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1) Carbon or graphite fibers:
2) Glass fibers
3) Calcium Carbonate
4) Talcum (Talc) or Magnesium Hydroxide

Plastics Additives
Content

1) An Introduction to Plastics Additives

2) Additives
2.1  Anti Counterfieting
2.2  Antimicrobials / Biostabilisers
2.3  Antioxidants
2.4  Antistatic Agents
2.5  Biodegradable Plasticisers
2.6  Blowing Agents
2.7  External Lubricants
2.8  Fillers/Extenders
2.9  Flame Retardants
2.10  Fragrances
2.11 Heat Stabilisers
2.12 Impact Modifiers
2.13 Internal Lubricants
2.14 Light Stabilisers
2.15 Pigments
2.16 Plasticisers
2.17 Process Aids
2.18 Reinforcements

3) What do additives add to plastics?

3.1 Make Plastics Easier to Process
3.2 Make Plastics Look Good
3.3 Additives Save Money
3.4 Make Plastics Safe and Sound
3.5 Make Plastics Clean and Healthy
3.6 Make Plastics Work Longer
3.7 Additives Respect the Environment

4) Additives: A Buyers Guide

1. An Introduction To Plastics Additives

Every activity in modern life is influenced by plastics and many depend entirely on plastics products. Imagine cars without
synthetic bumper, dashboards, steering wheels and switches; medicine without plastic hypodermic syringes and artificial hip
joints. And what about telecommunications, dependent on plastic telephones, circuit boards and cable insulation. Our
entertainment and leisure relies on the unique combination of characteristics offered by plastics in sports equipment and
clothing, CDs, video and audio tape, television and cinema - indeed you wouldn't be able to read this over the internet
without plastics!

All these plastics products are made from the essential polymer mixed with a complex blend of materials known collectively
as additives. Without additives, plastics would not work, but with them they can be made safer, cleaner, tougher and more
colourful. Additives cost money, of course, but by reducing production costs and making products last longer, they help us to
save money and conserve the world's precious raw material reserves. In fact, our world to day would be a lot less safe, a lot
more expensive and a great deal duller without the additives that turn basic polymers in to useful plastics.

2. Additives

2.1 Anti Counterfeiting

Function: 
 There are a number of ways manufacturers and brand owners can combat counterfeiting by employing one of several or
indeed multilayer anti-counterfeiting technologies. Optical brighteners absorb ultraviolet and violet light then re-emit this
energy at a higher wavelength, normally as a blue glow.

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2.2 Antimicrobials/Biostabilisers

Function: 
Help prevent deterioration of plastic materials where part of the material might be susceptible to microbiological attack.
Such attacks can cause staining, discolouration, odour and loss of aesthetics but more importantly, loss of electrical
insulating properties, hygiene and overall loss of mechanical properties in the material.

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2.3 Antioxidants

Function:
Help prevent "oxidation", the polymer reacting with oxygen. Oxidation can cause loss of impact strength, elongation, surface
cracks and discolouration. Antioxidants help prevent thermal oxidation reactions when plastics are processed at high
temperatures and light-assisted oxidation when plastics are exposed to UV light.

2.4 Antistatic Agents

Function:
Help to prevent the build up of static electric charge.  Plastics are generally insulating and so have the capacity to build up
static charges on the surface which greatly disturb processing procedures and can be an issue for hygiene and aesthetics.

2.5 Biodegradable Plasticisers

Function:
Used to make plastics softer and more flexible and to enhance the degradability of the product.

2.6 Blowing Agents

Function:
Form gases in the plastic to produce a foam material.  The blowing agents form gases by breaking down on heating at a pre-
determined temperature and form a foam structure within the plastic's polymer matrix.

2.7 External Lubricants

Function:
To prevent damage to plastics or the mould during processing. Applied to the material or directly to the machine to allow
processing without damage.

2.8 Fillers/Extenders
Function:
Natural substances used to improve strength and lower the cost of the material. Usually mineral-based, fillers/extenders
literally increase the overall "bulk" of the plastic.

2.9 Flame Retardants 

Function:
To prevent ignition or spread of flame in plastic material.  Plastics see substantial use in critical construction, electrical and
transport applications which have to meet fire safety standards either by mandatory regulations or voluntary standards. 
Flame retardants are added to plastics to meet these requirements.

2.10 Fragrances

Function:
Fragrances and deodorants for plastics are used in a variety of applications and arer products for the home.

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2.11 Heat Stabilisers

Function:
To prevent decomposition of the polymer during processing. Processing usually results in temperatures well above 180 deg
celsius, which without the addition of heat stabilisers would result in the plastic material literally falling apart

2.12 Impact Modifiers

Function:
Enables plastic products to absorb shocks and resist impact without cracking. Particularly relevant for polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), polystyrene (PS) and polypropylene (PP) materials.

