Electromagnetic Waves

1. Displacement Current The current which comes into play m the region in which the electric
field and the electric flux is changing with time. It is given by

2. Need for Displacement Current Ampere’s circuital law for conduction current during
charging of a capacitor was found inconsistent. Therefore, Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital
law.
3. The displacement current produces in space due to change of electric flux linked with the
surface. This reveals that, varying electric field is the source of magnetic field.
4. Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetic Waves Maxwell’s equations are the basic laws of
electricity and magnetism. These equations give complete description of ail electromagnetic
interactions.
There are four Maxwell’s equations which are explained below:

5. Electromagnetic Waves An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an accelerated or

oscillatory charge in which varying magnetic field is the source of electric field and varying
electric field is the source of magnetic field. Thus two fields becomes source of each other and
the wave propagates in a direction perpendicular to both the fields.
6. Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature, i.e. electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation. Electromagnetic waves
are not. deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

7. E (electric field) and B (magnetic field) in electromagnetic waves are in same phase.
8. Speed of electromagnetic wave
9. The energy in electromagnetic wave is divided on average equally between electric and
magnetic fields.

11. Linear momentum delivered to the surface, p= U/c

where, U = total energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves and c = speed of electromagnetic
wave.
12. Electromagnetic Spectrum The systematic sequential distribution of electromagnetic
waves in ascending or descending order of frequency or wavelength is known as
electromagnetic spectrum. The range varies from 10-12 m, to 104 m, i.e. from γ-rays to radio
waves.

13. Elementary facts about the uses of electromagnetic waves

Radio waves
(i) In radio and TV communication.
(ii) In astronomical field.
Microwaves
(i) In RADAR communication.
(ii) In analysis of molecular and atomic structure.
(iii) For cooking purpose.
Infrared waves
(i) In knowing molecular structure. (ii) In remote control of TV VCR, etc.
Ultraviolet rays
(i) Used in burglar alarm. (ii ) To kill germs in minerals.
X-rays
(i) In medical diagnosis as they pass through the muscles not through the bones.
(ii) In detecting faults, cracks, etc., in metal products,
γ-rays
(i) As food preservation. (ii) In radiotherapy.
14. The optical effect is produced by electric field vector of the electromagnetic waves.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

1. Ray Optics or Geometrical Optics In this optics, the light is considered as a ray which
travels in a straight line. It states that for each and every object, there is an image.
2. Reflection Reflection is the phenomenon of changing the path of light without any change in
the medium.
3. Reflection of Light The returning back of light in the same medium from which it has come
after striking a surface is called reflection of light.
4. Laws of Reflection
Two laws of reflection are given as below:
(i) The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r.
i.e. ∠i = ∠r.
(ii) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
5. Total number of images formed by two plane mirrors inclined at an angle θ with each other is
given by

6. Reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere. Spherical mirrors are of
two types, (i) Concave spherical mirror (ii) Convex spherical mirror.

7. Sign Convention All measurements should be taken from pole of mirror. All measurements
along the direction of incident ray will be positive and opposite to incident ray are negative. All
the measurements for the distances above the principal axis are taken as positive and below
the principal axis are taken as negative.
8. For a real object, u is negative whereas v is negative for real image and positive for virtual
image.
9. Mirror Formula Mirror formula is a relation between focal length of the mirror and distances
of objects and image from the mirror.

11. Linear Magnification The ratio of the size of the image formed by a spherical mirror I to the
size of the object O is called the linear magnification produced by the spherical mirror.
12. Magnification (m) It is negative corresponding to real image and positive for virtual image.
13. Refraction The phenomenon of changing in the path of light as it goes from one medium to
another is called refraction.
14. Laws of Refraction

Two laws of refraction are given as below:

(i) The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
for the two given media. This constant is denoted by n and is called the relative refractive
index.
n = sin i/sin r (Snell’s law)
where, n is refractive index of the second medium when first medium is air.

17. Total Internal Reflection (TIR) When a ray of light travelling from denser medium to rarer
medium is incident at the interface of two medium at an angle greater than the critical angle for
the two media, the ray is totally reflected back to denser medium. This phenomenon is called
Total Internal Reflection. It occurs only when angle of incidence in denser medium is greater
(not equal) than critical angle, i.e. i> ic.
18. Principle of reversibility of light states that when final path of a ray of light after any
number of reflections and refractions is reversed, the ray retraces its entire path.

22. Optical fibre, mirage, sparkling of diamond, totally reflecting prism, etc. work on the principle
of total internal reflection.
24. Lens is a transparent medium bounded by two surfaces of which one or both surfaces are
spherical.
(i) Convex or Converging Lens A lens which is thicker at the centre and thinner at its end is
called convex lens.
Convex lenses are of three types which are given as below:

(ii) Concave or Diverging Lens A lens which is thinner at the centre and thicker at its ends is
called a concave lens.
Concave lenses are of three types which are given as below:

25. Lens maker’s formula

26. When lens of refractive index μ is immersed in a medium of refractive index μ, then

(i) When lens is taken in another medium, then focal length changes to fm which is given by
28. Power of Lens The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the rays of light incident on it is
called the power of the lens.

