6

Nutrition in humans

Digestion mainly occurs in the mouth cavity, the stomach and the
small intestine. Fig 6.13 below shows how 沖ysical digestion and
chemical digestion are brought about in these three parts. The digestion
processes will be discussed in detail in the next few pages.
碉叮
~ ~ 可ll..\e.,
Mouth cavity 傭~h~Jr4K」 s.twth i 磲M
. physical digestion: chewing

. (mastication)
chemical digestion: catalysed by
enzyme in saliva* .
丶 硨\J/J.門
岬 ~i珥
Stomach l 伽杞 n)
. physical digestion: churning*
魯

chemical digestion: catalysed by

er 詔:ne in gastric juice*

一------五1~i·t 、J叮te孓.ne l 嶧 I llpWIPlVtdY\)

。

*
piIVS瓦 al
d1 gest1011: emulsification

. by bile兀 prviu.tu{~~ { ivtr}

chemical digestion: catalysed by
enzymes in pancreatic juice* and
enzymes on the intestinal wall
------- -一－＿

Fig 6.13 Physical digestion and chemical digestion in three parts of the alimentary canal
 O rg an ,srns an d Env ,「on ment
''
途
th e s to m a c
h Practical ~
D ig e S ti o n in
A.n,rnat,on 6 .2 of
by rw o ri ng s
矚 [I ed
d n
· r tran ce is g ua In tr o d u ct io
r bag. Its en
T h e s to m ac h is a m us cu la ag us A milk ag
ar at e ca n
pl b
6.1 9) : of th e oe so ph it co nt a
m u sc le s (Fig e
co lo ur be ca us be ob·
竺血紀竺ck

.,~~
th e ju nc tio n
at
It is lo ca ted U1S邱d fr om f!
w ill
. ca rd ia c sp h in ct er:
ac h. Its cont
ra ct io n皿 f:l ll! a cl ea r zo ne

an d th e st om h an d P ro ce d u re
in to th e qesoph agu_ _;;. f th e st om ac
n
at th e 」 un ct io
o ttm .
th e c! 山這函
er: It is lo ca te d in to
sp h in ct o f fQ od re r is ver
• py lo ri c s th e rele as e • The cork bo
um . It COJ.ll坷 posed 丶
th e du od en • Cove r an y ex

r disp osab le gla

• Wea
oc hloric
• Dilute hydr
d of
1 H ea t th e en
to co ol .
s tt
2 G en tly pr es
el ls . Re
th re e w
, B an c
longitudinal w el ls A
muscle d
3 U se a cl ea n
tu re s sh o·
m ix
cture of the stomach n tr ac t
Fig 6. 19 Stru ac h w al l co
us cl es in th e st om ns :
e st om ac h, m ju ic e co ai
nt
od en te rs th ju ice. G as tr ic
A ft er th e fo m ix it w it h ga s tr ic
e fo od an d

I
to ch u rn th F un ct io ns p,
1cm3 boiled pe
ce n of 十

S ub st an th e br ea kd ow hydr
ot ea se w hi ch ca talyses an ac id ic I 1 cm3 dilute
It is a pr ks be st in
;n • ns in to pe pt id es. It w or
Po ps pr ot ei
ut pH 2).
m ed iu m (abo
P叩 si n 4 R ep la ce tt
P中 tide s
pr ot ei ns S O bs er ve ;
ti on
m fo r th e ac
ov id es an ac id ic m ed iu
c ac id " • It pr
H yd ro ch lo ri of pe ps in .
os t ba ct er ia
in fo od . Results an
• It ki ll s m
all ing A cl ea r
e sto m ach w fr om be •
M uc us It pr otec ts th ag ed by th e br ea kd c
th e pe ps in or be ing da m
di ge st ed by
hy dr och loric~
acid. • N o d e,
—
to the
li q u id
ho ur s in· th e st omac h be co m es a cr ea m y N a ch
A ft er a fe w ' th e fo od od, •
e•. T he nc te r th en rela xe s to re le as e th e fo to th e
calle d ch ym py lo ri c sp hi ·
· · th e d uo de n u m . T h is pr ev en ts o v er lo ad i n g o f th e
a li tt le a at ti m e, in to
. d
an d a ll ow s ti m e fo rd .iges ti on in th e u o d en u m .
du od en um

氫氯酸
門括 約肌
r貫 chyme 食糜 gastric gland 輝 hydrochloric ac,d peps in 篔
蛋曰醯
cardiac sphincte 門 括 約 肌
r幽
pyloric sp hincte
6- 14
 6 Nutr1t1on 1n liuman~
p .
eristalsis: the hagus to rectum
process of moving food from ocsop
T he Wall
of th這nentary canaljasica lly consists of four layers, the
1nner most and two layers of
epithelium, a layer of con nective tissue
tnuscJes: circular muscles and longitt1dinal muscles. T he muscle fib res
1n th e two J . different ways (Fig 6.16) .
ayers of muscles are arranged 111
「These muscles work together in a coordinated way to Push the food
along the ar1mentary canal.
」

'..L' ,

｀
、· 「
朶
a

,y
longitudinal muscles· ."c

''
• fibres arranged along

｀
刁
｀令滘
the length of the tube
`,
'-`
-g.

