ME 314 (Energy Storage All)

ME 301 Renewable Energy
Storage Components Section
Eng H Chingosho
Overview
1. Role of Energy storage
2. General Characteristics of Energy
storage
3. Energy Storage Technologies
3.1 Potential Energy storage
3.2 Kinetic Energy storage
3.3 Thermal Energy storage
3.4 Electrochemical Energy storage
Energy Storage
• Energy is stored to use it at a different time than
when it was generated.
• The process of converting the energy to storable
form means that some energy is lost.
• Additional energy is lost when the energy is
released or recovered.
• Ideally, storage is avoided to have a more efficient
process.
• Renewable energy, however, is often intermittent
(like wind and sun), and storage allows use at a
convenient time.
• Most widely used form of energy is electrical
energy.
Electricity can be stored by converting it into another form
such as potential, kinetic or chemical energy.
Electrical energy storage technologies include the following

types of storage media:
- Battery electric storage system (BESS)
- Flow batteries
- Fuel cells
- Flywheel energy storage (FES)
- Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
- Super capacitor energy storage (SCES)
- Molten Salt Energy Storage
- Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
- Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES)
Demand for Energy
Role of Energy Storage
• Variations in energy supply
• Variations in energy demand
• Interruptions in energy supply
• Energy and power exhibit significant daily and seasonal
variations.
• Reduce higher capital investments required on energy
conversion equipment to meet peak demand
• Efficiency of energy systems
• Value of intermittent renewable energy sources
increases substantially if they can be made available
when needed.
• Demand for portable energy
General Characteristics of Energy
Storage
• Energy storage modes are often based on
particular end-use application i.e. long or short
powering periods.
• Magnitude of the energy or power load are
important e.g., flywheels & capacitors are suited
to provide substantial power fluxes for only short
periods (seconds or minutes), whereas pumped
storage and hot water reservoirs are provided for
longer periods (hours or more)
Pumped Hydropower Storage
• Basic principle of power generation is the same
as for normal power generation
• The energy density is proportional to 𝜌𝑔𝑧,

Where 𝜌 = density of water, 𝑔 = acceleration due to
gravity and z = total head.
Energy Storage Technologies
Pumped Hydropower
Generally pumped-hydro systems use naturally available sites
where appropriate changes in topography exist.
Reversible pump-turbine can spin an alternator to generate
electricity.
It also can act as a pump to pump water uphill using electricity.
This reversibility allows excess electrical energy to be used to
pump water to a higher storage reservoir to be used as an
energy source later.
PHES is the most widespread high-energy storage technique.
PHES provides rapid response (<1 minute) to support
intermittent renewable generation.
The energy used to pump a water volume (V) to a height (h)
with a specific pumping efficiency (ηp) is given by:
·g·h·V
Epumping =
ηp
The energy supplied to the electrical network by a generator

of efficiency (ηg) can be obtained by:
Egenerator =  · g · h · V · ηg
Overall efficiency of the energy storage system

= Egenerator / Epumping
• Pumped storage hydropower can provide
energy-balancing, stability, storage capacity,
and ancillary grid services such as network
frequency control and reserves.
• This is due to the ability of pumped storage
plants, like other hydroelectric plants, to
respond to potentially large electrical load
changes within seconds.
• Pumped storage historically has been used to
balance load on a system, enabling large
nuclear or thermal generating sources to
operate at peak efficiencies.
• When neither generating nor pumping, the machines
can be also be operated in synchronous condenser
mode, or can be operated to provide spinning reserve,
providing the ability to quickly pick up load or balance
excess generation.
• A pumped storage project would typically be designed

to have 6 to 20 hours of hydraulic reservoir storage for
operation.
• By increasing plant capacity in terms of size and

number of units, hydroelectric pumped storage
generation can be concentrated and shaped to match
periods of highest demand, when it has the greatest
value.
Hybrid wind-hydro power plant
Ireland plan: A €3.45 billion project will comprise a 2GW peak power
plant, including 18 onshore wind farms, a hydro station and a grid
transmission connection.
Example 1
Question 1: A pumped storage station has a water capacity of 6x105 m3,
which can be released for generating electricity over a 5 hour period. The
effective head for power generation is 450m, and the generator efficiency is
90%. It takes 6.5 hours to refill the reservoir, and because of frictional drag,
the effective head when pumping is 500m. The pumps have an energy
efficiency of 90%.
Determine the following;
(i) average power output,
(ii) energy output,
(iii) input power to the pumps,
(iv) total electrical energy required for pumping and
(v) the overall energy efficiency of the pumped storage plant.

