The use of ribs (http://www.efunda.

com/)

 Ribs increase the bending stiffness of a part. Without ribs, the thickness has to be increased to
increase the bending stiffness. Adding ribs increases the moment of inertia, which increases the
bending stiffness. Bending stiffness = E (Young's Modulus) x I (Moment of Inertia)
 The rib thickness should be less than the wall thickness-to keep sinking to a minimum. The
thickness ranges from 40 to 60 % of the material thickness. In addition, the rib should be
attached to the base with generous radiusing at the corners.

 At rib intersections, the resulting thickness will be more than the thickness of each individual
rib. Coring or some other means of removing material should be used to thin down the walls to
avoid excessive sinking on the opposite side.
 The height of the rib should be limited to less than 3 x thickness. It is better to have multiple
ribs to increase the bending stiffness than one high rib.

 The rib orientation is based on providing maximum bending stiffness. Depending on orientation
of the bending load, with respect to the part geometry, ribs oriented one way increase stiffness.
If oriented the wrong way there is no increase in stiffness.

 Draft angles for ribs should be minimum of 0.25 to 0.5 degree of draft per side.

If the surface is textured, additional 1.0 degree draft per 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of
 texture should be provided.

Boss Design

 Bosses are used for the purpose of registration of mating parts or for attaching fasteners such
as screws or accepting threaded inserts (molded-in, press-fitted, ultrasonically or thermally
inserted).
 The wall thicknesses should be less than 60 % of nominal wall to minimize sinking. However, if
the boss is not in a visible area, then the wall thickness can be increased to allow for increased
stresses imposed by self-tapping screws.
 The base radius should be a minimum of 0.25 x thickness

 The boss can be strengthened by gussets at the base, and by attaching it to nearby walls with
connecting ribs.

 Hoop stresses are imposed on the boss walls by press fitting or otherwise inserting inserts.

The maximum insertion (or withdrawl) force Fmaxand the maximum hoop stress, ocurring at the
 inner diameter of the boss, smax is given by

 Failures of a boss are usually attributable to:

High hoop stresses caused because of too much interference of the internal diameter
with the insert (or screw).

Knit lines -these are cold lines of flow meeting at the boss from opposite sides, causing
weak bonds. These can split easily when stress is applied.

Knit lines should be relocated away from the boss, if possible. If not possible, then a
supporting gusset should be added near the knit line.
Snap Latches

• Snaps allow an easy method of assembly and disassembly of plastic parts. Snaps consist of a
cantilever beam with a bump that deflects and snaps into a groove or a slot in the mating part.

• Snaps can have a uniform cross-section or a tapered cross section (with decreasing section height).
The tapered cross-section results in a smaller strain compared to the uniform cross-section. Here we
consider the general case of a beam tapering in both directions.
When Rh=1 and Rb=1 , the above formula does not apply, L'Hospital's rule applies and the formula is
simplified to the following:
• Disassembly force. The disassembly force is a function of the coefficient of friction, which ranges
from 0.3 to 0.6 for most plastics. The coefficient of friction also varies with the surface roughness. The
rougher the surface, the higher the coefficient of friction.

• There is an angle at which the mating parts cannot be pulled apart. This is known as the self-locking
angle. If the angle of the snap is less than this angle, then the assembly can be disassembled by a
certain force given by the above formula.

The self-locking angle = tan-1(1/µ)

where µ is the coefficient of friction which ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 for most plastics.

This computes to angles ranging from 73° for low coefficient of friction plastics to 59° for high
coefficient of friction plastics.

If this angle is exceeded then the snaps will not pull apart unless the snap beam is deflected by some
other means such as a release tool.

This property can be used to advantage depending on the objective of using the snaps. If the snaps
are to be used in the factory for assembly only (never to be disassembled by the end user), then the
ramp angle the self-locking angle should be exceeded. If the user is expected to disassemble (to
change batteries in a toy for example), then the angle should not be exceeded.

