Christianity in the 1st century

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(Hong Kong).
Main article: History of Christianity

Jesus Washing Peter's Feet, painting by Ford Madox Brown (1852–1856), Tate Britain, London

Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative history of Christianity from the

start of the ministry of Jesus (c. 27–29 AD) to the death of the last of the Twelve
Apostles (c. 100) and is thus also known as the Apostolic Age. Early Christianity
developed out of the eschatological ministry of Jesus. Subsequent to Jesus' death, his
earliest followers formed an apocalyptic messianic Jewish sect during the late Second
Temple period of the 1st century. Initially believing that Jesus' resurrection was the start
of the end time, their beliefs soon changed in the expected Second Coming of Jesus
and the start of God's Kingdom at a later point in time.[1]
Paul the Apostle, a Pharisee Jew who had persecuted the early Jewish
Christians, converted c. 33–36[2][3][4] and started to proselytize among the Gentiles.
According to Paul, Gentile converts could be allowed exemption from Jewish
commandments, arguing that all are justified by their faith in Jesus.[5][6] This was part of a
gradual split of early Christianity and Judaism, as Christianity became a distinct religion
including predominantly Gentile adherence. [5]
Jerusalem had an early Christian community, which was led by James the Just, Peter,
and John.[7] According to Acts 11:26, Antioch was where the followers were first called
Christians. Peter was later martyred in Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire. The
apostles went on to spread the message of the Gospel around the classical world and
founded apostolic sees around the early centers of Christianity. The last apostle to die
was John in c. 100.[8]

Contents

 1Etymology
  2Origins
o 2.1Jewish–Hellenistic background
o 2.2Life and ministry of Jesus
 2.2.1Sources
 2.2.2Historical person
 2.2.3Ministry and eschatological expectations
 2.2.4Death and resurrection
 3Apostolic Age
 4Jewish Christianity
o 4.1The Jerusalem ekklēsia
o 4.2Beliefs and practices
 4.2.1Creeds and salvation
 4.2.2Christology
 4.2.3Eschatological expectations
 4.2.4Angels and Devils
o 4.3Practices
 4.3.1Baptism
 4.3.2Communal meals and Eucharist
 4.3.3Liturgy
 5Emerging church – mission to the Gentiles
o 5.1Growth of early Christianity
o 5.2Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles
 5.2.1Conversion
 5.2.2Inclusion of Gentiles
 6Persecutions
 7Development of the Biblical canon
o 7.1Old Testament
o 7.2New Testament
 8Early orthodox writings – Apostolic Fathers
 9Split of early Christianity and Judaism
o 9.1Split with Judaism
o 9.2Later rejection of Jewish Christianity
 10Timeline
 11See also
 12Notes
 13References
 14Sources
 15Further reading
o 15.1Books
o 15.2Book series
 16External links

Etymology[edit]
See also: Nazarene and Nazirite
Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as "The Way" (ἡ ὁδός), probably coming
from Isaiah 40:3, "prepare the way of the Lord."[web 1][web 2][9][10][note 1] Other Jews also called them
"the Nazarenes,"[9] while another Jewish-Christian sect called themselves "Ebionites" (lit.
"the poor"). According to Acts 11:26, the term "Christian" (Greek: Χριστιανός) was first
used in reference to Jesus's disciples in the city of Antioch, meaning "followers of
Christ," by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch.[12] The earliest recorded use of the
term "Christianity" (Greek: Χριστιανισμός) was by Ignatius of Antioch, in around 100 AD.
[13]

Origins[edit]
Jewish–Hellenistic background[edit]
Main articles: Historical background of the New Testament, Second Temple
Judaism, Hellenistic Judaism, Jewish eschatology, Covenant (biblical), and Messiah in
Judaism
The earliest followers of Jesus were a sect of apocalyptic Jewish Christians within the
realm of Second Temple Judaism.[14][15][16][17][18] The early Christian groups were strictly
Jewish, such as the Ebionites,[14] and the early Christian community in Jerusalem, led
by James the Just, brother of Jesus.[17] Christianity "emerged as a sect of Judaism in
Roman Palestine"[19] in the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century AD, which
was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture.[20] Hellenistic culture had a profound
impact on the customs and practices of Jews everywhere. The inroads into Judaism
gave rise to Hellenistic Judaism in the Jewish diaspora which sought to establish
a Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism.
Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BC, and became a
notable religio licita after the Roman conquest of Greece, Anatolia, Syria, Judea,
and Egypt.[citation needed]
During the early first century AD there were many competing Jewish sects in the Holy
Land, and those that became Rabbinic Judaism and Proto-orthodox Christianity were
but two of these. Philosophical schools included Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots,
but also other less influential sects, including the Essenes.[web 7][web 8][citation needed] The first century
BC and first century AD saw a growing number of charismatic religious leaders
contributing to what would become the Mishnah of Rabbinic Judaism; and the ministry
of Jesus, which would lead to the emergence of the first Jewish Christian community.[web 7]
[web 8][citation needed]

