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Power System Security
Power System Security
Module-5
Power system security may be looked upon as the probability of the system’s
operating point remaining within acceptable ranges, given the probabilities of
changes in the system (contingencies) and its environment.
T.E. Dy Liacco, ”The Adaptive Reliability Control System”, IEEE Trans. PAS, Vol.
PAS-86, No.5, May 1967, PP.517.531.
Dy Liacco first pointed out in 1967 that a power system may be identified to be
operating in a number of states.
Preventive state
1. The preventive state is actually the normal state. The term ‘preventive’ was
used to stress the ‘Security’ aspect of the normal operation.
2. Normal operating condition usually means that all the apparatus are running
within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within acceptable
ranges.
3. The system should also continue to operate ‘normally’ even in the case of
credible contingencies. The operator should ‘foresee’ such contingencies
(disturbances) and take preventive control actions (as economically as possible)
such that the system integrity and quality of power supply is maintained.
Emergency state
1. The power system enters an emergency state when some of the components
operating limits are violated; some of the states wander outside the acceptable
Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 15
Power system operation and control (15EE81)
ranges, or when the system frequency starts to decrease.
2. The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve system stress by
appropriate actions.
3. Economic considerations become secondary at this stage.
Restorative state
1. Restorative state is the condition when some parts (or whole) of the system has
lost power.
2. The control objective in this state is to steer the system to a normal state again by
taking appropriate actions.
L. H. Fink and K. Carlsen, ”Operating under stress and strain,”IEEE Spectrum,
March, 1978
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1. System monitoring
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2. Contingency analysis
3. Preventive and corrective actions
System monitoring
1. The prerequisite for security assessment of a power system is the knowledge of the
system states. Monitoring the system is therefore the first step.
2. Measurement devices dispersed throughout the system help in getting a picture of
the current operating state. The measurements can be in the form of power
injections, power flows, voltage, current, status of circuit breakers, switches,
transformer taps, generator output etc., which are telemetered to the control centre.
3. Usually a state estimator is used in the control centre to process these telemetered
data and compute the best estimates of the system states.
4. Remote control of the circuit breakers, disconnector switches, transformer taps
etc. is generally possible. The entire measurement and control system is
commonly known as
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
Contingency analysis
Once the current operating state is known, the next task is the contingency
analysis. Results of contingency analysis allow the system to be operated
defensively. Major components of contingency analysis are:
Preventive and corrective actions are needed to maintain a secure operation of a system or to
bring it to a secure operating state.
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2. Preventive actions such as generation rescheduling involve longer time scales.
Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example of rescheduling the
generations in the system in order to ensure a secure operation.
In earlier days, security assessment in a power system was mainly offline in nature.
Predefined set of rules or nomographs were used to assist the operators in the
decision-making process.
1. However, due to the highly interconnected nature of modern power systems, and
deregulated energy market scenarios, operating conditions and even the topology of
a power system changes frequently. Off-line techniques for security assessment are
therefore no- longer reliable in modern power systems.
2. On-line security assessment techniques use near-real-time measurements from
different locations in a power system, and continuously update the security
assessment of the system.
N. Balu et.al., ”On-line power system security analysis,”Proc. of the IEEE, Vol 80, No.
2, Feb. 1992, pp. 262-280.
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DC power flow
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operating limits is the one of linear sensitivity factors.
2. Two such sensitivity factors for checking line flow violations are generation
shift factors and line outage distribution factors.
where ali is the linearized generation shift factor for the l th line for a change in output of
i th generator; ∆fl is the MW change in power flow in the l th line; ∆Pi is the change in
generation at the i th bus.
It is assumed here that the change in generation at the i th bus is picked up by the
reference bus. The new values of power flows in each line can be found from:
where flold is the power flow in the l th line before the i th generator went out. Assuming
Pold to be the output of the i th generator before fault, above equation can be
expressedi as,
Once the new values of flows are computed for all the lines, they are compared with
corresponding line flow limits.