國
，
丶
`~ .

＇
circular muscles·- ~

u
• fibres arranged in rings
around the tube

．止
``,` ' ,

．
,'- f` -
``.d

．丶
lumen `
Fig 6.17 Oesophagus (T.S.) (x4)
Fig 6, 16 Structure of ti1e oesophagus

the two muscle layers m ·the wall of the

。 After the food is swallowed, roduce a wave-like m ovement
ayers also help t alternatively to P
oesophagus contrac This wave-like movem ent of the
mixing the food he stomach.
to push the food down to t
? juices and help canal is called peristalsis (Fig 6.18).
I increasing the wall of the alimentary
een intestinal
sted food. You
、 t~~,~ti譴）
沁~-\y、1/1~,,
e about these Behind the bolus
1apter.
__
Circular muscles contract and

. ..
~ •causing oesophagus
,
the lumen to become smaller.
This squeezes the food forward.
一一一 -
（＇成 ）
In front of the bolus
Circular muse/es relax and longitudinal DO. __
muscles contract, causing the lumen
to become larger. The food can slide
through the lumen. ·o sto111d

Fig 6.18 How peristalsis moves the bolus along the oesophagus

Peristalsis occurs all the way along the alimentary canal, fro m the
oesophagus to the rectum. Mw:.us secreted from the d 1·gestive gla n ds
(e.g. salivary glands) or from the wa lls of tl1e alimenta,'/ canal
(e.g. intestinal wall) lub血痙江抵匠莘华皿止旦

epithelium 上皮 longitudinal muscle 縱肌 lumen 管腔

 1,o n
,n
hLirn 严 1
Nutr'
6

r
.,
; n e fo
all intest
嶋...

叮f a p t a t i o n of sm 严 a bout
fo r

i 1因 A d s u 所 ciertt
ds
囍（ ion
absorpt '5
T h is a /1° " g e, fo o d
sp e n
~严呣 O n ave
ra
testin e is v
. T h e re :~(
11 芘
紅
in
o l
ll
f
s m a s o rp ti o n
1 Th e n a n d a b
d iges tio Jarg e O I1 ·
com ple te in tes tin e . ； _ h a ve a
a ll is 邱 h lY ti

之 震 5 - 6 h o u rs in th
e sm
ll in testin e ,
lli
f th e v ea fo r
a b s o r p o vid e S
r
e r w a /1 o f th e sma lls 0 缸 p
面cceell 面 cl<- b lo o d-
in n l c e T h is
O 2 1=h e . Epithelia s u
ldin gs , villi and n y v il li o n th e wall r e a s e tb e
The fo ace ma in c
ease the surf . T h ese a ll only o n
e-
s in
to th e
microvilli incr 0 0 times o f m ic ro v il li u J e
area by over flat lining
5 i」
is ve可 thi
n . It is f o o d m o Je c
a e p i t h e l i u m f th e
compar ed to
3 瞬 d if fu s io n° "Jl i a Jlo W
tan ce f o r lt,
a short 函 la c e rapidly .
出 e VI A s a r e seud
i n
e p in t a
1-ap硨Y·m a in
n can ta k la r ie s
A b s o rp ti o k o f c ap il ·
o r a w a y
th e n e twto b e ca r r ie d 1ecuJes is r a te o f
c te a l an d
4 囧 e la s d m o cre a
s es th e
袖 sor b e d fo o d m o lec u le
ti o n gr呻
e n t o f fo o
T h is in
a s te e p c o n c en tr a in te S ti n e c o n ta c t
r/tf:fl
a ll o f th e small c lo s e
ew
ft rt ~ ro s s th les. in to
巳盡 花 si o n o f fo od m o lecu fo o d m o le c u le s s te e p { t h e
diffu d k eep a
rings th e d
ige s te
is also h e lp
s th e w a ll 0 le s .
s ta ls is b T h s s Je c u
S P e ri r a b s o rp ti o n . d m o le c u les a c roo f fo o d m o
illi fo f fo o
with the v
of the r a d ie nt o f d if fu s io n
l ce lls
, ··; Epitheliatestine contain c o n c e n tr a ti
o n g th e ra te o
e
,...•..., small in ber of to in c reas
ll in te s ti n e
a la rge n
mitochondria.
um
Why?
sm a
)) Jl)mj

t
囧 i縫 Checkpoin

1 Which
of
absorb e d in
th e
to
fo
th
ll
e
ow ing food m
ca pilla ries in
ole cules are
the villi o f
- 2 Wh ich
o f th e
o f the
vi
(1) a bsorb
lli
fo
fo

o d
ll

m
o
in the sma

enzymes fo
w

o
in g is /a re th e
ll intestine
lecules
rd ig e s ti o
?