A central concern in 1st century Judaism was the covenant with God, and the status of
the Jews as the chosen people of God.[21] Many Jews believed that this covenant would
be renewed with the coming of the Messiah. Jews believed the Law was given by God
to guide them in their worship of the Lord and in their interactions with each other, "the
greatest gift God had given his people." [22]
The Jewish messiah concept has its root in the apocalyptic literature of the 2nd century
BC to 1st century BC, promising a future leader or king from the Davidic line who is
expected to be anointed with holy anointing oil and rule the Jewish people during
the Messianic Age and world to come.[web 9][web 10][web 11] The Messiah is often referred to as
"King Messiah" (Hebrew: ‫מלך משיח‬, romanized: melekh mashiach) or malka meshiḥa in
Aramaic.[web 12]
Life and ministry of Jesus[edit]
 Events in the

Life of Jesus
according to the canonical gospels

show

Early life

show

Ministry

show

Passion

show

Resurrection

show

In rest of the NT

Portals:   Christianity   Bible

 v
  t
 e

See also: Christian views on Jesus

Sources[edit]
Main articles: Sources for the historicity of Jesus and Historiography of early
Christianity
Christian sources, such as the four canonical gospels, the Pauline epistles, and
the New Testament apocrypha[web 13], include detailed stories about Jesus, but scholars
differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus.
[23]
 The only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was
baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of the Roman
Prefect Pontius Pilate.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] The Gospels are theological documents, which
"provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of
the Christian communities in which they worked." [web 13] They consist of short
passages, pericopes, which the Gospel-authors arranged in various ways as suited their
aims.[web 13]
Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus
include Jewish sources such as Josephus, and Roman sources such as Tacitus. These
sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline Epistles and
the Synoptic Gospels. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g.
Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences
between them are used in the authentication process. [32][33]
Historical person[edit]
Main articles: Historical Jesus and Historicity of Jesus
There is widespread disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus
mentioned in the gospel narratives, and on the meaning of his teachings. [34] Scholars
often draw a distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, and two
different accounts can be found in this regard.[35]
Critical scholarship has discounted most of the narratives about Jesus as legendary,
and the mainstream historical view is that while the gospels include many legendary
elements, these are religious elaborations added to the accounts of a historical Jesus
who was crucified under the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate in the 1st-century Roman
province of Judea.[36][37] His remaining disciples later believed that he was resurrected. [38][39]
Academic scholars have constructed a variety of portraits and profiles for Jesus.[40][41]
[42]
 Contemporary scholarship places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition, [43] and the most
prominent understanding of Jesus is as a Jewish apocalyptic prophet or eschatological
teacher.[44][note 2] Other portraits are the charismatic healer,[note 3] the Cynic philosopher, the
Jewish Messiah, and the prophet of social change. [40][41][note 4]
Ministry and eschatological expectations[edit]
Main articles: Ministry of Jesus and Life of Jesus in the New Testament
In the canonical gospels, the ministry of Jesus begins with his baptism in the
countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the Jordan River, and ends
in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples. [47][note 5] The Gospel of
Luke (Luke 3:23) states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of
his ministry.[60][61] A chronology of Jesus typically has the date of the start of his ministry
estimated at around AD 27–29 and the end in the range AD 30–36. [60][61][62]
In the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke), Jewish eschatology stands central.
[web 13]
 After being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus teaches extensively for a year, or
maybe just a few months,[web 13][note 6] about the coming Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew,
the Kingdom of Heaven), in aphorisms and parables, using similes and figures of
speech.[63][web 13] In the Gospel of John, Jesus himself is the main subject. [web 13]
The Synoptics present different views on the Kingdom of God. [web 13] While the Kingdom is
essentially described as eschatological (relating to the end of the world), becoming
reality in the near future, some texts present the Kingdom as already being present,
while other texts depict the Kingdom as a place in heaven that one enters after death, or
as the presence of God on earth.[web 13][note 7]. Jesus talks as expecting the coming of the
"Son of Man" from heaven, an apocalyptic figure who would initiate "the coming
judgment and the redemption of Israel." [web 13] According to Davies, the Sermon on the
Mount presents Jesus as the new Moses who brings a New Law (a reference to
the Law of Moses, the Messianic Torah.[66]
Death and resurrection[edit]

The Crucifixion, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1745–1750, Saint Louis Art Museum

Jesus' life was ended by his execution by crucifixion. His early followers believed that
three days after his death, Jesus rose bodily from the dead.[67][68][69][70][71] Paul's letters and
the Gospels contain reports of a number of post-resurrection appearances.[72][73][74][75]
[76]
 Progressively, Jewish scriptures were reexamined in light of Jesus's teachings to
explain the crucifixion and visionary post-mortem experiences of Jesus,[1][77][78] and the
resurrection of Jesus "signalled for earliest believers that the days of eschatological
fulfilment were at hand."[web 16] Some New Testament accounts were understood not as
mere visionary experiences, but rather as real appearances in which those present are
told to touch and see.[79]
The resurrection of Jesus gave the impetus in certain Christian sects to the exaltation of
Jesus to the status of divine Son and Lord of God's Kingdom[80][web 16] and the resumption of
their missionary activity.[81][82] His followers expected Jesus to return within a
generation[83] and begin the Kingdom of God.[web 13]
Apostolic Age[edit]

The Cenacle on Mount Zion, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost. Bargil

Pixner[84] claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.