2.13 Internal Lubricants

Function:
Used to improve processability of plastics by increasing the flowability. Internal lubricants improve the melt flow of material
by lowering the viscosity and heat dissipation (also see Processing Aids)

2.14 Light Stabilisers

Function:
Used to inhibit the reactions in plastics which cause undesirable chemical degradation from exposure to UV light.
2.15 Pigments

Function:
Tiny particles used to create a particular colour.

2.16 Plasticisers

Function:
Used to make plastics softer and more flexible.

2.17 Process Aids

Function:
Used to improve processability of plastics by increasing the flowability.  Internal lubricants improve the melt flow of
material by lowering the viscosity and heat dissipation (Also see Internal Lubricants) High-polymeric processing aids also
improve flowability of PVC compounds.

2.18 Reinforcements

Function:
Used to reinforce or improve tensile strength, flexural strength and stiffness of the material. Often fibre-based.

3) What do Additives Add to Plastics?

 
3.1) Additives Make Plastics Easier To Process

Making things out of plastics is like playing a game with

molecules. The aim is to re-organise them into new shapes without
their changing colour, sticking to the mould, or doing anything that
could spoil the finished article. Additives help with all these
problems. In fact, processing plastics without additives is virtually
impossible.

Consider the range of plastics available and the wide variety of

plastic objects in every day use. From fizzy drinks bottles and
carrier bags to window frames and computers, it is clear that there
are many different ways of forming plastics. Most of these
processes involve melting polymer powder or granules inside a
heated tube. This 'melt' is forced through a shaped die, injected
into a mould, or rolled or blown into flat film. The ease with which
this is done depends on the physical and chemical properties of
each plastic material, and can be improved through the use of
certain additives known as PROCESS AIDS.

Process aids become liquid during the moulding process and form
a liquid around colour particles so that they mix better. Other
additives make the individual polymer particles adhere more to
each other inside the tube so that they melt quicker. This means
that the moulding temperature can be lower which saves energy
and prevents or minimises heat damage to the plastics.

Certain plastics can be difficult to process because they become

viscous and sticky when they melt. LUBRICANTS help reduce
viscosity by creating a film between the mould and the polymer
melt, and by lubricating the polymer particles against each other.
More intricate shapes can be moulded and the moulding
temperature can be lowered. Most plastics have to be processed at
over 180oC, a temperature which unfortunately can sometimes
spoil the colour and weaken or embrittle the plastic. However,
these effects can be prevented or minimised by additives known as
ANTIOXIDANTS, which are special compounds such as Vitamin
E, which help protect the plastic under hostile conditions. Other
additives called HEAT STABILISERS help stop plastics from
decomposing during processing.

3.2) Additives Make Plastics Look good

What is it about plastics objects that catches our attention? Its

shape? Its usefulness? Its colour? Plastics are coloured using two
main methods. The surface can be painted or printed after
moulding, or additives called PIGMENTS can be incorporated
before or during moulding. With this method, colour pigments can
create all sorts of decorative effects that go all the way through the
object and of course, will never wear off. This property, coupled
with the range of moulding techniques available, gives designers
today a tremendous freedom when working with plastics.

Pigments are tiny particles which have to be evenly mixed into the
polymer in its molten state. Colourists specialise in scientifically
devising shades suitable for all types of situations. Through a
skilful manipulation of additives, plastics components can be
colour matched with parts made from other materials such as
wood, metal and fabrics, cars radios and kitchen appliances all use
this technique.
Different pigment formulations co-ordinate plastics with other
materials, as in the Land Rover Discovery (BASF).

Fashion is a word that not only covers clothes and accessories, but
also includes, tableware, kitchenware and office equipment. In all
these areas, pigments enable plastics to offer an endlessly variable
palette of colours, as vivid as any other media. Colour in plastics
also has many non-decorative functions. It can be used to cut down
light to protect the contents of a package, for example in medicine
bottles. It can be used as an important danger signal. Often it is
used simply to protect and conceal, as in dashboards, machine
housings and pipes. To make an opaque moulding, pigments are
chosen that absorb or scatter light very well. The most common,
cost-effective way of creating solid colour is to use carbon black or
titanium dioxide. Carbon black absorbs light, whereas titanium
dioxide, with its high refractive index, scatters light, producing a
very high level of whiteness and brightness. It is part of a range of
inorganic pigments and is mixed with other colours to create pastel
shades. Organic pigments are also good for making bright colours.