• Tooling for snaps is often expensive and long lead time due to

- 
The iterations required achieving the proper fit in terms of over travel. The amount of over travel is a
design issue. This will control how easy it is to assemble, and how much the mated parts can rattle in
assembly. This rattle can be minimized by reducing the over travel or designing in a preload to use
the plastic's elastic properties. However, plastics tend to creep under load, so preloading is to be
avoided unless there is no other option.
 

-  Often, side action tooling (cam actuated) is required. This increases the mold costs and lead
times.Cam actuated tooling can be avoided if bypass coring can be used that results in an opening in
the part to allow the coring to form the step.

• Some common problems of using snaps:

 

-  Too high a deflection causing plastic deformation (set) of the latch (the moving member). Care has to
be taken that the latch does not take a set. Otherwise, the amount of latch engagement could
reduce, reducing the force to disassemble. If the set is bad enough the engagement might even fail.
- 
The moving arm could break at the pivot point due to too high a bending stress. This can be avoided
by adhering to the design principles and not exceed the yield strength of the material-in fact it should
be kept well below the yield strength depending on the safety factor used.
- 
Too much over travel leads to a sloppy fit between mating parts resulting in loose assemblies that
can rattle.

• Good snap design practices

 

-  Design the latch taking into account the maximum strain encountered at maximum deflection.
-  In general, long latches are more forgiving of design errors than short latches for the same amount
of deflection, because of the reduced bending strain.
-  Build mold tooling with "tool safe condition". By this we mean that the deflection or over travel, or
length of engagement can be changed easily by machining away mold tooling, rather than add
material to mold tooling, which is more expensive and not good mold practice. This "safe" condition
allows for a couple of tooling iterations of the latch, until the snap action is considered acceptable.

Snap Fit Design

 
Snap fits are commonly used as an assembly method for injection molded parts. Although they
have been around for many years, they have recently become more important in an attempt to
simplify assembly and its associated costs. Snap fits are very useful because they eliminate screws,
clips, adhesives, or other joining methods. The snaps are molded into the product, so additional parts
are not needed to join them together. Additionally, if designed correctly, they can be disassembled
and reassembled several times without any problems. A snap fit can either be designed as a
permanent snap or a multiple snap. Permanent fits are used in disposable parts that are never meant
to be disassembled. Multiple snaps are used in most designs where disassembly for service is
expected.
There are complications associated with snap fits. A lot more engineering is required to design
a proper snap fit than designing something for screw assembly. Snap fits can also make the injection
mold that produces the parts significantly more complicated and expensive. Generally, the savings in
assembly costs more than makes up for added cost and complexity of the mold.
There are three main types of snap fits: annular, cantilever, and torsional.
 
Annular Snap Fits
 

 
Figure 1: A pen sometimes utilizes an annular snap fit to  
retain the cap.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3: A ball and socket joint is a kind of Figure 2: This bottle cap uses an  
annular snap fit. annular snap fit.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Figures 1 through 3 show examples of annular snap fits. Because there is so much hoop strain
when the parts are assembled, usually only materials with a large elongation at yield are able to be
used. See the calculation section for formulas to calculate the maximum deflections of the fit.
 