Main articles: Acts of the Apostles and Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles

Traditionally, the period from the death of Jesus until the death of the last of the Twelve
Apostles is called the Apostolic Age, after the missionary activities of the apostles.
[85]
 According to the Acts of the Apostles the Jerusalem church began at Pentecost with
some 120 believers,[86] in an "upper room," believed by some to be the Cenacle, where
the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and
resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message. [87][88]
The New Testament writings depict what orthodox Christian churches call the Great
Commission, an event where they describe the resurrected Jesus Christ instructing
his disciples to spread his eschatological message of the coming of the Kingdom of God
to all the nations of the world. The most famous version of the Great Commission is
in Matthew 28 (Matthew 28:16–20), where on a mountain in Galilee Jesus calls on his
followers to make disciples of and baptize all nations in the name of the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit.[citation needed]
Paul's conversion on the Road to Damascus is first recorded in Acts 9 (Acts 9:13–16).
Peter baptized the Roman centurion Cornelius, traditionally considered the first Gentile
convert to Christianity, in Acts 10. Based on this, the Antioch church was founded. It is
also believed that it was there that the term Christian was coined.[89]

Jewish Christianity[edit]
Main article: Jewish Christian
See also: Early Christianity and Biblical law in Christianity
After the death of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in
the Roman province of Judea.[19] The first Christians were all Jews, who constituted
a Second Temple Jewish sect with an apocalyptic eschatology. Among other schools of
thought, some Jews regarded Jesus as Lord and resurrected messiah, and the eternally
existing Son of God,[7][90][note 8] expecting the second coming of Jesus and the start of God's
Kingdom. They pressed fellow Jews to prepare for these events and to follow "the way"
of the Lord. They believed Yahweh to be the only true God,[92] the god of Israel, and
considered Jesus to be the messiah (Christ), as prophesied in the Jewish scriptures,
which they held to be authoritative and sacred. They held faithfully to the Torah, [note
9]
 including acceptance of Gentile converts based on a version of the Noachide laws.[note 10]
The Jerusalem ekklēsia[edit]

James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the apostolic decree of Acts 15:19–29

Main article: Jerusalem in Christianity

See also: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
The New Testament's Acts of the Apostles (the historical accuracy of which is
questioned) and Epistle to the Galatians record that an early Jewish Christian
community[note 11] centered on Jerusalem, and that its leaders reportedly
included Peter, James, the brother of Jesus, and John the Apostle.[93] The Jerusalem
community "held a central place among all the churches," as witnessed by Paul's
writings.[94] Reportedly legitimised by Jesus' appearance, Peter was the first leader of the
Jerusalem ekklēsia.[95][96] Peter was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just,
"the Brother of the Lord,"[97][98] which may explain why the early texts contain scant
information about Peter.[98] According to Lüdemann, in the discussions about
the strictness of adherence to the Jewish Law, the more conservative faction of James
the Just gained the upper hand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost
influence.[98] According to Dunn, this was not an "usurpation of power," but a
consequence of Peter's involvement in missionary activities. [99] The relatives of
Jesus were generally accorded a special position within this community, [100] which also
contributed to the ascendancy of James the Just in Jerusalem. [100]
According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis, the
Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War (AD 66–
73).[101]
The Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and
Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had
resettled in Jerusalem.[102] According to Dunn, Paul's initial persecution of Christians
probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-
Temple attitude.[103] Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart
from the "Hebrews" and their Tabernacle observance.[103]
Beliefs and practices[edit]
Creeds and salvation[edit]
Main article: Salvation in Christianity
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include oral traditions (which
included sayings attributed to Jesus, parables and teachings), [104][105] the Gospels, the
New Testament epistles and possibly lost texts such as the Q source[106][107][108] and the
writings of Papias.
The texts contain the earliest Christian creeds[109] expressing belief in the resurrected
Jesus, such as 1 Corinthians 15:3–41:[110]
[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ
died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, [4] and that he was buried, and that
he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures, [note 12] [5] and that he
appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [6] Then he appeared to more than five
hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some
have died. [7] Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. [web 17]
The creed has been dated by some scholars as originating within the Jerusalem
apostolic community no later than the 40s,[111][112] and by some to less than a decade after
Jesus' death,[113][114] while others date it to about 56.[115] Other early creeds include 1 John
4 (1 John 4:2), 2 Timothy 2 (2 Timothy 2:8)[116] Romans 1 (Romans 1:3–4)[117] and 1
Timothy 3 (1 Timothy 3:16).
Christology[edit]
Main article: Christology
Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a
"low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology." [118] The
chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within
contemporary scholarship.[119][71][120][web 18]
The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus
to be his Son by raising him from the dead," [121] thereby raising him to "divine status."[web
19]
 According to the "evolutionary model"[122] c.q. "evolutionary theories,"[123] the
Christological understanding of Christ developed over time, [20][124][125] as witnessed in the
Gospels,[71] with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was
exalted, c.q. adopted as God's Son,[126][127] when he was resurrected.[125][128] Later beliefs
shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal
existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. [125] This evolutionary model was very
influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.
[129][130][web 19][note 13]