n
fu n c ti o n (s

,, •
)

源瓦 西

testine? (2) secre te s m a ll

th e s mall in th e fo o d a lo n g th e
ove
(3) help m
(1 ) gluc o
se 严鷓
a cids C in tes tine - h~f」
(2) am in o t,, 加 ft

二 。nly
(1) o nly

; (i~t~n: B (2) only

(3 ) only C (3) only
B ( 1) a nd
(3 ) only (2) only • P- 29
C (2) an d . . p. 27, 28 D (1) an d
a nd (3)
D (1), (2)

6- 2 9

患
Gallstones
I
When substances in bile
harden, they may form
I
gal/stones* that block
the bile duct. Learn more
about the formation of
gallstones and their effect
on health at
http://www. nlm. nih. gov/
medlineplus/gallstones
html 薑
呻丶 µ1glll,'ll l 臚 色 ~ bile salt 膽釋
6 Nutrition 1n humans
[D Digestion in the small intestine
The chyme f
rom the stomach contains partially digested food . The
digestion
of food is completed in the small intestine. The small intestine
iI1c]udes the duodenum and the ileum. • 严已严｀郿
嶧n th intestiJ直 Ju胝
I I secretions are released
e chyme enters the duodenum, ~蚪~一一
into the duodenum (Fig 6.21). Contraction of the muscles in the
inte5tinal wall helps mix food with the digestive 」·uices to aid digestion.
stomach
pancreas
1 /
· lands into tl1e duodenum
Fig 6.21 The digestive juices released from different digestive g
1 Bile
Bile is a green alkaline fluid produced continuous lY by the liver. It
is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and is released through the
bile duct into the duodenum when the chyme enters the duodenum. It
contains no digestive enzyme. Bile contains:
Substance Functions
They emulsify lipids into small droplets (a kind
I of physical digestion). This facilitates chemical
digestion by increasing the surface area of lipids for
lipase to act on.
Bile pign1ents* They do not take part in digestion. They are
waste products formed from the breakdown of
haemoglobin from red blood cells. They are then
excreted in faeces.
Sodium • . It neutralizes th e acidic chyme to protect the
hydrogencarbonate•
small intestine from being damaged.
(alkaline)
• 1t provides an alkaline medium for the
acuon L'f
the enzymes in the small intestine
gallstone 膽石 intestinal juice 腸液 sodiumhydrogencarbonate otc歙囧
17
ilI',_l'I1_Il i'
' II Organisms
and Environment

- Key ueamin
1
What are physical d
tgestion and chemical digestion? I ac ti ons It
o-, Physical digestion is the breaking down of food into smaller pieces by physica
increases th e surface area of the food for digestive juices to act on. enzymes
t ive for
<>-- Chemical d'igestion involves chemical reactions that are catalysed by diges
readY
which are
It breaks down complex food molecules into small, soluble forms,
absorption
digestive
2 What is the importance of peristalsis? d with d digested
. the foo
5 mix I wall an
o-- Peristalsis pushes food along the alimentary canal. It help intestina
between
Juices. It also help absorption by increasing the contact
food.
3
What are the actions of digestive j uices in our digestive syStem? pH
/ Action o_f·-d-igestive
Site. of \ Digestive I Site of Enzyme or ouit::• juice I 6.5-7 .5
action juice product.ion substance Present h 刁 rna Jtose
. . • 丨 • stare
Mouth ISahva ISalivary glands • Salivary amy ase
cavity • Water
l • Mucus ~ ptides 2.0
' • prote ins 刁 p (acid.ic)
Gastric glands • Pepsin

1-----
Stomach I Gastric
J.UICe
. in stomach • Hydrochloric acid
wall • Mucus 7.6-8.6
• lipids ~ (alkaline)
Small Bile Liver 1. Bile salts small droplets
• Bile pigments (Emulsification
intestine
• Sodium physica I digestion)
hydrogencarbonate
「, • starch ~ maltose 8.0
4

I
Pancreatic Pancreas
1. Pancreatic .d
• proteins ~ pept1 es
(alkaline)
amylase
JUICe • peptides ➔ amino
• Proteases
acids
~I • Pancreatic lipase
• lipids ~ fatty acids
• Sodium + glycerol

,-
hydrogencarbonate
8.5
Intestinal IGlands in the • Water I (alkaline)
juice wall of small • Mucus
intestine • Sodium
. hydrogencarbonate

specialized • Carbohydrases • disaccharides ~

cells on
r monosaccharides
• Proteases
epithelium of (in the cell membrane • pept ides -; amino
small intestine of epithelial cells) acids
~