3.3) Additives Save Money

There are two vacuum cleaners in a shop. They both look attractive
and offer the same attachments, but one is on special offer.
Unknown to the customer, the cheaper appliance has been made
from plastics components that contain no additives. Does this
make any difference? What are additives for anyway? Is the
cheaper machine better value?

Without an IMPACT MODIFIER, the vacuum cleaner will crack if

it is bumped around the furniture and skirting boards in the usual
way. But since it would contain no pigments, it would already look
drab and dirty. More worrying would be the lack of FLAME
RETARDANTS, for if an electrical spark causes the plastics
housing to catch fire, it will burn dangerously without being able
to extinguish itself. And this vacuum cleaner is the one on special
offer? The other model may cost more, but in the end will prove to
be more cost effective. The additives that assist the moulding of
plastics, such as lubricants, process aids and heat stabilisers, can
cost many times more than the polymeric raw material, and
although only small amounts are used, they are nevertheless
essential and greatly enhance the final performance of the finished
article.

Other additives such as MINERAL FILLERS like chalk, talc and

clay, are naturally occurring substances and are cheaper then the
raw polymer. However, they are not necessarily used to reduce
cost but for the benefits they give to the basic material: talc and
chalk increase rigidity, clay improves electrical properties. Mineral
fillers also increase the thermal conductivity of plastics so that they
heat up and cool down quickly, meaning shorter mould cycle times
and more articles produced at lower cost. When a small saving of
0.5p per moulding may not sound much, but if it involves
producing several injection mouldings every few seconds this
'small' saving can amount to many tens of thousands of pounds
over a year. There is a wide variety of additives available to help
reduce costs.
3.4) Additives Make Plastics Safe And Sound

Good design in plastics includes the art of combining the inherent

safety properties of plastics, such as unbreakable materials, with
appropriately designed product features. Rounded edges, child
resistant closures and tamper evident seals are examples. Even
greater safety factors can be built in through the use of additives.

Most people are probably not aware that all our major plastics are
similar in composition to natural polymers such as wood, wool,
silk or cotton. They are all based on organic molecules which can
catch fire and burn. In some cases this is not a problem, but in
other situations it could mean life or death. the building materials
that are used to construct our homes, schools and public buildings
must be protected against fire by law, which means they must nor
ignite or spread flame. Depending on the type of plastics material
and the likely hazard, there are many FLAME RETARDANT
additives available to help satisfy this requirement.
Tough crash helmets and colour coded occurred regularly when
pulleys overheated, causing serious warning lights are produced
with additives (Shell).

An excellent example of lives saved by flame retardants in plastics

is the conveyor belt in coal mines. For many years fires occurred
regularly when pulleys overheated, causing serious accidents and
deaths. But when belting made from PVC containing high levels of
flame retardants was introduced in the mid-1950s, these accidents
stopped.

An increasing amount of plastics is found in cars today. These man

made materials are often selected for their safety value.
Dashboards and bumper not only have to look stylish and work
well, but must also prevent injury by absorbing and dissipating the
force of any impact. The additive type used in this case would be
an impact modifier. Pigments are additives usually chosen to make
plastics look more attractive, but they can also increase the safety
factor, such as the special colour-coding for electrical wiring.
Designer often use colours to accentuate the controls on machines
and day-glow pigments prevent many road accidents: runner and
cyclists wear reflective fabrics and strips, while road, rail and
building site workers can easily be seen in their fluorescent
helmets and jackets.
3.5) Additives Make Plastics Clean And Healthy

Hand in hand with advances in medical science, plastics have

become an important medium for raising standards of hygiene to
the high level we now enjoy. Throughout our lives, plastics help
prevent disease and prolong active healthiness. PVC, for example,
with its low toxicity, flexibility, clarity and sealing properties, all
achieved through additives, has become one of the most important
plastics in medicine.PVC tubing, blood transfusion sets and
disposable packs of equipment have helped create an easier and
healthier lifestyle. Additives have allowed the development of a
sealed system of PVC tubing and bags which separates blood into
its constituents without the need to open the equipment. This has
led to a whole new field of blood component therapy. Plasticsed
PVC medical bags help save lives.

To prevent plastics materials from becoming hard and brittle at

low temperatures, or soft and sticky at high temperatures, additives
are used to 'design' the plastics for its specific end use. Today
plastics containers can be transferred from freezer to microwave
and remain virtually unbreakable and safe in all conditions.