The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a
pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father’s will on earth, and then
was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come," [web 19][131] and from where
he appeared on earth. According to Hurtado, a proponent of an Early High Christology,
the devotion to Jesus as divine originated in early Jewish Christianity, and not later or
under the influence of pagan religions and Gentile converts. [132] The Pauline letters,
which are the earliest Christian writings, already show "a well-developed pattern of
Christian devotion [...] already conventionalized and apparently uncontroversial." [133]
Some Christians began to worship Jesus as a Lord.[134][further explanation needed]
Eschatological expectations[edit]
Main articles: Jewish eschatology, Christian eschatology, and Second coming
Ehrman and other scholars believe that Jesus' early followers expected the immediate
installment of the Kingdom of God, but that as time went on without this occurring, it led
to a change in beliefs.[1][web 21] In time, the belief that Jesus' resurrection signaled the
imminent coming of the Kingdom of God changed into a belief that the resurrection
confirmed the Messianic status of Jesus, and the belief that Jesus would return at some
indeterminate time in the future, the Second Coming, heralding the expected endtime.[1]
[web 21]
 When the Kingdom of God did not arrive, Christians' beliefs gradually changed into
the expectation of an immediate reward in heaven after death, rather than to a future
divine kingdom on Earth,[135] despite the churches' continuing to use the major creeds'
statements of belief in a coming resurrection day and world to come.[citation needed]
Angels and Devils[edit]
Coming from a Jewish background, early Christians believed in angels (derived from the
Greek word for "messengers").[136] Specifically, early Christians wrote in the New
Testament books that angels "heralded Jesus' birth, Resurrection, and Ascension;
ministered to Him while He was on Earth; and sing the praises of God through all
eternity."[136] Early Christians also believed that protecting angels—assigned to each
nation and even to each individual—would herald the Second Coming, lead the saints
into Paradise, and cast the damned into Hell."[136] Satan ("the adversary"), similar to
descriptions in the Old Testament, appears in the New Testament "to accuse men of sin
and to test their fidelity, even to the point of tempting Jesus." [136]
Practices[edit]
The Book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily Temple attendance
and traditional Jewish home prayer, Jewish liturgical, a set of scriptural readings
adapted from synagogue practice, and use of sacred music in hymns and prayer. Other
passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional
Jewish piety such as baptism,[web 22] fasting, reverence for the Torah, and observance
of Jewish holy days.[137][138]
Baptism[edit]
Main article: Baptism in early Christianity
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings.
It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus's disciples practised
baptism. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the
name of Jesus Christ. Paul likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death. [note 14]
Communal meals and Eucharist[edit]
Main articles: Agape feast and Eucharist
Early Christian rituals included communal meals.[139][140] The Eucharist was often a part of
the Lovefeast, but between the latter part of the 1st century AD and 250 AD the two
became separate rituals.[141][142][143] Thus, in modern times the Lovefeast refers to a
Christian ritual meal distinct from the Lord's Supper. [144]
Liturgy[edit]
During the first three centuries of Christianity, the Liturgical ritual was rooted in the
Jewish Passover, Siddur, Seder, and synagogue services, including the singing
of hymns (especially the Psalms) and reading from the scriptures.[web 23] Most early
Christians did not own a copy of the works (some of which were still being written) that
later became the Christian Bible or other church works accepted by some but not
canonized, such as the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, or other works today
called New Testament apocrypha. Similar to Judaism, much of the original
church liturgical services functioned as a means of learning these scriptures, which
initially centered around the Septuagint and the Targums.[145]
At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty
years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the Lord's Day) was being regarded as the primary day
of worship.[146]

Emerging church – mission to the Gentiles[edit]