I 11

6- 24
~ 、~
6
I
. humans
Nutrition 1n

E n z y tn e F u n c ti o n s
c a rb o h y d ra T h e y cataly th e b re a k
ses se d o w n o f d is a c c h a rt·d e s in to
(e.g. maltase , *
m o n o s a c c h a ri d e s , e.
g.
sucrase* a n d
lactase*) maltase
maltose glu`cose

su c ra se
su c ro se g lu c o s e + 卸 ctos
e

lactase
lactose g lu c o se + galactose
P ro te as e s T h e y cataly th e b re a
se k d o w n o f s o m e p e p ti d e s in to
a m in o a c id
s.

p e p ti d e s
- p ro te a se s
a m in o acid
s

pradical _ , D e m o n s tr
a ti o n o f th e e f f e c t f b il e s a lt s
o o n o il

P ro c e d u re

『
12
Add 1O drops f bile salt lu ti o n 3
o so to 1 c m o f p e a n u t oil in a te s t Practical 6 .3
置
tu b e .

-
Stopper the test tube a d shake
n for 1 0 se c o n d s. Allow it to s ta n d
5 minutes. Observe c h for
any anges in th e m ix tu re .

囑
－－
一
3
4a、`

Repeat steps 1 and 2 with d (

¥
ati}
istilled w a te in st e a d o f bile sa lt
Compare the r sol u ti o n . An. mat. n 6 3。
appearance o f th e mucture . th e tw o
sm te s t tu b e s.
」

`,`
t'
~ `
,i`
-

1odrops bile
salt
solution ps distilled

R e s u lt s a n
d d is c u s s io
. An e m u ls io
n* is formed
n
in th e tu b e
tiny droplets w it h bile sa
. lt s o lu ti o n
added. The
Two layers o b il e s a lts e m
• f liquid are o u ls if y li p id
s into
that th e emu b se rv e d in th e tu b e
lsification o w it h distille
f lipids is d u d w a te r a d d
e to th e bile e d . T h is is
sa lt s o lu ti o a c o n tr o l to
n. show
........................
........................
.......................
:in 乳狀物 ......................
lactase 乳糖酶 .......................
.. ...................
maltase 麥芽 ......................
糖醃 sucrase 蔗
...
···•·················
糖酮 ··········· ·· ··· ·•······· ··• ··· ·
··· ···
o rie'lt

- Righ t an d wr on g
fj Bile is pro duc ed by the gall blad der.
y 碑磷旦痺醞頃蝠．
~ Bile 互心uced by the live r and temporaril
y add s and glycerol.
0 Bile catalyse s the brea國ov-1n of lipid s into fatt
lipids into small droplets
~ Bile doe s not con tain enz yme s. It emulsifies
of lipids.
but doe s not 西nqe the che mic.al stru ctur e

of the action of lipase

·- Inv画gation

ac Ji:: ;:,n~
'

dow n, fatt y acid s are form ed. Fatt y acid s are

鼴
Practical 6.4
,:::~ f
~ in the pH of the solu tioIL The cha nge i:i pH
phthalein 匕 J.-, 11/.
ors 庫.e phenolph血届n~. Phenol
lour less at a pH belo w 8.4.

oiling rub es~ Ba nd q,

, 1 cm3 lipas e
sofu tjon
, 1 ,:;m~ d唧,1100
Wat' ::f
, 1 CtTl3 bofled
lipas e solut五1
=
5 cm3 of full -cre am
odi um carbona比
7 C

lrops of
solu tion _
ase solu tion into
disti岫 water into
, of boi led lip蕊
~ C. Mix "~eU 函ng
5 0113 fufJ..aeam milk +
7 cm3 sodium ca心正苹迢ution +
5 drop s phen olph thaJ ein solu tion
,,,~ Phenolphthalein
-:-

solution is flammable.
stan d for 10
J
Use it onJy in the
叩y cha nge s in 血
aosence of 函ed
flam e.
, 6 Nutrition in humans
'
才L 一道

囯 Absorption of digested food in 啊-:; )戲叫

- small intestine
二
薑
氫

-
· n
Food molecules ·are absorbed from th e Jumen into the capillaries and
" rnat 6
·
。

the lacteals through the epithelium by diffu s1on, osmosis and active
和杯
－

transpo rt (Fig 6.23) .