Operators are ‘alarmed’ in case of any limit violations.
1. In a practical power system, due to governor actions, the loss of generation at the
bus i may be compensated by their generators throughout the system.
2. A frequently used method is to assume that the loss of generation is distributed
among participating generators in proportion to their maximum MW rating.
Therefore, the proportion of generation pickup by the jth generator is given by,
k
where Pkmax is the maximum MW rating of the kth generator; NG is the number of
participating generators; γji is the proportionality factor for pickup on generating unit j
when unit i fails.
The new line flows are then given by,
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Note: It is assumed here that no unit hits its generating limit.
where dlk is the line outage distribution factor for line l after an outage of line k; ∆fl is
the change in MW flow in line l due to the outage of line k; f old is the flow in line k
beforek its outage.The new value of line flow is given by,
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Power system state estimation
Course road map
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What is state estimation?
How could the operator know the system?
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1. Node voltage phasor
a. Voltage magnitude Vk
b. Phase angle Θk
Analog measurements
1. Voltage magnitude
2. Current flow magnitude & injection
3. Active & reactive power
a. Branches & groups of branches
b. Injection at buses
c. In switches
d. In zero impedance branches
e. In branches of unknown impedance
4. Transformers
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Measurement model
How to determine the states (x) given a set of measurements (z)?
z = h (x) + e
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j j j
where
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Why do we need state estimation?
Measurement correctness
1.Imperfections in
b.Transducers
i.A/D conversions
ii.Tuning
d.Rounding in calculations
e.Communication links
Measurement timeliness
Approaches
a. Minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the state
calculated based on measurements from the true state
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Least square (Wiki)
1. "Least squares" means that the overall solution minimizes the sum of the
squares of the errors made in the results of every single equation.
2. The method of least squares is a standard approach to the approximate
solution of over determined system, i.e., sets of equations in which there
are more equations than unknowns.
3. The most important application is in data fitting.
4. Carl Friedrich Gauss is credited with developing the fundamentals of the
basis for least-squares analysis in 1795.
z = h (x) + e
j j j
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INTRODUCTION
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reliability remains a central issue, the need for the real time network models
becomes more important than before due to new energy market related functions
are to be added to the existing EMS. These models are based on the results yielded
by state estimation and are used in network applications such as security
monitoring, contingency analysis, optimal power flow, economic dispatch, unit
commitment, automatic generation control and economic interchange evaluation.
External
Equivalents
Security Monitoring
Optimal
Power Flow
And Control Subsystem
Security
Security Monitoring InExtremis
Dispatch Emergency Normal State
Controls Contingency Restorative
Analysis Controls
VAR
Environmental Alert State
Dispatch Preventive
Controls
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Figure 2.1 Functional Diagram of Modern Energy Management
System
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is to reduce measurement errors by utilizing the redundancy available in the most
measurement systems. In particular, the objectives are to reduce the variance of
the estimate and to improve the overall efficiency. The other major objectives of
traditional state estimation are (Alvarado 2001):
STATE
ESTIMATION
From its limited use during 1980s to its expanded but not central role in
the operation of the system in 1990s, state estimation has now become nothing
less than the cornerstone upon which a modern control centre for a power system
is built. State estimation stands in between the real time information and power
system control and monitor applications, playing a very crucial role in the real time
power system control and operation (Zhu 2008). The SCADA data, phasor
measurement data, network model and the pseudo measurements form the input
for the power system state estimation algorithm. The applications such as
contingency analysis, security analysis, optimal power flow etc., are carried out
based on the estimates provided by the state estimator.
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In this context, two aspects of the problem stand out prominently. Firstly, it is
uneconomical and in many cases not feasible to monitor all possible information
about the power system. Secondly, the measuring and equipments that are used
are subjected to random errors, which make the data highly suspicious from the
point of view of reliability.