See also: Proto-orthodox Christianity
With the start of their missionary activity, early Jewish Christians also started to
attract proselytes, Gentiles who were fully or partly converted to Judaism.[147][note 15]
Growth of early Christianity[edit]
See also: Great Commission and Early centers of Christianity
Christian missionary activity spread "the Way" and slowly created early centers of
Christianity with Gentile adherents in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of
the Roman Empire, and then throughout the Hellenistic world and even beyond
the Roman Empire.[87][148][149][150][note 16] Early Christian beliefs were proclaimed
in kerygma (preaching), some of which are preserved in New Testament scripture. The
early Gospel message spread orally, probably originally in Aramaic,[151] but almost
immediately also in Greek.[152] A process of cognitive dissonance reduction may have
contributed to intensive missionary activity, convincing others of the developing beliefs,
reducing the cognitive dissonance created by the delay of the coming of the endtime.
Due to this missionary zeal, the early group of followers grew larger despite the failing
expectations.[web 21]
The scope of the Jewish-Christian mission expanded over time. While Jesus limited his
message to a Jewish audience in Galilee and Judea, after his death his followers
extended their outreach to all of Israel, and eventually the whole Jewish diaspora,
believing that the Second Coming would only happen when all Jews had received the
Gospel.[1] Apostles and preachers traveled to Jewish communities around
the Mediterranean Sea, and initially attracted Jewish converts.[149] Within 10 years of the
death of Jesus, apostles had attracted enthusiasts for "the Way"
from Jerusalem to Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, Thessalonica, Cyprus, Crete, Alexandria 
and Rome.[153][87][148][149] Over 40 churches were established by 100, [148][149] most in Asia Minor,
such as the seven churches of Asia, and some in Greece in the Roman era and Roman
Italy.[citation needed]
According to Fredriksen, when early Christians broadened their missionary efforts, they
also came into contact with Gentiles attracted to the Jewish religion. Eventually, the
Gentiles came to be included in the missionary effort of Hellenised Jews, bringing "all
nations" into the house of God.[1] The "Hellenists," Greek-speaking diaspora Jews
belonging to the early Jerusalem Jesus-movement, played an important role in reaching
a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and
significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers." [147] From Antioch, the mission to the
Gentiles started, including Paul's, which would fundamentally change the character of
the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.
[154]
 According to Dunn, within 10 years after Jesus' death, "the new messianic movement
focused on Jesus began to modulate into something different ... it was at Antioch that
we can begin to speak of the new movement as 'Christianity'." [155]
Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In Paul's
time[when?] there were no precisely delineated territorial jurisdictions for bishops, elders,
and deacons.[156][note 17]
See also: Apostolic see and Seven deacons
Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles[edit]
Saint Paul, by El Greco

Main article: Paul the Apostle

Conversion[edit]
Main article: Conversion of Paul
Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any
other New Testament author.[158] According to the New Testament, Saul of Tarsus first
persecuted the early Jewish Christians, but then converted. He adopted the name Paul
and started proselytizing among the Gentiles, calling himself "Apostle to the Gentiles." [159]
[160]

Paul was in contact with the early Christian community in Jerusalem, led by James the
Just.[161] According to Mack, he may have been converted to another early strand of
Christianity, with a High Christology.[162] Fragments of their beliefs in an exalted and
deified Jesus, what Mack called the "Christ cult," can be found in the writings of Paul. [161]
[note 18]
 Yet, Hurtado notes that Paul valued the linkage with "Jewish Christian circles in
Roman Judea," which makes it likely that his Christology was in line with, and indebted
to, their views.[164] Hurtado further notes that "[i]t is widely accepted that the tradition that
Paul recites in [Corinthians] 15:1-71 must go back to the Jerusalem Church." [165]
Inclusion of Gentiles[edit]

Mediterranean Basin geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem in the lower right to Rome in
the upper left.
Main articles: Paul the Apostle and Judaism, New Perspective on Paul, and Pauline
Christianity
See also: Circumcision in the Bible
Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi,
and Thessalonica.[166][better  source  needed] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw Jesus'
resurrection as ushering in the eschatological time foretold by biblical prophets in which
the pagan 'Gentile' nations would turn from their idols and embrace the one true God of
Israel (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), and Paul saw himself as specially called by God to
declare God's eschatological acceptance of the Gentiles and summon them to turn to
God."[web 1] According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus'
role and salvation by faith is not the individual conscience of human sinners and their
doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the main concern is the problem of the
inclusion of Gentile (Greek) Torah-observers into God's covenant. [167][168][169][web 25] The
inclusion of Gentiles into early Christianity posed a problem for the Jewish identity of
some of the early Christians:[170][171][172] the new Gentile converts were not required to
be circumcised nor to observe the Mosaic Law.[173] Circumcision in particular was
regarded as a token of the membership of the Abrahamic covenant, and the most
traditionalist faction of Jewish Christians (i.e., converted Pharisees) insisted that Gentile
converts had to be circumcised as well.[Acts 15:1][170][171][174][166] By contrast, the rite of circumcision
was considered execrable and repulsive during the period of Hellenization of
the Eastern Mediterranean,[175] [176][177][web 26] and was especially adversed in Classical
civilization both from ancient Greeks and Romans, which instead valued
the foreskin positively.[175][176][177][178]
Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments,
[166]
 considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Christ. [171]
[179]
 According to Paula Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is
in line with the Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would
come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23), not as proselytes to
Israel."[web 16] For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's
intentions.[web 16] According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a
salvation-historical figure in his own right", who was "personally and singularly
deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations
(Romans 11:25)."[web 16]
For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of Gentiles
from God's covenant,[180][181] since the faithful are redeemed by participation in Jesus'
death and rising. In the Jerusalem ekklēsia, from which Paul received the creed of 1
Corinthians 15:1–7, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale
for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the
Scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation
of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah." [182] According to E. P. Sanders, Paul argued that
"those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape
the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently
live with him."[web 27] By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives
forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the
Spirit."[183] Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to
Sanders, this insistence is in line with Second Temple Judaism of c. 200 BC until 200
AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the
Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing
the Law, but by the grace of God.[web 28]
These divergent interpretations have a prominent place in both Paul's writings and in
Acts. According to Galatians 2:1–10 and Acts chapter 15, fourteen years after his
conversion Paul visited the "Pillars of Jerusalem", the leaders of the Jerusalem ekklēsia.
His purpose was to compare his Gospel[clarification needed] with theirs, an event known as
the Council of Jerusalem. According to Paul, in his letter to the Galatians, [note 19] they
agreed that his mission was to be among the Gentiles. According to Acts, [184] Paul made
an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by
Peter.[7][185][note 20]
While the Council of Jerusalem was described as resulting in an agreement to allow
Gentile converts exemption from most Jewish commandments, in reality a stark
opposition from "Hebrew" Jewish Christians remained, [188] as exemplified by
the Ebionites. The relaxing of requirements in Pauline Christianity opened the way for a
much larger Christian Church, extending far beyond the Jewish community. The
inclusion of Gentiles is reflected in Luke-Acts, which is an attempt to answer a
theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an
overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that
the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it.[189]