纘鉕 1 :::::,: : wate,-,olob二－遺 2 :::』~t:,,~!:~~

water-soluble food molecules fatty acids 5加 f<J/11'「 l祝
悶,;;:~::二？。「｀三二;d,, aad glyc,,ml 1 加d-soloble
三 ~ : r;~fvJ l.
,f庫ql
I vilmins A 」 O」I

d icootl e
atdranifnussap I/I / I 1
I, smo 1s
o1'
diffusion
and
recombining ! 0110
villus
nucleus

epithelial 一
lacteal cells
/
庫

^^
cl'pi/1"-~
Fig 6.23 Absorption of food molecules into capillaries and lacteals

Cross-link
Hydrophilic food molecules
pass through the cell
membrane with the helpof
channel proteins or carrier
proteins. Refer to Ch 3 for
the permeability of the cell
membrane .
. ~t
1 Water and water,soluble food molecules:
into the capillaries
O • Water-soluble food molecules, e.g. monosaccharides, amino acids,
minerals and water-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamin C) are absorbed
唁o the blood in the capillaries by diffusion and active transp ort.
KX& the absorption of digested food into the blood increases the
water potential of the contents in the small intestine, water is
drawn into the blood by osmosis. In other words, absorption of
孿ted food in the small intestine is accompanied by absorption of
water at the same timefover 90% of the water in food is absorbed
in the small intestine](A small amount of water is absorbed in the
stomach and the colon.)

6- 27
甌....-W,,
呣 d r 11srns an d Env·rronment

2
p id
_ L ip id s a n d li d
-s o lu b le fo o m o le c u le s:
in to th e la c te a ls
:r o ss -l in k O • 三~sand 迎 enter th ee三 of th e villi by
1pids and 「1pid-solub/e e in to fi n ~卫匹d
三 . In th e epithelial cells, ey re co m bi n ls o f th e lvm oh at ic
th
10/ecules are hydrophobic ea
th en en te r th e Iym ph in th e la
ct
d ro p le ts,
h ey can pass th rough the 一- -, w hi ch - - - - - -----;..---;;
r of the st em .
hospho/ipid bi/aye sy
. ~

ab so rb ed
ell membrane dire
ctly by
.g. vi ta m in s A an d D ) ar e also
Ch 3 for b le v it am in s (e
iffusion. Refer to • L ipid -s o lu in th e lactea ls by di ff us io n.
letails. in to th e ly m ph
in e, m os t
ac h th e en d o f the small in te st
re
en ts o f th e gu t
W h en th e co nt ed.
an d w at er have been absorb
fo od m ol ec ul es

sm al l
es ti o n an d ab so rp ti o n in th e
d ig
S im u la ti o n o f
g
g di al ys is tu b in
in te st in e u si n
Pradical -
be used to
In t ro d u c ti o n is differentially permeable. It can
alysis tubing
o f th e small intestine, di l intestine.
L ik e th e in ne r wall
st io n an d ab so rption in rh e smal
esses o f dige
si m ul at e th e proc

P roc ed u re in to a beaker of tap w

ater.
pu tt in g it
is tu bi ng by
1 W et a dialys ng . Fill the tubing with
equal
di alys is tu bi
at on e en d o f a
2 T ie a kn ot on and amylase solu
tion.
volumes o f st ar ch so lu ti
ng with dialysis tubing
bi ng . W as h th e outside o f the tubi
r en d o f the tu
3 T ie the ot he
distill ed water. at 37 °c .
bi ng in a boili ng tube o f water
e tu
4 Im m er se th ia tely for starch and redu g
cin
bi ng im m ed
er outside th e tu solution respectiv
ely.
s . T es t th e wat an d B en ed ic t's
ne solution
su ga rs using iodi hour.
er fo rm th e sa m e tests after one
P

is cu ss io n
Re su lt s a n d d r reducin g sugars are presen t in the water.
gi nn m g o f th e experiment, neith er starch no
• At th e be gars are detected er
aft one ho ur.
er , re du cm g su
Howev ch ·
at am ylas e helps brea k down st ar into redu cin g sugars (maltose). On!Y th e re du ci ng
th
• This shows sm all enough to pass
th r gh the dialys1s
ou · tubing.
ol ec ul es ar e
suga r m
---- )'. t.·(. 嚐
~ =
—一一－ - l..

·、-
6 No<citioa ia homaas ~
Adaptation of small intestine for

\'
I .

absorption
The small intestine 1s
-V, l\1
1 · ve可ln邸. T h is all
co m plete digestion and absorption. o ows sufficient time for
~ 震今6 hours in the small·1ntest1ne.
n average, food spends about

The foldings, villi and 0 2 The inne r wall of th

microvilli increase the surface e small intestine is highly folded. There are
area by over 500 times many villi on the wall. E 臣thelial cells of the villi h ave a large number
compared to a flat lining of microvilli. 'J:.h ese all inc r ea se the
surface area for absorption.
iJ
3 ITh e epithelium is very thin. It 1s
· only one -cell thick. T h is provides
a s h ot-t distance for diffusion of food molecules into the blood.
Absorption can take place rapidly.
4 下he lact eal and the network of capillaries in the villi allow the
,absorbed food molecules to be carried away rapidly. As a result,
cit叩
..3-steep concentrat:Ion gradient of food molecules is maintained
已琿訌潯 丶

across the wall of the small intestine. This increases the rate of
diffusion of food molecules.
S Peristalsis brings the digested food molecules into close contact
, i Epithelial cells of the with the villi for absorption. This also helps keep a steep
small intestine contain
•. !'!•..,
concentration gradient of food molecules across the wall of the
」
a large number of
mitochondria. Why? small intestine to increase the rate of diffusion of food molecules.
1,-丶乙
芒鱈、