The rationale behind this choice is that, knowing these variables along
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with the active and reactive power injections at the N buses (real Pi and reactive Qi
at all buses except Pi at the swing bus) and system parameters it is possible to
compute all measurements pertaining to the system. When observation errors are
present the success of state estimation depends on the redundancy of observed
data. Thus, if the state variables are ‘n’ (equal 2N – 1) in number and if ‘n’ load
injections at the buses are given then the problem reduces to a load flow
calculation.
State estimation is different from load flow studies in that the number of
input variables ‘m’ should be greater than (2N – 1), the dimension of the state
vector. It is this redundant information (number of unknown variables being less
than the number of defining equations) which is to be effectively used in some form
of averaging process to filter the data. The relationships between the different
variables involved in the state estimation are explicitly given in Figure 2.3.
error v
Measurement
Physical System State Estimator
System
u X Z X̂
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Z5 consists of maximum possible measurements. It comprises of (2N-1)
load injections, N voltage magnitudes, (N-1) voltage phase angles at N
buses and 4M line flows. The dimension of Z5 is (4N+4M-1).
Dimension of Z m
y= = (2.7)
Dimension of X n
In practice the range of the redundancy factor y, has been found useful
if its value is in between 1.5 and 2.8. i.e., 1.5 ≤ y ≤ 2.8. If too low value of y is
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chosen then the measurement errors are inadequately filtered. If too high y is
chosen it leads to high investment cost in data acquisition.
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centralized state estimation methods to illustrate the practicality of the hierarchical
method.
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time states of the switching elements
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the advantage of searching the solution space more thoroughly.
Gremling and Passino (2000) describes Genetic Algorithm (GA) that can
perform on-line adaptive state estimation for linear and non-linear systems. The
construction of a genetic adaptive state estimator and the way in which GA evolves
the model in a state estimator in real time are discussed. The operation and
performance of the genetic adaptive state estimator has been illustrated. The
genetic adaptive state estimator has the potential to offer higher performance for
non-linear systems compared with the other methods. Hybrid Particle Swarm
Optimization based distribution state estimation have been proposed by Naka and
Fukuyama (2001). This method considers both non-linear characteristics of the
practical equipment and actual limited measurements in distribution systems and
estimates load and distributed generation output values at each node by minimizing
difference between
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has higher accuracy than conventional measurements. Synchronism among phasor
measurements is achieved by sampling of voltage and current waveforms using a
common synchronizing signal from the GPS. A PMU provides time-stamped
measurements of active power, reactive power, frequency, current, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle. The time-stamped characteristic of a PMU is one of its
most innovative features which makes it useful for many other applications such as
system protection, control and stability assessment, aid topology error
identification, parameter error detection and correction and improves the accuracy
of state estimation.
The first prototype of the PMU was developed and tested in Virginia
Tech in the early 1980s. The first commercial phasor measurement unit, the
Macrodyne 1690 was developed in 1991. In the late 1990s, Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA) developed a Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS), which
initiated the usage of PMUs for large scale power systems. A PMU, when placed at
a bus, can provide a highly accurate measurement of the voltage phasor at that
bus, as well as the current phasors through the incident transmission lines
(depending on the available measurement channels). The major advantages of
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using Synchronized Measurement Technology (SMT) are that the measurements
from widely dispersed locations can be synchronized with respect to a Global
Positioning System clock. The voltage phase angles can be measured directly which
was so far technically infeasible and the accuracy and speed of energy
management system applications (e.g., state estimation) increase manifold.
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errors. The requirements are verified by implementing a GPS referenced state
estimator using test systems containing one or more PMU measurements. One of
the issues faced by the state estimators is the choice of reference bus phase angle
when phase angle measurements are present. This issue is easily resolved by
eliminating the reference phase angle from the conventional formulation. This
revised formulation will yield consistent state estimation results even when any one
of the phasor measurements is in error, provided that certain redundancy
conditions are satisfied.
