-
a o oo -
as -
no no ne
wh ic h s o co m pl ete ly carri es o ut the intenti on o the writer as T h S tandard O peras
'

e
,
”

wh o se ob e c t i s t present t o i ts re ders a co mprehensi v e sk et c h o f eac h of the operas ,

in th e m o dern reperto y —R H S t dd d i T b M il d E p
o a
i
co n t a ne r o ar n e a an x r es s ,
N w Yo r k
.
. .
,
e .

T h summaries o f the p lo ts are s o cl ear o gi c a l and we ll wri tten tha t o ne can read
e
l
the i th rea l p l easure wh ic h c ann o t b e sai d o f the o rdinary operati c sy n opses B t
, ,
m W , u
the m t imp it c irc umstan c e is that M U pt on s book is fu lly ab reast o f the
.

’
os o r tai r
t i mes l i N t N w Yo rk
.
'

. te a i o n, e .

T h e S t a nd a r d O ra t or ios : T h e ir St or ies t h e ir M us ic a nd , ,

t h e ir Co m p o se rs A Hand book t amo Flex ib le clot h yello w . . .

,

edges .

N o thing i musi c a l histo r y is s o i t

n i t o the genera l reader as the st ory of the n eres t n
great o rat o rio s the s c enes and in c iden ts w i i c h gav e them rise h ow th ey were co m
,

p osed and h ow first perf o rmed T hese things are tol d in M U pt on s vol um w ith
,
’
, . r e

and c harm co mp o rting with the c harac ter o f the su bje c t Ob

.

t g r ace N w
§{o rl
. se r v er , e

T h book is a mast erpie c e o f s k i l fu l h nd l ing c harming the reader with i pure

e a ts
E ng li sh st yl e and k eeping h is attenti o n a l wa y s awa k e in an arr ngement o f matter
,

, a
whi c h mak es ea c h u cc eeding page and chapter fresh i interest and a l way s fu ll o f
S n
i nstru c t ion wh il e a l wa y s enterta i ning T / S t d d C h icag o
, . ze an ar , .

T h e Sta n d a r d Ca nta ta s : T h e ir S tor ies t h e ir M us ic a n d , ,

th e ir C o mp o s e r s A Handboo k 1 2mo Flex ib le clot h yellow . . .

,

edges .

T his is a s t ud y o f th c an tata in its i fo rms fr o m its e rly simp l e e it ti v ar O us a i ec

'

a ve

o r aria st yl e d own t o its present e l abo ra te co nstru c ti on T h se l e c ti ons in cl ude q uite

,

. e
a ll o f th e c antatas that ran k high in merit I t is the on l y hand book and guide fo r
musi c ians and their friends and is as v a l uabl e as either of the tw o admira bl e w o rk s
.

pre c eding it T i B t Gl b
,

. re os o n o e.

T h e Stan d a r d S y mp h o nies : T h e ir H ist ory t h e ir M u s ic , ,

a nd t h e ir C o m p o se r s A Hand book 1 2mo Flex ib le clot h . . .

,

yellow edges .

T h e usefu l ness o f t his hand book c ann o t b e d o u b ted I pages are pa ck ed fu ll o f ts

the e f sc inating renderings T h a cco unts o f ea c h co mp oser are m t and y et
.

s a e s uc c c ,

su ffic ient: T h auth o r h d one a genuine serv i c e t o the w or l d of m j l

.
g

e as T h uS i c o ver s . e

co mprehensi o n of o rc hestra l wo rk f the highest c hara c ter i s i ded effici ently by th i s o a

vol ume T h me ch ni ca l e e c u ti on o f the vol ume is in h arm o n y W i th t su bje c t N
e a x i s . o
w orthier vol ume c an b e fo und t o put int o the hands o f an amateur o r a fri end of
.

musi c P bl Op i i W ashingt o n
.
-
u
'

zc n o n, .

W o man in M u s ic 1 6mo Gilt to p

'

. . .

M U p t o n in a series o f compar ti v e ly b ief c hapters has gi v en us a ki nd f

r a r ,
o

interi or hist o ry o f the d o mesti c d heart re l ati ons o f su c h co mp osers as B a c h

.
,

an ,

H an d l B eeth ov en M o art S c humann C h o pin and W agner fi lli n g i n the l arger

e z ,
sk et ches o f these masters by l ight ly drawn b ut v e y i nterest i ng p ic tures o f the i r
, , . , ,

r
re l ati o ns with v ari o us gif ted and unsel fi sh w o men T i B l B y N w Yo rk ‘
. le oo e u er , e .

Fo r sal e boo kselle rs generally o r will be sent pos t

by ,
.

receip t of p r ice by the p ublishe rs

’

paz d , on , ,

A C McCLU RG fr CO
. . .
, CHICAGO .
 By M is s ELl Z AB ET H S . KIRKLAN D .

