Conceptual Framework

Learning environments can be classified in terms of their synchronicity and modality. First,
synchronicity refers to the timing of the interaction between students and their lecturers.
Synchronous learning environments enable simultaneous and direct interaction, while
asynchronous learning environments afford temporally delayed and indirect interaction. Second,
modality refers to the mode of delivery used in learning environments. Online environments
afford technology-enhanced learning using the Internet or computer devices, while offline
environments afford traditional instruction without the use of digital tools and infrastructure.
Learning environments can be clustered into four groups according to their levels of
synchronicity and modality. This shows prototypical examples of these clusters. Specifically,
webinars afford synchronous online learning, learning management systems afford
asynchronous online learning, and traditional classroom instruction affords synchronous offline
learning.