Persecutions[edit]
See also: Persecution of Christians in the New Testament and Persecution of
Christians in the Roman Empire
Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred sporadically over a period of
over two centuries. For most of the first three hundred years of Christian history,
Christians were able to live in peace, practice their professions, and rise to positions of
responsibility.[190] Sporadic persecution took place as the result of local pagan
populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the
Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour
the gods.[191]
Only for approximately ten out of the first three hundred years of the church's history
were Christians executed due to orders from a Roman emperor. [190] The first persecution
of Christians organised by the Roman government took place under the
emperor Nero in 64 AD after the Great Fire of Rome.[191] There was no empire-wide
persecution of Christians until the reign of Decius in the third century.[web 29] The Edict of
Serdica was issued in 311 by the Roman emperor Galerius, officially ending
the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. With the passage in 313 AD of
the Edict of Milan, in which the Roman Emperors Constantine the
Great and Licinius legalised the Christian religion, persecution of Christians by the
Roman state ceased.[web 30]

Development of the Biblical canon[edit]

An artistic representation of St. Clement I, an Apostolic Father.

Main article: Development of the Christian biblical canon

In an ancient culture before the printing press and the majority of the population
illiterate, most early Christians likely did not own any Christian texts. Much of the
original church liturgical services functioned as a means of learning Christian theology.
A final uniformity of liturgical services may have become solidified after the church
established a Biblical canon, possibly based on the Apostolic
Constitutions and Clementine literature. Clement (d. 99) writes that liturgies are "to be
celebrated, and not carelessly nor in disorder" but the final uniformity of liturgical
services only came later, though the Liturgy of St James is traditionally associated with
James the Just.[192]
Books not accepted by Pauline Christianity are termed biblical apocrypha, though the
exact list varies from denomination to denomination. [citation needed]
Old Testament[edit]
Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon
The Biblical canon began with the Jewish Scriptures. The Koine Greek translation of the
Jewish scriptures, later known as the Septuagint[193] and often written as "LXX," was the
dominant translation from very early on.[web 31]
Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the Bryennios List, dated to around 100, which
was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. The list is written
in Koine Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew.[194] In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called the
Jewish scriptures the "Old Testament"[195] and also specified an early canon.[citation needed]
Jerome (347–420) expressed his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and
canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. [196]
New Testament[edit]
Part of a series on

Books of the
New Testament
 Papyrus 46, one of the oldest New Testament papyri, showing 2 Cor
11:33-12:9

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Main article: Development of the New Testament canon

The New Testament (often compared to the New Covenant) is the second major
division of the Christian Bible. The books of the canon of the New Testament include
the Canonical Gospels, Acts, letters of the Apostles, and Revelation. The original texts
were written by various authors, most likely sometime between c. AD 45 and 120 AD,
[197]
 in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, though
there is also a minority argument for Aramaic primacy. They were not defined as
"canon" until the 4th century. Some were disputed, known as the Antilegomena.[citation needed]
Writings attributed to the Apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities.
The Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st
century AD.[note 21]

Early orthodox writings – Apostolic Fathers[edit]

The Church Fathers are the early and influential Christian theologians and writers,
particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The earliest Church
Fathers, within two generations of the Twelve apostles of Christ, are usually
called Apostolic Fathers for reportedly knowing and studying under the apostles
personally. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome (d. AD 99),[198] Ignatius
of Antioch (d. AD 98 to 117) and Polycarp of Smyrna (AD 69–155). The earliest
Christian writings, other than those collected in the New Testament, are a group of
letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. Their writings include the Epistle of
Barnabas and the Epistles of Clement. The Didache and Shepherd of Hermas are
usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, although their authors are
unknown.[citation needed]
Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and
lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. They contain early thoughts on the
organisation of the Christian ekklēsia, and are historical sources for the development of
an early Church structure.[citation needed]
In his letter 1 Clement, Clement of Rome calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain
harmony and order.[198] Some see his epistle as an assertion of Rome's authority over the
church in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of papal supremacy.[web 32] Clement
refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops
and presbyters interchangeably, and likewise states that the bishops are to lead God's
flock by virtue of the chief shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ. [citation needed]
Ignatius of Antioch advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops). [199]
The Didache (late 1st century)[200] is an anonymous Jewish-Christian work. It is a pastoral
manual dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization, parts of which
may have constituted the first written catechism, "that reveals more about how Jewish-
Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any
other book in the Christian Scriptures."[201]