29. Power of combination lenses in contact is given by

30. Magnification by combination of lenses

m = m1 × m2 × m3 ………..
31. (i) Prism have got the property of bending the incident light towards its base.
A prism is a portion of a transparent medium bounded by two plane faces inclined to each other
at a suitable angle.

(ii) When the prism is adjusted at angle of minimum deviation, then

(a) angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence

31. Dispersion by a Prism The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is
known as dispersion.
Angular Dispersion Angular dispersion produced by a prism for white light is the difference in
the angles of deviation for two extreme colours i.e. violet and red.

Dispersive Power Dispersive power of a prism is defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the
mean deviation produced by the prism.

33. Combining two thin prisms we can study two conditions

 Wave optics
1. Wave Optics Describes the connection between waves and rays of light. According to wave
theory of light, light is a form of energy which travels through a medium in the form of transverse
wave.
2. Wave front The locus of all those particles which are vibrating in the same phase at any
instant is called wave front. Thus, wave front is a surface having same phase of vibrating
particles at any instant at every point on it.
3. Phase Speed Phase speed is the speed with which wave front moves and it is equal to wave
speed.
4. The shape of wavefront due to a
(i) point source is spherical
(ii) line source is cylindrical
(iii) source at infinity is a plane.
5. A line perpendicular to a wave front is called a ray. The direction of rays are always
perpendicular to the wave front along the direction of propagation of wave.
6. Huygens’ Principle Huygens’ principle is essentially a geometrical construction, which gives
the shape of the wave front at any time, allows us to determine the shape of the wave front at a
later time. According to Huygens’ principle,
(i) Every point on a wave front behaves like a light source and emits secondary wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets spread in all directions in space (vacuum) with the velocity of light.
(iii) The envelope of wave front of secondary wavelets, after a given time, along forward
direction gives the new position of wave front.
7. The laws of reflection and refraction can be verified using Huygens’ wave theory.
8. Huygens’ wave theory successfully explains the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and
polarisation.
9. As, frequency v is characteristic of the source, therefore v = 1/T remains the same as light
travels from one medium to another.
 10. Wavelength is inversely proportional to refractive index (μ) of the medium
i.e. λ’ = λ/μ
11. Behaviour of a Prism, Lens and Spherical Mirror towards Plane Wave front

12. Laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens’ wave theory As shown in figure, consider a
plane wave front AB incident on the reflecting surface XY, both the wave front and the reflecting
surface being perpendicular to the plane of paper.

First the wave front touches the reflecting surface at B and then at the successive points
towards C. In accordance with Huygens’ principle, from each point on BC, secondary wavelets
start growing with the speed c. During the time the disturbance from A reaches the point C the
secondary wavelets from B must have spread over a hemisphere of radius BD = AC = ct, where
 t is the time taken by the disturbance to travel from A to C. The tangent plane CD drawn from
the point C over this hemisphere of radius ct will be the new reflected wave front.
Let angles of incidence and reflection be i and r, respectively . In AABC and ADCB, we have

i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The proves the first law of
reflection.
Further, since the incident ray SB, the normal BN and the reflected ray BD are respectively
perpendicular to the incident wave front AB, the reflecting surface XY and the reflected wave
front CD (all of which are perpendicular to the plane of the paper) therefore, they all lie in the
plane of the paper i.e. in the same plane. This proves the second law of reflection.
13. Law of refraction on this basis of Huygens’ wave theory Consider a plane wavefront AB
incident on a plane surface XY, separating two media 1 and 2, as shown in Figure.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of light in two media, with v1 <v2.

The wave front first strikes at point A and then at the successive points towards C. According to
Huygens’ principle, from each point on AC, the secondary wavelets starts growing in the second
medium with speed v2. Let the disturbance take time t to travel from B to C, then BC = v1t.
During the time the disturbance from B reaches the point C, the secondary wavelets from point
A must have spread over a hemisphere of radius AD = v2t in the second medium. The tangent
plane CD drawn from point C over this hemisphere of radius v2t will be the new refracted wave
front.
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be i and r, respectively.
From right AABC, we have
This proves Snell’s law of refraction. The constant 1μ2 is called the refractive index of the socond
medium with respect to first medium.
Further, since the incident ray SA, the normal AN and the refracted ray AD are respectively
perpendicular to the indicent wave front AB, the dividing surface XY and the refracted wave
front CD (all perpendicular to the plane of the paper), therefore, they all lie in the plane of the
paper, i.e. in the same plane. This proves another law of refraction.