二
~.1'''-:;怎 ） I') 郾封
＼ ／主可
丑，; ut1

遁瓦 繞虔
Checkpoint

1 Which of the following food molecules are

absorbed into the capillaries in the villi of
the small intestine?
- 2 Which of the following is/are the function(s)
of the villi in the small intestine?
(1) absorb food molecules '-•" L

(1) glucose (2) secrete enzymes for digestion _,,,' , ;-,成即叱

(3) help move the food along the small

; ::;:n:ci(~~ 。nly
(2) amino acids
intestine - 严讎Is iJ
G (1) only UJYl u (l , n'lfJ

B (1) and (3) only B (2) only

C (2) and (3) only C (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) • p. 27, 28 D (1) and (2) only .. p. 29

6- 29
-~·,,.~,,,,-,,...,..,,;iiit{j禕謚泣謚緬齟即亞羣科-~1i:i羋~ti.色---~- -—
 1 .
W he re d o es th e ab
so rp ti on o f fo od mainly take place?
pl ac e in th e il eu m of the small intestine.
fo od mainly takes
<>-- A bs or pt io n o f
2 s b y w hi ch di ge st ed fo od 1:S- absorbed? eral s an d water-soluble
W h at ar e th e ro u te in o ac id s, m in
o d m ol ec ul es (e .g . monosaccharides, am n an d ac tive tr an sp o rt .
so lu b le fo ries by di ff us io
o-- W a te r- in to th e b lo o d in the capilla
e ab so rb ed
vitamins) ar th e capi llaries by os m os is.
r is ab so rb ed in to th e b lo o d in
ff us io n an d th en re co m b in e to
o-- W a te di
yc er ol en te r th e ep ithelium of th e villi by
d gl
o-- F at ty ac id s an en en te r th e ly m ph in th e lacteals .
fo rm lipids. The lip
ids th
m ph in th e la ctea ls by di ff us io n
th e ly
-s o lu b le vi ta m in s are ab so rb ed in to
o-- L ip id
in te st in e ad ap te d for absorption?
3 H o w ,s th e sm
al l
A da pt at io n
te st in e
fe at u re o f sm al l in m e for absorption
Allows su ff ic ie nt ti
V er y lo n g ar ea for absorption
In cr ea se th e su rf ac e
ner wall
• H ig hl y-fo ld ed in
• N um er ou s villi
er ou s m ic ro villi on
• N um
th e epithelial cells n di st an ce f or absorption
. - R ed uc es th e di ff us io
helium
o n e-e el I- th ic k epit sorbed food molecul es aw ay from th e viii 1 ra p id ly, so
'
一一一－－－－－ －一
k of T ra ns po rt ab
n tr at io n g ra d ie n t ·15 m ai n ta in ed fo r di ff us io n
-

th at a st ee p co n ce
os e lli
Brings digested food molecules into cl co n ta ct w it h th e vi
an d keeps a st ee p co n ce n tr atio n g ra d ie n t fo r diffusion

.....
- 6 Nutrition in humans ~

6.6 Assimilation 庫
ent parts
lecules are transported to differ
After absorption, the food mo ed food
. Th e uptake and use of absorb
of the body for the cells to use
sm · led ass11111lat10n .
molecules by cells for me tab oli 1s cal

囚 Transport of ab so rb ed
food
0 ~
Cross-link

[「一
You will learn more about vena cava* 卻rta*
the transport system in
humans in Bk 18, Ch 8
at c veIn

r 吶 o池油lte •
I!
綸

liver ~
~
rle ~fa 哼 o.tl\... U,\n 邲Ry'

竺均 I,, -I vl,y ' --, ·vt·,Y\ - - - ) ';?