Split of early Christianity and Judaism[edit]

A coin issued by Nerva reads
fisci Judaici calumnia  sublata,
"abolition of malicious prosecution in connection with the Jewish tax"[202]

Split with Judaism[edit]

Main article: Split of early Christianity and Judaism
See also: Schisms among the Jews and List of events in early Christianity
There was a slowly growing chasm between Gentile Christians, and Jews and Jewish
Christians, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul
established a Gentile church, it took a century for a complete break to manifest.
Growing tensions led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time
Jewish Christians refused to join in the Bar Kokhba Jewish revolt of 132.[203] Certain
events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism. [citation
needed]

The destruction of Jerusalem and the consequent dispersion of Jews and Jewish

Christians from the city (after the Bar Kokhba revolt) ended any pre-eminence of the
Jewish-Christian leadership in Jerusalem. Early Christianity grew further apart from
Judaism to establish itself as a predominantly Gentile religion, and Antioch became the
first Gentile Christian community with stature.[204]
The hypothetical Council of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who
claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular, excluding them
from attending synagogue.[205][206][207][need quotation to verify] However, the formulated prayer in question
(birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of
Jewish and Christian relations. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of
"heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is
probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the
Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of
the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it
improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy.
Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries. [205][207]
During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of Roman
law, worked out in compromise with the Roman state over two centuries (see Anti-
Judaism in the Roman Empire for details). In contrast, Christianity was not legalized
until the 313 Edict of Milan. Observant Jews had special rights, including the privilege of
abstaining from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish
religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a
problem for Roman rulers. Around the year 98, the emperor Nerva decreed that
Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing
them as distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. This opened the way to Christians being
persecuted for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the state
pantheon.[208][209][210]
From c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature
becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not
Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.[208][209]
Later rejection of Jewish Christianity[edit]
Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the Pauline Christians but
maintained a similar faith. In Christian circles, Nazarene later came to be used as a
label for those faithful to Jewish Law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish
Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, generally holding the same beliefs
except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance
of orthodoxy in the 4th century.[211] The Ebionites may have been a splinter group of
Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. They were considered
by Gentile Christians to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of
Christ and Gentile converts. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, Ebionite was
often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies". [212][213]
There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile
Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. The true end of ancient Jewish Christianity occurred
only in the 5th century.[214] Gentile Christianity became the dominant strand of orthodoxy
and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of
those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century. [211][note 22]

Timeline[edit]
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Notes[edit]
1. ^ It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, Acts 9:2, Acts 19:9 and Acts 19:23). Some English
translations of the New Testament capitalize "the Way" (e.g. the New King James
Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how "the new religion
seemed then to be designated"[web 3] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—"the way",
[11]
 "that way" [web 4] or "the way of the Lord".[web 5] The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and
the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".[web 6]
See also Sect of "The Way", "The Nazarenes" and "Christians": Names given to the Early
Church.
2. ^ The notion of Apocalyptic prophet is shared by E. P. Sanders,[45] a main proponent of
the New Perspective on Paul, and Bart Ehrman.[web 14][web 15]
3. ^ According to E. P. Sanders, Jesus's ideas on healing and forgiveness were in line with
Second Temple Jewish thought and would not have been likely to provoke controversy
among the Jewish authorities of his day."[46]
4. ^ In a review of the state of research, Amy-Jill Levine stated that "no single picture of Jesus
has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to
criticism by some group of scholars.[24]
5. ^ Jesus' early Galilean ministry begins when after his baptism, he goes back to Galilee from
his time in the Judean desert.[48] In this early period he preaches around Galilee and
recruits his first disciples who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of
the early Church.[47][49] The major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 includes
the commissioning of the Twelve Apostles, and covers most of the ministry of Jesus in
Galilee.[50][51] The final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist as Jesus
prepares to go to Jerusalem.[52][53] In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to
Jerusalem through Judea.[54][55][56][57] The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called
the Passion Week and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem.[58] The
gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about
one third of their text to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.[59]
6. ^ Sanders and Pelikan: "Besides presenting a longer ministry than do the other Gospels, John
also describes several trips to Jerusalem. Only one is mentioned in the Synoptics. Both
outlines are plausible, but a ministry of more than two years leaves more questions
unanswered than does one of a few months."[web 13]
7. ^ The Kingdom is described as both imminent (Mark 1:15) and already present in the ministry
of Jesus (Luke 17:21) (Others interpret "Kingdom of God" to mean a way of living, or as a
period of evangelization; no overall consensus among scholars has emerged on its meaning.
[64][65]
) Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message (Mark
10:13–27)
8. ^ According to Shaye J.D. Cohen, Jesus's failure to establish an independent Israel, and his
death at the hands of the Romans, caused many Jews to reject him as the Messiah. [91] Jews
at that time were expecting a military leader as a Messiah, such as Bar Kohhba.
9. ^ Perhaps also Jewish law which was being formalized at the same time
10. ^ Acts 15 and Acts 21
11. ^ Hurtado: "She refrains from referring to this earliest stage of the "Jesus-community" as early
"Christianity" and comprised of "churches," as the terms carry baggage of later developments
of "organized institutions, and of a religion separate from, different from, and hostile to
Judaism" (185). So, instead, she renders ekklēsia as "assembly" (quite appropriately in my
view, reflecting the quasi-official connotation of the term, often both in the LXX and in wider
usage)."[web 16]
12. ^ See Why was Resurrection on “the Third Day”? Two Insights for explanations on the phrase
"third day." According to Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to Hosea 6:1–2:

"Come, let us return to the Lord;

for he has torn us, that he may heal us;
he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.
After two days he will revive us;
on the third day he will raise us up,
that we may live before him."

See also 2 Kings 20:8: "Hezekiah said to Isaiah, 'What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal
me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?'"
13. ^ Ehrman:
* "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was
made the Son of God—for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism—as we examined in
the previous chapter."[130]
* Here I’ll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I
earlier called a “low” Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a “Christology from
below” or possibly an “exaltation” Christology. Or maybe I’ll call it all three things [...] Along
with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology. [web 20]
14. ^ Romans 6:3–4; Colossians 2:12
15. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte: "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New
Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion (Matthew 23:15; Acts 2:11; 6:5;
etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the Septuagint to designate a
foreigner living in Judea. The term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly
political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning
in the Judaism of the New Testament epoch."
16. ^ Ecclesiastical historian Henry Hart Milman writes that in much of the first three centuries,
even in the Latin-dominated western empire: "the Church of Rome, and most, if not all the
Churches of the West, were, if we may so speak, Greek religious colonies [see Greek
colonies for the background]. Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their
writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual,
their Liturgy, was Greek."[web 24]
17. ^ Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that
supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy, i.e. the rule that all the churches in a
geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop. According to Ronald Y. K. Fung,
scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops, and
that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite
structure on other churches.[157]
18. ^ According to Mack, "Paul was converted to a Hellenized form of some Jesus movement that
had already developed into a Christ cult. [...] Thus his letters serve as documentation for the
Christ cult as well."[163]
19. ^ Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue,
which had become a serious controversy in their region. There was a burgeoning movement
of Judaizers in the area that advocated adherence to the Mosaic Law, including circumcision.
According to McGrath, Paul identified James the Just as the motivating force behind the
Judaizing movement. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through
faith and addressed the issue with great detail in Galatians 3.[174]
20. ^ According to 19th-century German theologian F. C. Baur early Christianity was dominated
by the conflict between Peter who was law-observant, and Paul who advocated partial or
even complete freedom from the Law.[citation needed] Scholar James D. G. Dunn has proposed that
Peter was the "bridge-man" between the two other prominent leaders: Paul and James the
Just. Paul and James were both heavily identified with their own "brands" of Christianity.
Peter showed a desire to hold on to his Jewish identity, in contrast with Paul. He
simultaneously showed a flexibility towards the desires of the broader Christian community, in
contrast to James. Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles
in Galatians was aimed at Peter, James and John, the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the
"false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued
against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among
the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office
and acknowledged a shared faith.[186][187]
21. ^ Three forms are postulated, from Gamble, Harry Y, "18",  The Canon Debate, p. 300, note
21,  (1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus
46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing
Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same
church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and
Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last.
22. ^ Jewish Virtual Library: "A major difficulty in tracing the growth of Christianity from its
beginnings as a Jewish messianic sect, and its relations to the various other normative-
Jewish, sectarian-Jewish, and Christian-Jewish groups is presented by the fact that what
ultimately became normative Christianity was originally but one among various contending
Christian trends. Once the "gentile Christian" trend won out, and the teaching of Paul became
accepted as expressing the doctrine of the Church, the Jewish Christian groups were pushed
to the margin and ultimately excluded as heretical. Being rejected both by normative Judaism
and the Church, they ultimately disappeared. Nevertheless, several Jewish Christian sects
(such as the Nazarenes, Ebionites, Elchasaites, and others) existed for some time, and a few
of them seem to have endured for several centuries. Some sects saw in Jesus mainly
a prophet and not the "Christ," others seem to have believed in him as the Messiah, but did
not draw the christological and other conclusions that subsequently became fundamental in
the teaching of the Church (the divinity of the Christ, trinitarian conception of the
Godhead, abrogation of the Law). After the disappearance of the early Jewish Christian sects
and the triumph of gentile Christianity, to become a Christian meant, for a Jew,
to apostatize and to leave the Jewish community.[web 8]