Cantilever Snap Fits
 Cantilever snap fits are the most widely used type of snap fit. There is a considerable amount
Figure 4: These four snap fit designs allow
different types of disassembly.
incorporated into the design (the cantilever can only be pushed so far).
Figure 5: Angled surfaces are used so assembly and
disassembly can be accomplished conveniently with opposite
forces.
Figure 7: An elastomeric material can be
used to seal and tighten the fit between
mating parts.
of calculation and engineering that goes into
designing a good snap fit; this section will show
different design techniques. Refer to the calculation
section to find the specific dimensions for the
cantilever.
Figure 4 shows four different methods of
designing snap fits for disassembly. Figure 4a shows
a snap fit with a 90° hook and a 90° recess; this
permanent fit cannot be disassembled. Figure 4b
uses an angled surface for both the assembly and
disassembly portions of the cantilever and the
recess. The cap can be removed with the same force
used in assembly. Figure 4c has the same 90 angles
as 4a, but the designer put a window in the side to
allow the snap fit to put disengaged for disassembly.
Figure 4d uses a U type beam to disengage the snap
from the outside.
A potential problem with the design shown in
Figure 4c is that the snap fit can be pushed too far;
there is no stop. If a snap fit breaks, it is usually
impossible to repair it, so designers will commonly
put a stop behind it to prevent it from being
overstrained. Figure 4d's design has a stop
Figure 5 shows the mechanism
of a cantilever snap fit, and how
both assembly and separation can
be achieved by using angled
surfaces on the snap and the
engaging piece of the recess.
Figure 6: The stages of a U shaped cantilever snap fit.
U shaped cantilever snap fits are commonly
used in such places as battery doors and covers.
Figure 6 shows how this type of snap fit works.
With this type of snap fit, the plastic does not
experience a lot strain, so multiple flexes are
possible without damaging the plastic beam. It also
has a built-in stop, so the beam cannot be flexed too
much and damaged.
A problem with joining two plastic pieces
together is holding a high tolerance on the snap fits
so that a tight fit is achieved. With snap fits, when
joining two pieces together as shown in Figure 7,
there is no way to get any preload on the cantilever
snap. This is a major disadvantage of using snap fits over screws. One way to get around this is to
sandwich an elastomeric materials between the mating pieces, as shown in Figure 7. The plastic
pieces are pressed together, compressing the elastomeric component and engaging the snap fit. The
compressed component acts as a spring and gives preload to the snap, resulting in a tight assembly.
The elastomeric component can also act as a gasket to keep out dust, water, or other contaminants.
Molding Snap Fits

 
As stated at the beginning of
this section, adding snap fits can
significantly increase the complexity
and cost of the mold. It is
important to understand the
Figure 9: If the cantilever's snaps are implications of the part design on
pointed outward like this, there are no the moldability of the part. Many
undercuts and mold design is simple. times, seemingly minor part design
changes can greatly decrease mold
complexity.
Figure 9 shows a part with
cantilever snap fits that point
outward. This does not present a
molding problem, since the part can
be ejected with no special mold
action. If the snaps are turned
around the other way, however, the
mold design becomes much more
complicated. The snaps will hold
onto the mold core, keeping it from
ejecting. Figure 10 shows the
situation with inward-facing snaps.
Figure 10: The inside-facing snap fits causes ejection A possible solution to this problem
problems. would be to design the snap fit with
angled corners so it can deflect and
slide off as it is ejected. Unfortunately, deflecting the plastic when it hot (immediately after molding)
could cause some permanent deformation. It would be very difficult to hold tight tolerances on the
snap fit using this method.
 A similar problem is
experienced with an internal snap
fit. As seen in Figure 11, this part
cannot be ejected with simple
ejection methods. A mold
component called a lifter is required
to release the snap during ejection.
The back of the lifter is attached to
a slide on the ejector plate. During
ejection, the ejector plate moves
forward, forcing the lifter forward as
well. The lifter travels along an
angled mold surface and releases
the snap fit once it moves out far
enough. Although it is fairly simple,
the addition of lifters to a mold can
greatly increase its cost, and should
be avoided if possible. Also note
Figure 11: An internal snap fit requires a lifter to eject it. that the lifter travels across the
surface of the part during ejection.
There cannot be any part features
in this area because they will get in the way of the lifter.

An easy and elegant way to

Figure 12: A window at the base of a cantilever snap fit
eliminates the undercut.
only be used on a part where a hole in the surface is not functionally or aesthetically undesirable.
eliminate the need for a lifter to
release a snap fit is to put a window
at its base, as shown in Figure 12.
The window eliminates the undercut
formed by the hook, and allows the
hook to be formed by the cavity
side of the mold. Figure 13 shows a
cross section of the mold at the
window. The underside of the snap
is formed through the slot. This
mold does not require any special
type of ejection. This design can

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 13: A mold cross section
 
at a snap fit shows how a window
 
eliminates the need for a lifter.
 