L -tu l l>l\\jtY t,'1叩

1 W~!er-SQ(11hlP -:::::::::=c::
food molecules
(e.g. monosaccharides,
amino acids, minerals and
water-soluble vitamins)
► ，，，~ 「
層山綁？ .. .. ~'~懦all intestine
the b~dy
d from the villus to different parts of
Fig 6.25 Transport of absorbed foo
ul es
1 W ate r,s ol ub le fo od mo lec
d
abs orb ed int o the cap illa rie s of the villi, wa ter -so lub le foo
、 After being he pa tic
blo od to the liv er thr ou gh the
mo lec ule s are carried by the So me are
e food molecules are stored.
po rta l vein . In the liver, som thr ou gh
ay from the liver to the he art
processed and the n carried aw ed to oth er
cav a. Th ey are the n tra nsp ort
the hep ati c vei n and the ve na
ao11:a .
parts of the body thr ou gh the

2 Lipids an d lipid--solub
le food molecules
lacteals of the villi, lip ids and
After being absorb ed int o the m皿
are carried by the lym ph to the
lipid-soluble food mo lec ule s
lymph vessel. They en ter the
blo od nea r the ne ck reg·ion , wh ere the
sel. They are the n carried by the blo od
lymph vessel joins the blood ves
cava, and th tra nsp ort ed to oth er par ts
to the he art through the ven a en
of the body thr oug h the aor ta.

aorta 大動脈 hepatic portal vein 肝門靜脈 hepatic vein 肝靜脈 vena cava 腔靜脈

0 31
 a n d Environment
Organisms

s o r be d f ood
s of t h e a b
llJ Fate
ing
s f or releas
1 G lu c o s e a t i o n in
c e ll
d o w n by r e s p i r
ke n cle ~
G lu c o s e is b1·o li v e r and mus
• e m ay ,
en er g y. g ly c o g e n in th E x c e s s g l u c os e
e r te d to
s g lu c o s e is c o n v a nd muscl
es .
E x c e s e li v e r
• in th
is s to red
Glyc og en id s .
r te d to li p
潯』

be conve e
and som
a n e s
embr
s k e c e ll i n
2 L ip id a ase
u s e d b y cells to m d o w n to rele
are
• Lipids h e y
en
are brok o r t o f glycogen
,,. O - H e s . T h
hormon e.
g y r es e r vh e n t h e b o d y
is s . rnal
a n e n e r d the inte
L 、 eher9:1
嗪鴟 • Lipids
a c
o
t
r
a
c
s
ell u la r a c
tivities
w
i p o s e t i ss u e
aroun
r g y f e a d
W J> ene d in t h
\ a.dipok- s li p id s a r e s to r e
• Exces kin .
der the s

'
,和~­
lntern~"\e';. ~Ian . a n d u n
叩de,- il
organs
ins
t t y p e s of prote
k e d if f e r
e n ing
m i n o a cids ll s to m a t e r i a l s for mak
吲 A d by ce ra..y m a
「研 8 項 id s a r e u se a ls o t h e
r .,.q o a c e y a re
o.Js/ tib由叱 A
m in p a i r. T h
麻的。 o n es .
逛＼弓 fllt~ . ,n f o r g r o w th and re
d s o me horm hen
橄 ,ior,5
· t i b odie s a n
e e nergy w ng
enzyme s , a n
d o w n to re l e a s
e d u p ( e .g . d u r i
broken are us
~ o s may be ur body
盅 o
國四呣｀｀ b o h y d r a te s a n d li p id s
a c id sto r e d i n
加 ol ft 一
l1 L
en
car
d y a n d are brok
ion). th e bo sed on
亞 rvat
n o t b e stored in s w il l b e discus
a c id s c a n * ( d e ta
il
E x c e s s ammo h d e a m ina tion
• throug
o w n in t h e li v e r
d
p a ge).
th e n ex t

l e s o f t h e l i ve r
B Ro
f r e s m a ll m
r
· t e s r i n c . I n t h e i ve r ,
food
es b l o o d o m t h l e s se d
u explain T h e liver r e c e iv c e s o h o l) in th e b ood a re proc
f , - Can yo r cells have
.' s a n d o th e r s u bs ta
n (e .g . a l c
rent
: why live m o le c u le t h e 1 · ls o c a r r i·e s u t m a ny d i f fe
er of m th is , Ive r a o
a large numb? .A
o r s to r e d p a11 f ro u n . n s a r e l i s te d o n t h e n e x t
p a g e.
mitochondria . s
m e ta b o lic r e a c tio n s o m
e o f i ts f
c ti o

鉬幻， 作用
jeam, nat,on
'J
c0
、．

一一 、
•
6 Nutrition in humans

1 Carbohydrate metabolism

cross-link 0 • The _liver plays a key

role in regulating the blood glucose level.
The reg ulation of blood
As too high or too low blood glucose level may affect the functioning
glucose level will be
d in detail in Bk 2, of the cellS, it is impottant to regulate the blood glucose level.
d1scusse
Ch 18 研汛砌喂斗社悍'After a meal, the blood glucose level rises due to the absorption
1.11~1'1"~
^
「I>~ 「
1辶· 惡
of glucose from the small intestine into the blood. The liver
conveits excess glucose to glycogen. The glycogen is stored in the
liver.
榨o\~ 园
b As some glucose in blood is used by cells in respiration,
the blood
护\A,, {,J 洲 lOjtr\ glucose level falls between meals. The liver converts the stored
glycogen back to glucose and releases it into the blood.
• The liver is the main site for storage of glycogen.
甲叩心區
l, o!M o,~吻. . . ..
丶 I
L1p1d metabolism "'• " .. .
，如＼， • ·The liver converts excess carbohydrates and amino acids into
lipids, which are then transported to adipose tissue and stored there.