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the hybrid state estimator incorporating conventional, as well as PMU
measurements. The performance of the state estimators is compared in terms of
the convergence properties and the variance in the estimated states. Modern PMUs
have features like frequency measurement, measurement of derived quantities
(i.e., power components, power quality related indicators, etc.,) and monitoring of
the status of substation apparatus.
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can be used when information regarding the surrounding boundary buses is
unavailable at the coordination level and delivers similar quality of results compared
to those obtained when including internal buses adjacent to boundary buses, but
with reduced size, computation time and complexity at the coordination level.
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heuristics is proposed and compared to an integer programming method. A given
PMU placement can provide full observability or redundancy. The PMU configuration
can also take into account the zero injection nodes which further reduce the
number of PMUs needed to observe the network. Finally, a method is proposed to
determine the order of the PMU placement to gradually extend the observable
area.
After 1996 U.S West Coast blackouts and 2003 North Eastern U.S
blackouts, the PMU monitoring has become very essential for the post-fault analysis
of the events. One of the recommendations from the United States- Canada Task
force on the 14 August 2003 blackout is to “require use of time synchronized data
recorders” at all utilities. Hence the Eastern Interconnection Phasor Project [EIPP],
now known as North American Synchrophasor Project Initiative (NASPI) was
created. The EIPP performed the first real time wide area monitoring in U.S to solve
some interesting problems such as the determination of a common phase for the
whole eastern grid. With the PMU installation cost ranging from 10 K to 70 K,
(depending on the utility, location and availability of communication channels)
placing PMUs in the optimum locations is one of first steps of a wide area
monitoring system. At present, phasor measurement units are the most widely used
Synchronized Measurement Technology based devices for power system
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applications.
PMUs are increasingly being used in different parts of the world as the
major technology enabler of the Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control
system. The general objective of these PMU installation activities is to eventually
make a transition from the conventional supervisory control and data acquisition
based measurement system to a more advanced measurement system that will
utilize synchronized measurements from geographically distant locations and
increase the situational awareness by monitoring a wide area of the power system
in real time. The optimal placement of phasor measurement units is an off-line
problem to be solved during the planning stage and the results obtained such as
number of PMUs to be installed and their locations are considered as planning data.
Several researchers have proposed algorithms for solving power system state
estimation problem using
n (2.8)
Minimize Σw x i i
Subject to f(X) ≤ î
where X is a binary decision variable vector, whose entries are defined as: xi =
Several test cases are considered (6-Bus, Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus,
IEEE 14, IEEE 30 and IEEE 118-Bus systems) to solve for the optimal PMU
placement using Binary Integer Linear Programming (BILP) technique. Also real
time State Electricity Board systems such as 110kV (North and South), 230kV and
400kV sub networks are considered to find the Optimal PMU placement solution.
The Spanning Tree for different test systems considered has been
obtained (Sodhi and Srivastava 2008). Multi partitioning algorithm is applied
Number
Network Location of PMUs
of PMUs
6-Bus system 2 3, 4
Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus system 3 4, 7, 9
IEEE 14-Bus system 4 2, 6, 7, 9
IEEE 30-Bus system 10 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 27
IEEE 118-Bus system 32 2, 5, 9, 11, 12, 17, 21, 24, 25, 28,
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110 KV (North)
110 KV (South)
16
14
34, 37, 40, 45, 49, 52, 56, 62, 63,
68, 73, 75, 77, 80, 85, 86, 90, 94,
101, 105, 110, 114
6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 20, 24, 27, 29,
32, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48
2, 7, 14, 15, 16, 21, 27, 28, 32, 36,
43, 44, 48, 50
230 KV 3 3, 6, 8
400 KV 10 2, 6, 9, 17, 18, 20, 26, 29, 34, 36
y = m / (2N-1-2NA) (2.9)
State estimator provides the optimal estimate of the system state based
on the received measurements and the knowledge of the network model.