 
Living Hinge
 Living hinges are thin sections of plastic that connect two segments of a part to keep them
together and allow the part to be opened and closed. Typically these are used in containers that
are used in high volume applications such as toolboxes, fish tackle boxes, CD boxes etc.
 The materials used to make a living hinge are usually a very flexible plastic such as
polypropylene and polyethylene. These can flex more than a million cycles without failure.
 Besides meeting the design guidelines, the hinges have to be processed properly. The molecules
have to be oriented along the hinge line for the hinge to have acceptable life.
 As molded the fibers of the plastic are somewhat random in orientation. In order to orient the
fibers to aid in prolonging the hinge life, some or all of the following practices should be
followed:

The gate location should be such as to allow the plastic to flow across the hinge for maximum
-  strength.
-  As the part comes out of the mold, it needs to be flexed a minimum of 2 times while it is still
hot, for optimum strength

-  Coining is often done to give the hinge,

enhanced properties. The coining process
compresses the hinge to a pre-
determined thickness. The strain induced
is greater than the yield stress of the
plastic. This will plastically deform the
hinge (i.e. place it outside the elastic
range into the plastic range). The
amount of coining (compression) should
be less than the ultimate stress, to keep
the hinge from fracturing.
 The finished thickness after coining should be from 0.25 to 0.5 mm (0.010 to 0.020 inch).
-  This keeps the stress in the outer fibers from exceeding the yield strength when being flexed.

This process can also be done by heating the hinge or the coining tool to a temperature below
the glass transition tempertature of the plastic. This allows for easier coining and somewhat
enhanced properties, as the plastic "flow" easier when being heated.

Thread Forming
Pros Cons
High tensile values High hoop stress, boss has to be designed to withstand this stress
High amount of torque to strip
threads
Large number of cycles of
assembly and disassembly Stress relaxation possible
possible
Suitable for plastics that are
Not suitable for brittle plastics
non-brittle
 
Thread Cutting
Pros Cons
Lower
Lower Hoop Stress Tensile
Pullout
Lower
amoun
t of
Suitable for brittle plastics torque
to pull
the
threads
Injection Molding Design Guidelines

Much has been written regarding design guidelines for injection molding. Yet,
the design guidelines can be summed up in just a few design rules.
 Use uniform wall thicknesses throughout the part. This will minimize
sinking, warping, residual stresses, and improve mold fill and cycle
times.
 Use generous radius at all corners. The inside corner radius should be a
minimum of one material thickness.
 Use the least thickness compliant with the process, material, or product
design requirements. Using the least wall thickness for the process
ensures rapid cooling, short cycle times, and minimum shot weight. All
these result in the least possible part cost.
 Design parts to facilitate easy withdrawal from the mold by providing
draft (taper) in the direction of mold opening or closing.

 Use ribs or gussets to improve part stiffness in bending. This avoids the
use of thick section to achieve the same, thereby saving on part weight,
material costs, and cycle time costs.

Uniform Walls
  Parts should be designed with a minimum wall thickness consistent with part function and mold
filling considerations. The thinner the wall the faster the part cools, and the cycle times are
short, resulting in the lowest possible part costs.

Also, thinner parts weight less, which results in smaller amounts of the plastic used per part
which also results in lower part costs.

 The wall thicknesses of an injection-molded part generally range from 2 mm to 4 mm (0.080

inch to 0.160 inch). Thin wall injection molding can produce walls as thin as 0.5 mm (0.020
inch).

The need for uniform walls

 Thick sections cool slower than thin sections. The thin section first solidifies, and the thick
section is still not fully solidified. As the thick section cools, it shrinks and the material for the
shrinkage comes only from the unsolidified areas, which are connected, to the already solidified
thin section.
 This builds stresses near the boundary of the thin section to thick section. Since the thin section
does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid) must yield. Often this
leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even crack.

Uniform wall thicknesses reduce/eliminate this problem.

 Uniform walled parts are easier to fill in the mold cavity, since the molten plastic does not face
varying restrictions as it fills.

What if you cannot have uniform walls, (due to design limitations) ?

 When uniform walls are not possible, then the change in section should be as gradual as
possible.
  Coring can help in making the wall sections uniform, and eliminate the problems associated with
non-uniform walls.

 Warping problems can be reduced by building supporting features such as gussets.

Radius

 Sharp corners greatly increase the stress concentration. This high amount of stress
concentration can often lead to failure of plastic parts.

