Chapter 5

Active Filter
 Introduction
Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals
within a band of frequencies while rejecting or blocking
signals of frequencies outside this band. This property
of filters is also called “frequency selectivity”.
Filter circuits built using components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors only are known as passive
filters.
Active filters employ transistors or op-amps in addition
to resistors and capacitors.
 Advantages of Active Filters over
Passive Filters

1. Active filters can be designed to provide required gain,

and hence no attenuation as in the case of passive filters
2. No loading problem, because of high input resistance
and low output resistance of op-amp.
3. Active Filters are cost effective as a wide variety of
economical op-amps are available.
 Applications

Active filters are mainly used in communication and signal

processing circuits.
They are also employed in a wide range of applications
such as entertainment, medical electronics, etc.
 Active Filters
There are 4 basic categories of active filters:
1. Low pass filters
2. High pass filters
3. Band pass filters
4. Band reject filters

Each of these filters can be built by using op-amp

as the active element combined with RC, RL or RLC
circuit as the passive elements.
 Active Filters

The passband is the range of frequencies that are allowed

to pass through the filter.

The critical frequency, fc is specified at the point where the

response drop -3dB (70.7%) from the passband response.

The stopband is the range of frequencies that have the

most attenuation.

The transition region is the area where the fall-off occur.

 Basic Filter Responses
1. Low-pass filter
Allows the frequency from 0Hz to critical frequency.

Ideal response actual response

The critical frequency can be formula by

1
fc 
2RC
 Basic Filter Responses
1. High-Pass filter
Only allowing the frequencies above the critical frequency.

Ideal response actual response

The critical frequency can be formula by

1
fc 
2RC
 Basic Filter Responses
3. Band-pass filter
Allows frequencies between a lower critical frequency (fc1)
and an upper critical frequency (fc2).

Ideal response actual response

 Basic Filter Responses
3. Band-pass filter

Bandwidth, BW = fc2-fc1

center frequency, fo
f1  f 2
fo 
2

Quality factor (Q) is the ratio of center

frequency fo to the BW

fo
Q
BW

The narrower the bandwidth,

the higher the quality factor.
 Basic Filter Responses
4. Band-stop filter
Opposite of a band-pass.
Frequencies above and below fc1 and fc2 are passed.

Ideal response
actual response
 Active Low-
Low-Pass Filters
Basic Low-Pass filter circuit
At critical frequency,
Resistance = capacitance
R  Xc
1
R
c C
1
R
2f c C
So, critical frequency ;
1
fc 
2RC
 Active Low-
Low-Pass Filters
Low Pass Response

Roll-off depends on
number the of poles.
 Active Low-
Low-Pass Filters
A Single-Pole Filter

R1 1
Acl  1  fc 
R2 2RC
 Active Low-
Low-Pass Filters
The Sallen-Key
• second-order (two-pole) filter
• roll-off -40dB per decade

1
fc 
2 RA RBCACB

For RA=RB=R and

CA=CB=C ;

1
fc 
2RC
 Active High-
High-Pass Filters
Basic High-Pass circuit
At critical frequency,
Resistance = capacitance
R  Xc
1
R
c C
1
R
2f c C
So, critical frequency ;
1
fc 
2RC
 Active High-
High-Pass Filters
High Pass Response

Roll-off depends on
number the of poles.
 Active High-
High-Pass Filters
A Single-Pole Filter

R1 1
Acl  1  fc 
R2 2RC
 Active High-
High-Pass Filters
The Sallen-Key
• second-order (two-pole) filter
• roll-off -40dB per decade

1
fc 
2 RA RBC ACB

Lets RA=RB=R and

CA=CB=C

1
fc 
2RC
 Active Band-
Band-Pass Filters
A cascaded of a low-pass and high-pass filter.
Active Band-
Band-Pass Filters

1
f c1 
2 RA1RB1C A1CB1

1
fc2 
2 RA2 RB 2C A2CB 2

f0  f c1 f c 2
 Active Band-
Band-Stop Filters
The BSF is opposite of BPF in that it blocks a specific
band of frequencies.
The multiple-feedback design is similar to a BPF with
exception of the placement of R3 and the addition of R4.
 Filter Response Measurements