Measurements may include power injections (real / reactive), power flows (real /
reactive), bus voltage magnitude, line current magnitude and current injection
magnitude. PMUs provide two other types of measurements namely, the bus
voltage phasor and branch current phasor. Depending on the type of the PMUs, the
number of channels used for measuring voltage and current phasors will vary.
Generally, it is assumed that each PMU has enough channels to record the bus
voltage phasor at its associated bus and current phasors along all branches that are
incident to that bus.
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Considering the IEEE 14-Bus system and IEEE 30-Bus system, the
redundancy factors with SCADA measurements and with measured data from PMUs
are given in Table 2.2.
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limits the bad data detection and identification capability.
Observability
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number and location of the PMUs are sufficient to determine the complete set of
state variables of the network being considered.
In China, the State Grid Company and manufacturers have issued the
standard on PMUs and WAMS in 2005. More than 700 PMUs are already in
operation and according to the 11th five-year plan of the power grid, all 500kV
substations and 300MW and above power plants in the Chinese power grid will
install PMUs within the next five years. Major applications that are currently in use
are the real time visualization of the system dynamics and transmission capacity,
wide area data recording and playback and monitoring of inter-area low frequency
oscillations. The other major objectives for which the work is in progress include
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applications such as enhanced state estimation, on-line security assessment,
adaptive protection and emergency control.
VTUPulse.com Qifeng et al (2000) have proposed an efficient method suitable for state
estimation embedded with FACTS devices and Multi-Terminal DC (MTDC) systems,
called as the improved sequential method. The proposed approach is sequential in
nature and exhibits good convergence characteristics compared to conventional
techniques. The variables and measurement equations of the FACTS and MTDC
systems related to the problem formulation are discussed. FACTS devices and
MTDC systems can be included in the existing state estimation algorithms and
hence the model reduces the software development efforts and maintenance costs.
Since the method is developed from the WLS gain matrix, it maintains good
convergence property as the conventional WLS method. The effectiveness of the
algorithm has been demonstrated using test systems and the results are compared
with the other state estimators.
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series compensation for each line. As a new concept for the compensation and
effective power flow management, it addresses the target of compensating a
number of transmission lines at a given substation.
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series reactive compensation, any inverter can be controlled to supply real power to
the common dc link from its own transmission line.
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According to the operating principle of the IPFC, the operating constraint
representing the active power exchange (Pser) among the converters via the
common dc link is given by:
The above equality is valid when the losses are neglected. If the IPFC is
located between nodes i, j and k in a power system, the admittance matrix is
modified by adding a reactance equivalent to Xser between nodes i and j and nodes
i and k. The Jacobian matrix is modified by addition of appropriate injection powers.
The detailed solution steps of the proposed algorithm can be summarized as:
go to Step 8
Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus system shown in Figure 2.5 has been
considered to find the estimate of the state of the system with the IPFC
incorporated in the buses 4, 5, and 6.
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The estimates of the state of the system with and without IPFC are
given in Table 2.3. The solution is found to be more accurate, the computational effort
is reduced and there is an improvement in the voltage profile of the system
considered. The tolerance assumed for convergence is 10−4.
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method and it possesses the main merit of extending the state estimation algorithm
including the effects of Interline Power-Flow Controller.
CONCLUSION
done effectively and efficiently. The deregulation policies, ever increasing load demand
and changing conditions in the topological structure of a power system have resulted in
a requirement for integration of heterogeneous legacy power system applications as
well as new applications inside and outside an electric utility organization. Thus the
architectural model to be proposed needs to allow pluging-in of new services or
upgrading existing services in a granular fashion to address the new requirements.
The utilities tend to adopt on-line based approach for power system
analysis. With this approach a real time estimation of the system state variables are
continuously updated by distributed data measurements and adopted as reference for
the solution of system state equations. This analysis if integrated with advanced tool for
dynamic loadability assessment of power equipments, leads to an improvement of the
infrastructures allowing system operators to provide more realistic operational guidance in
planning, preventive and corrective actions aimed to mitigate the effect of critical
contingencies.
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