3 Amino acid metabolism

＼｀翦而｀｀＇
-!J • Excess am洫 acids are broken down in the liver through
粒簡心h
Wl\vtrw'I deamination. The amino groups of the ammo ·acids are removed and
I
V
v,.Yel\ converted to urea*. Urea is released into the bloodstream and moSt
of it is excreted in urine. The remaining parts of the ammo acids are
converted to carbohydrates or lipids.
~
deamination amino group + rema1n1ng part
amino acid

""
~~

yd ra tes r
carb h_
。
。

urea . pjds

•
excrete in urine

• The liver synthesizes non-essential amino acids and converts

some amino acids into other amino acids.

urea 尿素

6- 33
 E
m s a n d nvironment
Or g a n is
on
s t o r a ge of ir
e a k d 。囧 of o l d r e d b l o
d
o cells a n d · r o rbl l o o d
4 B r h e t
o r e s t 「ed
e d b od cells and st
r eaks d wn o l d r lo ng n ew

,,._
硒
茫巴 • The Iver b rm th o s. T h · ron is u s e d f o r m a k i
released
fro e proces eI
I
itO~ cells.
頭a
~~s Storag e a n d pr o d u c t i on of vi
tam ins
· n 11s
a n d D)-
A
. g
. . vitaIT
. i n s (e
s l i p i d - soluble vitam
r store e r.
-• T h e live i n A i n t h e liv
to v i t a m
a r o t e n e i s ch a n g e d f
-• C on o
Jsifica t i
f bile em u
t i o n o e
Produc for th
6
t h e d u odenum
ed into liver.
w h i c h is releas r o duced in
• B i l e, enum , is p
the duod
l i p i d s i n 祀
c e r t a !缸 r m l e s s
h a
o n 鈴蕊 ~ W l l i n t o ss
Detoxifi
c a t i help 乜 b l o o d
h a r m le
7 e n z y m es wh i c h ) i n t h e, T h e
in d drug s
lls c on ta
• L iver ce s (e .g. a l c o h o l an
d e t o 琿 cation ·
is calle d
竺 i s process body.
substanc
e s . T h
a s s e d o u t o f th e
en p
es a re t h
s u bsta n c

bod)戸
ther par ts o f the
ifilg rted to o
arn les transp
o
_ K e y le rbe d foo
d m o le c u
are abso ecules rts
1 H o w
l u b l e f o o d mol e in and other p a
t e r - s o hep atic v a o r ta y
~ Wa
v a h ea rt
~
o f the b o d
hepatic vena c a
s in r ta l v e in ltv e r
capillarie po ,.
o f sm a ll
villi
intestin e cules
o lu b le f o o d mole
lipid-s sel near
o ,; , L
ipids and l, blood ves ao rta other p a
rts
ph v ess e a dy
main lym ion and vena cav heart o f the b o
~
一－

k reg
lactea ls in the ne c
f s m a ll
villi o
intestine
d food?
f th e absorbe o r r1pids for storage
t a r e th e fa te s o
n e r , o r c o n verted to glycogen
2 Wha asing e gy rve s
G lu c o s e: for rele e m b n e s a n d some h rmones, or as e n e r gy r es e
o-- g ce ll m ra o
L ip id s : for makin g p r o te ins , or releasin g energy when stored carbohydrates a n d lip id s
o-- r m a k in
o acids: fo aminated wh en in excess
<>"' Amin up, o de r
are used
~

解毒
ca tion
de toxifi

`o 34
 -· ::,-.. , .,.:>1 11::. ana
Environment

o鯽
1 ab so rpt ion 吸收
. 11 ingestion 攝食
2 ah me nta 內 canal 消化道
12 intestinal jui ce 腸液
3 ass im ila tio n 同化
13 lacteal 乳糜 管
4 bile 膽汁 咀嚼
14 mastication
S ch urn ing 劇烈攪動 15 oes oph agu s 食道

6 de nta l for mu la 齒式 16 pancreas 胰

7 de nti tio n 齒系 17 pan cre ati c jui ce 胰液

8 dig est ion 消化 18 peristalsis 蠕動
排遺 19 saliva 唾液
9 eg est!On
乳化 20 villus (plural: villi) 絨毛
10 em uls ificati on

/ C on ce pt map-\

consists of

assimilation ege stio n

digestion absorption

involves occurs occurs in

mainly in

physical chemical small liver and

. .me body cells
digestion digestion mtest

brought
abo ut by
bro ug ht
ab ou t by

mastication churning in em ulsificatio n of

by teeth stomach lipids by bile salts enz ym es