Measuring frequency response can be performed with

typical bench-type equipment.
It is a process of setting and measuring frequencies
both outside and inside the known cutoff points in
predetermined steps.
Use the output measurements to plot a graph.
More accurate measurements can be performed with
sweep generators along with an oscilloscope, a
spectrum analyzer, or a scalar analyzer.
Chapter 6 Roy Chowdhari
 Contents
• Basic voltage Regulator
• Series voltage regulator
• IC Voltage Regulator
• General purpose Regulator
• Switching Regulator
 Lesson Plan
Sl.N Date Topics Date Remarks
o Planne Engaged
d
1 1/3/16 Introduction,Typ
es of voltage
Regulation
2 2/3/16 Series regulator
3 4/3/16 Switching
Regulator
4 6/3/16 IC regulator
5 13/3/16 723 General
purpose
Regulator
6 15/3/16 Problems
 Introduction
Batteries are often shown on a schematic diagram as the
source of DC voltage but usually the actual DC voltage
source is a power supply.

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed

to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low
voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices.
 A more reliable method of obtaining DC power is to
transform, rectify, filter and regulate an AC line voltage.

 A power supply can be broken down into a series of

blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
 Power Supplies

 For example a 5V regulated supply

 Voltage Regulation
 Line regulation is the maintenance of a nearly constant output
voltage when the input voltage varies.
 When the ac input (line) voltage of a power supply changes,
an electronic circuit called a regulator maintains a nearly
constant output voltage
How well a regulator performs line regulation can be determined
by the formula below.

 Vout 
Line Regulation =  100%
 Vin 
 Voltage Regulation
Load regulation is the maintenance of a nearly constant
output voltage when the load varies.
When the amount of current through a load changes due
to a varying load resistance, the voltage regulator must
maintain a nearly constant output voltage across the load.
How well a regulator performs load regulation can be
determined by the formula below.

 VNL  VFL 
Load Regulation =  100%
 VFL 
 Types of Regulator
 The fundamental classes of voltage regulators are linear
regulator and switching regulators.
Two basics types of linear regulator are :
• Series Regulator
• Shunt Regulator
 Basic op-amp series regulator

 The control element is a transistor in series with the load.

 The output sample circuit senses a change in the output voltage.
The error detector compares the sample voltage with a reference
voltage (zener diode)
Control is achieved by controlling the voltage across Q1
 Regulating Action
The resistive voltage divider formed by R2 and R3 senses any
changes in the output voltage.
 When the output voltage tries to decrease, a proportional voltage
decrease is applied to the op-amp’s inverting input by the voltage
divider.
 Zener diode sets the reference voltage for the non-inverting input of
the op-amp. Any changes in the output are fed back to the inverting
input of the op-amp.
 The difference voltage (error voltage) is amplified and the op-amp’s
output voltage is increased.
 This increase is applied to the base of Q1 – causing the emitter
voltage to increase until the voltage to the inverting input equals the
reference voltage.
 The regulated output voltage of the series regulator is :

 R2 
Vout  1  VREF
 R3 
 Basic Switching Regulator
 The switching regulator is more efficient than the linear
series or shunt type.
 This type regulator is ideal for high current applications since
less power is dissipated.
 Basically, a switching regulator passes voltage to the load
pulses, which are then filtered to provide a smooth dc voltage.
 With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved.
 Step – Down Configuration

 With the step-down (output voltage is less than the input voltage)
configuration the control element Q1 is pulsed on and off at variable
rate based on the load current.
 The pulsations are filtered out by the LC filter.
 Since Q1 is either on or off, the power lost in the control element is
relatively small

Basic step – down switching regulator

  When the on-time is
increased, capacitor charges
more – increasing the output
voltage.

When the on-time is

decreased, the capacitor
discharges more – decreasing
the output voltage.

 The inductor smoothes the

fluctuations of the output
voltage caused by the
charging and discharging.
Switching regulator waveform
 IC Regulator
 Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely used.
 Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single
device with associated components.
 These are generally three terminal devices that provide a positive
or negative output.
 Some types are have variable voltage outputs.

Connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a load

 A typical 78XX series of IC regulators – three-terminal
devices that provide a fixed positive output voltage.
 A typical 79XX series of IC regulators – three-terminal
devices that provide a fixed negative output voltage
 Almost all applications of regulators require the device be
secured to a heat sink to prevent thermal overload.
 The capacitors act as line filtration.
  Adjustable Positive Linear Voltage Regulator

 Adjustable IC regulators are available with either positive or

negative output.
 They can be set to produce a specific voltage by way of an
external reference voltage divider network.
 Vout can be varied from 1.2V to 37V depending on the resistor
values.

The LM317 three-terminal adjustable positive voltage regulator

  The External Pass Transistor

 To increase the current capability of an IC regulator an

external pass transistor can be used in order to prevent
thermal load condition.

A 78XX-series three-terminal regulator with an external pass transistor

 Multipin IC Voltage Regulator

 The LM723 has an

equivalent circuit that
contains most of the parts
of the op-
op-amp voltage
regulator discussed earlier.
 It has an internal voltage
reference, error amplifier,
pass transistor, and current
limiter all in one IC
package.

LM 723C Schematic
 LM723 Voltage Regulator

 Can be either 14-

14-pin DIP or 10
10--pin TO-
TO-100 can
 May be used for either +ve or -ve, variable or fixed regulated
voltage output
 Using the internal reference (7.15 V), it can operate as a high-
high-
voltage regulator with output from 7.15 V to about 37 V, or as a
low--voltage regulator from 2 V to 7.15 V
low
 Max. output current with heat sink is 150 mA
 Dropout voltage is 3 V (i.e. VCC > Vo(max) + 3)
 LM723 in High-
High-Voltage Configuration

Design equations:
Vref ( R1  R2 )
Vo 
R2
R1 R2 0.7
R3  Rsens 
R1  R2 I max
Choose R1 + R2 = 10 kW,
and Cc = 100 pF.
External pass transistor and To make Vo variable,
current sensing added. replace R1 with a pot.
 LM723 in Low-
Low-Voltage Configuration

R 4 Vo  0.7(R 4  R 5 )
I L (max) 
R 5 R sens
0.7(R 4  R 5 )
I short 
R 5 R sens
0.7 Vo
R sens 
I short (Vo  0.7)  0.7 I L (max)
With external pass transistor Under foldback condition:
and foldback current limiting
0 .7 R L ( R 4  R 5 )
R 2 Vref Vo ' 
Vo  R 5 R sens  R 4 R L
R1  R 2
 Summary
 Voltage regulators keep a constant dc output despite
input voltage or load changes.
 The two basic categories of voltage regulators are linear
and switching.
 The two types of linear voltage regulators are series and
shunt.
 The three types of switching are step-up, step-down,
and inverting.
 Switching regulators are more efficient than linear
making them ideal for low voltage high current
applications.
 IC regulators are available with fixed positive or negative
output voltages or variable negative or positive output
voltages.
 Both linear and switching type regulators are available
in IC form.
 Current capacity of a voltage regulator can be increased
with an external pass transistor.
 University exam questions
1) With the help of diagram, explain adjustable regulator using
fixed 3 terminal regulator. 06
2) Explain the operation of basic high voltage regulator using 723
IC. 06
3) Explain the principle of switching Regulator. 07
4) Using 7805 design a current source to deliver 0.2A current to a
22Ω
22 Ω ,10W load. Assume quiescent current as 4.2mA 07
5) Explain the principle of switch mode power supply. 07
 Assignment Questions
1) Explain the operation of series voltage regulator using
op--amp
op
2) With neat schematic ,explain salient features of 723
regulator.
3) Explain the limitations of linear voltage regulation
4) Define line regulation, load regulation
5) Explain how 723 can be used as low voltage regulator
 Summary
 The bandwidth of a low-pass filter is the same as the
upper critical frequency.
 The bandwidth of a high-pass filter extends from the
lower critical frequency up to the inherent limits of the
circuit.
 The band-pass passes frequencies between the lower
critical frequency and the upper critical frequency.
 A band-stop filter rejects frequencies within the upper
critical frequency and upper critical frequency.
 The Butterworth filter response is very flat and has a
roll-off rate of –20 B.