Sharp corners can come about in non-obvious places. Examples of this are a boss attached to a
 surface, or a strengthening rib. These corners need to be radiused just like all other corners.
The stress concentration factor varies with radius, for a given thickness.

As can be seen from the above chart, the stress concentration factor is quite high for R/T values
lesss than 0.5. For values of R/T over 0.5 the stress concentration factor gets lower.

The stress concentration factor is a multiplier factor, it increases the stress.

Actual Stress = Stress Concentration Factor K x Stress Calculated

This is why it is recommended that inside radiuses be a minimum of 1 x thickness.

 In addition to reducing stresses, fillet radiuses provide streamlined flow paths for the molten
plastic resulting in easier fills.
 Typically, at corners, the inside radius is 0.5 x material thickness and the outside radius is 1.5 x
material thickness. A bigger radius should be used if part design will allow it.
Voids and Shrinkage

 Shrinkage is caused by intersecting walls of non-uniform wall thickness. Examples of these are
ribs, bosses, and other projections of the nominal wall. If these projections have greater wall
thicknesses, they will solidify slower. The region where they are attached to the nominal wall
will shrink along with the projection, resulting in a sink in the nominal wall.
 Shrink can be minimized by maintaining rib thicknesses to 50 to 60% of the walls they are
attached to.
 Bosses located at corners can result in very thick walls causing sinks. Bosses can be isolated
using the techniques illustrated.

Warpage

 Thick sections cool slower than thin

sections. The thin section first
solidifies, and the thick section is still
not fully solidified. As the thick section
cools, it shrinks and the material for
the shrinkage comes only from the
unsolidified areas, which are
connected, to the already solidified
thin section.

This builds stresses near the boundary

of the thin section to thick section.
 Since the thin section does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid)
must yield. Often this leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even
crack.

Other causes:

 Warping can also be caused due to non-uniform mold temperatures or cooling rates.
 Non-uniform packing or pressure in the mold.
 Alignment of polymer molecules and fiber reinforcing strands during the mold fill results in
preferential properties in the part.
 Molding process conditions--too high a injection pressure or temperature or improper
temperature and cooling of the mold cavity. Generally, it is best to follow the resin
manufacturer's guidelines on process conditions and only vary conditions within the limits of the
guidelines.

It is not good practice to go beyond the pressure and temperature recommendations to

compensate for other defects in the mold. If runners need to be sized differently to allow for a
proper fill, or gate sizes that need to be changed, then those changes need to happen.

Otherwise the finished parts will have too much built in stresses, could crack in service or warp-
leading to more severe problems such as customer returns or field service issues.

The reason for draft

 Drafts (or taper) in a mold, facilitates part removal from the mold. The amount of draft angle
depends on the depth of the part in the mold, and its required end use function.
 The draft is in the offset angle in a direction parallel to the mold opening and closing.

 It is best to allow for as much draft as possible for easy release from the mold. As a nominal
recommendation, it is best to allow 1 to 2 degrees of draft, with an additional 1.5° min. per
0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture. See below.

 The mold parting line can be relocated to split the draft in order to minimize it. If no draft is
acceptable due to design considerations, then a side-action mold (cam-actuated) may be
required at a greater expense in tooling.
The reason for texture

 Textures and Lettering can be molded on the surfaces, as an aesthetic aid or for
incorporating identifying information, either for end users or factory. Texturing also helps hide
surface defects such as knit lines, and other surface imperfections. The depth of texture or
letters is somewhat limited, and extra draft needs to be provided to allow for mold withdrawal
without marring the surface.

 Draft for texturing is somewhat dependant on the mold design and the specific mold texture.
Guidelines are readily available from the mold texture suppliers or mold builders.

 As a general guideline, 1.5° min. per 0.025mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture needs to be
allowed for in addition to the normal draft. Usually for general office equipment such as lap-
top computers a texture depth of 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) is used and the min. draft
recommended is 1.5 °. More may be needed for heavier textures surfaces such as leather
texture (with a depth of 0.125 mm/0.005 inch) that requires a min. draft of 7.5°.