A S h o rt H ist ory o f I ta ly 1 2mo 4 7 5 pages . . .

T h genera l reader wi ll fi d in t his book perhaps the b est co mp l e te a cco u t o f th

e n n e
e v ents that hav e occ urred in that pen i nsu la wh o se pric e l ess co ntrib ut ions t o the w o rl d s ’

ci v i l i ati on ma k e its hist o y of perenn i al i nterest T b D l C h ic ag o

z r . e ia , .

I t is t a su cc essi v e series o f b att l es

no dd ip i f ru l ers o r dates o f e v ents an escr t o ns p ,
b ut an epit o me i the spi ri t of the nat io n W i th l eaders i n th fro nt the pe opl e as a
o e
,

b a ckgro und and the wh ole a b eaut i fu l pi c ture — I t O

,

C h ic ag o
,

,
. n er -
cea n , .

A S h ort H ist ory o f En g l is h Lite ra t u r e f or Y o u n g P e o p l e .

With el ev en p o rt raits 1 2mo 3 9 8 pages . . .

N b etter book co l d b e p l a c e in the hands o f an inte ll igen t boy o r girl as an

o u
in t r o du cti o n t a primar y k n o w l edge f the su b je c t t o wh ic h it is de vo t ed M iss Kirk
,

o
l and is t o b e comp l imented and congratu l ated on the s k i ll and judgment with whi c h
.

she has performed her diffic u l t task B t G tt . os on az e e .

T he sto y o f E ng l ish l iterature has rare ly b een m o re de l ightfu lly t ol d than in

r
t hese pages y . m l f Ed ti
ou r z o u ca on .

A S h or t H ist ory o f E n g lan d f or Y o u ng P e o p l e 1 2mo 41 5 . .

pages .

A S h o r t H ist o ry o f E ngl and is ne v er trite ne v er du ll whi l e its b rief e p l ana

ti ons of intri c te s y stems —as fo r e amp l e the feudal s y stem —and of great m ov e
, x
a x
ments su c h as the de v e lopments whi c h l ed t o the R est o rati on are al m ost fl aw l essly
, ,

cl ear T h E g li t N w Y o rk
. e va n e s , e .

I t s t ri k es the l ine b etween hist o r y and c hr o ni cl e v er y happi ly I is c riti c a l t

en o ugh with o ut being s o c i ti ca l as t o destro y the ro man ti glo w of hist ory whi c h is
.

r c
s o dear (and really s o v a l uabl e ) t o a yo ung reader T h I d p d t N w Yo r k
,
. e n e en en , e .

A Sh or t Hist ory of Fran c e for Y o u n g P e o p l e 1 2mo 398 . .

pages .

hll i
sst Kirkl and h admira bly su cc eeded in her “Sh o rt H ist o y of Fran c e in
as r
mak ing a book bo th instru c ti v e and entertaining I t is n o t a dry co mpendium o f dates ,

and fa cts b ut a c harming ly written hist o ry T h Ch i ti U i N w Yo rk

.

,
. e r s an n o n, e .

T h l itt l e his to r y ma y b e co mmended as the b est o f it k ind that has y t appeared

e s e .

P h ila delp h ia B ull e t in .

S ix Litt l e Coo k s ; or Au nt J ane s Coo k in g C l a ss 1 2m0 ,

’
. .

23 6 p ages 7 5 c ents . .

A l u cky str ok e o f genius b e c ause it is a g oo d thing we ll d o ne I t has the c harm

,

o f a b right st o ry o f rea l li fe and is a usefu l essay on cooking T h T im N Y

.

, . e es , . .

D ora s Ho usek eep in g

’
1 2mo 27 5 pages 7 5 c ents . . . .

W co rdia lly re co mmend th ese tw o book s

e D o ra s H o use k eeping and “S ’ '

x
L it tl e C ook s ) as co ntaining a l m o st the wh ol e g o spe l o f d o mes ti c e co n o m y
”
Th e
N w Yo rk
.

N ti
a on, e .

Spee c h a nd M a nne rs for Ho m e and S c h oo l 1 2mo 263 pages . . .

7 5 c ent s .

T h auth o r s the o r y o f manners and o f spee c h is g oo d m o dest manual might

’
e H er
b e read read and read again with g eat ad v antage in m ost Ame i can fami l ies
.

, re r r
-

T h I d p d t N w Yo rk
. .

e n e en en , e .

For sal e by
boo ksel l er s ge ne ral ly o r w ill be se nt pos t , ,

p aid , o n r eceip t of p r ice b y the p ublis he rs , ,

A C . . McCLU RG 57 CO .
, CHICAGO .