Polythene, and later polypropylene, inspired a post-war revolution

in kitchenware. Now we have something even more versatile and
good-looking - Clingfilm - which can prevent micro-organisms
spoiling fresh or cooked foods. To do this the polymer is
formulated with suitable additives such as plasticisers and non-
toxic stabiliser systems. The plasticiser makes the film very clingy
so that bacteria cannot get into the food, yet the film can also be
permeable so that oxygen and water vapour can pass through for
safer storage.Most plastics are by nature insulators, and this
property has encouraged the development of a myriad of electrical
products which are safe and a pleasure to use: telephones, shavers,
hairdryers, radios, TV sets and food processors. Their plugs,
sockets and wires are of course all insulated with plastics as well.
However, being non-conductive, static can build up in plastics
which attracts annoying dirt and dust. The additive that helps to
counteract that problem is known as an ANTI-STATIC AGENT.

3.6) Additives Make Plastics Work Longer

 Many natural materials decay with age - even granite erodes over
the years. In the world of plastics measures are being taken to
protect products from the effects of time. In extending the life and
service of plastics, the unseen protection given by additives can
result in materials which lead to new products for even more
demanding situations. Imagine the conditions that plastics are
subjected to - heat light, electric current, water weathering, cold,
and knocks and kicks of continual use in the home, office factory
or field. Effectiveness is critical.

Cars are good examples. The next time you are out in a car, take a
look at the exterior and interior and under the bonnet. Not only will
you find more components than ever before made of plastics, but
many of them - from bumpers and wheel trim to steering wheels
and door panels - have to endure long exposure to the elements, as
well as flying stones, scrapes, knocks and wear. Look at the engine
with its plastics mouldings, cables and tubes. Conditions are tough,
temperatures are high, yet plastics components still have to - and
do - work effectively. In all these cases the longer life additives are
silently at work.
Non-fading pigments will help these Spectrum stadium seats to
hold their colour for many years (Hille).

Children's toys and garden furniture, packaging and flooring are

just some of the products that form the backdrop to our lives, and it
is hard to overestimate the rough treatment they have to endure. In
sports stadiums, more and more spectator seating is moulded in
brightly coloured plastics, and playing surfaces are often made of
synthetic fibres. All of these are exposed to the weather, day and
night, summer and winter, but a combination of LIGHT
STABILISERS, UV ABSORBERS and ANTIOXIDANTS ensure
constant high performance. Natural materials usually have to be
finished off after manufacture with paints and lacquers. plastics
enjoy the advantage of incorporating before or during the
moulding process the additives that prolong their useful lives for
many years.

3.7) Additives Respect The Environment

 We all tend to think that plastics consume energy. In fact plastics
actually help to save energy in many different ways. For example
plastics in cars save European motorists some six billion litres of
fuel per year. This is because plastics have replaced heavier metal
parts and inspired designers to create wind-cheating aero-dynamic
shapes that cut down on fuel consumption. Without additives to
give plastics strength and durability, this would not be possible.

When certain plastics are moulded at around 220oC, particular

additives called BLOWING AGENTS break down to form gases
such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water. These gases, trapped in
the plastics, turn the material into foam, thus increasing the
insulation and energy absorption properties and reducing weight.
These foams can be seen in everyday use such as protective food
packaging, cushioning in sports shoes and in automobile parts
where lower weight saves fuel.

Three stages in the life cycle of time controlled degradable

mulching film: begin the growing season, partlydegraded film after
harvesting and the film after ploughing. (Prof. G Scott, University
of Aston)
Throughout the world crop yields are boosted by plastics film laid
over the soil to trap heat and moisture. Tomato production, for
example, can be increased by 300%. But what happens to the
plastic sheet at the end of the growing season? Additives have been
developed that allow the sheet to capture the sun's warmth during
the growing season but to break up as soon as the harvest arrives.
The sheets disintegrates due to the action of sunlight and the
fragments can be ploughed into the soil where the soil bacteria
quickly breaks them down into carbon dioxide and water. In areas
of predictable climate, this process can be timed to an accuracy of
within seven days. Where plastics cannot be reused or recycled,
biodegradation could offer a clean, safe method of disposal.

Plastics waste disposal can cause problems, especially as plastics

are usually mixed up with other types of waste such as paper,
metals and food. For recycling they really need to be sorted into
individual polymer types such as polythene, polystyrene or
polyvinyl chloride, otherwise they have no strength if remoulded
and may literally fall apart. This is an area in which additives
called COMPATIBILISERS can help. They act like chemical
adhesives, sticking the different waste plastics material together so
that a reasonable amount of cross-blending can be accepted. Mixed
plastics waste can be remoulded into fencing, pallets and road
markers, thus saving valuable timber. All this comes from a waste
product that would other wise have been buried in a landfill site.
Additives are vital for reprocessing waste plastics into useful
second generation products.