Solution
6𝑥105
(i) Generation flow rate, Q = = 33.3 𝑚3 /𝑠
5𝑥60𝑥60
Average power output, P = 𝜂𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄 = 0.9 x1000x9.81x 33.33 x 450 =
132.42 MW .
(ii) Energy Output = 5 x 13.2MW = 662.1 MWh
6𝑥105
(iii) Pumping flow rate = 25.64 𝑚3 /𝑠
=
6.5𝑥60𝑥60
Pumping power required = 1000 x25.64x 9.81 x 500 = 125.76MW
Pumps are 90% efficient, so input power to pumps = 125.76/0.9 =
139.73MW .
(iv) Total electrical energy required for pumping = 6.5 x 139.74 =

908.29MWh .
(v) Overall energy efficiency of the pumped storage plant =

output/input
= 662.1/ 908.29 = 73%
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Systems:
• Function in a similar manner to conventional
gas turbine peaking plants.
• One major difference is that conventional
turbine plants use two thirds of their
mechanical energy to drive compressors while
in the CAES system pre-compressed air and
combustion gas are channelled direct to the
combustion chamber.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Systems:
• Correspondingly higher turbine outputs are

transferred to the generator shafts.
• The large compressed air storage is charged by

electrically driven compressors during low
load periods when wind availability is high.
Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES) Systems
Gas Turbine Background
The combustion (gas) turbines basically involve three
main sections:
• The compressor, which draws air into the engine,
pressurizes it, and feeds it to the combustion
chamber at speeds of hundreds of miles per hour.
• The combustion system, typically made up of a ring

of fuel injectors that inject a steady stream of fuel
into combustion chambers where it mixes with the
air. The mixture is burned at temperatures of more
than 2000 degrees F.
• The combustion produces a high temperature, high
pressure gas stream that enters and expands
through the turbine section.
Gas Turbine Background
• The turbine is an intricate array of alternate
stationary and rotating aerofoil-section blades.
• As hot combustion gas expands through the
turbine, it spins the rotating blades.
• Two sections exists, that is the high pressure and
low pressure sections to maximise on efficiency.
• The combustion gas first expands through the high
pressure turbine before entering the low pressure
turbine.
• The rotating blades perform a dual function: they
drive the compressor to draw more pressurized air
into the combustion section, and they spin a
generator to produce electricity.
• Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) plants are
largely equivalent to pumped-hydro power plants
in terms of their applications, output and storage
capacity.
• But, instead of pumping water from a lower to an
upper pond during periods of excess power, in a
CAES plant, ambient air is compressed and stored
under pressure in an underground cavern.
• When electricity is required, the pressurized air is
heated and expanded in an expansion turbine
driving a generator for power production.
• The large compressibility of air is utilized in
CAES to produce power by expansion in a gas
turbine at relatively high efficiency.
• Charging of the reservoir is carried out by high

efficiency compression typically using the
turbine expander operating in reverse.
• In principle, these plants are essentially just
conventional gas turbines, but where the
compression of the combustion air is
separated from and independent to the actual
gas turbine process.
• This gives rise to the two main benefits of
this method.
• 1. Because the compression stage normally
uses up about 2/3 of the turbine capacity, the
CAES turbine – unhindered by the compression
work can generate 3 times the output for the
same natural gas input.
• 2.This reduces the specific gas
consumption and slashes the associated
CO2 emissions by around 40 to 60%,
depending on whether the waste heat is
used to warm up the air in a recuperator.
• The power-to-power efficiency is approx.

42% without, and 55% with waste heat
utilization.
• Instead of compressing the air with valuable gas,

lower cost excess energy can be used during off peak
periods or excess wind energy that cannot meet the
daily demand cycle.
• The plants use single-shaft machines where the
compressor-motor/ generator-gas turbine are both
located on the same shaft and are coupled via a gear
box.
• In current planning of CAES plants, the motor-compressor
unit and the turbine-generator unit will be mechanically
decoupled.
• This makes it possible to expand the plant modularly with
respect to the permissible input power and the output
power.
• Components of the gas turbine power plant must be
rearranged for CAES.
• Clutches are added so that the compressor & turbine may
be connected independently to the generator, which must
also now function as a motor.
• This way, compression of air & generation of power may be
separated, & can take place at different times.
• The compressor is used for charging the air
storage at night with off-peak power.
• The storage is discharged through the
turbine connected to the generator to
produce peak electric power.
• The CAES requires higher capacity of
generator/motor than the generator used
with the same compressor & turbine in a
conventional gas turbine power plant, & is
also designed for varying mass flows so that
ratio of charge to discharge time can be
varied according to operational needs.
• Using conventional gas turbine exhaust heat
energy for the purposes of heating the high
pressure air before expansion in an air
bottoming cycle allows for CAES plants of
variable sizes based on cavern storage volume
and pressure.
• A much higher efficiency of up to 70% can be
achieved if the heat of compression is recovered
and used to reheat the compressed air during
turbine operations because there is no longer
any need to burn extra natural gas to warm up
the decompressed air.
• The special thing about compressed air
storage is that the air heats up strongly when
being compressed from atmospheric pressure
to a storage pressure of approx. 1,015 psia (70
bar).
• Standard multistage air compressors use inter
and after coolers to reduce discharge
temperatures to 300/350°F (149/177°C) and
cavern injection air temperature reduced to
110/120°F (43/49°C).
• The heat of compression therefore is
extracted during the compression process or
removed by an intermediate cooler.
• The loss of this heat energy then has to be
compensated for during the expansion
turbine power generation phase by heating
the high pressure air in combustors using
natural gas fuel, or alternatively using the
heat of a combustion gas turbine exhaust in
a recuperator to heat the incoming air
before the expansion cycle.
• Alternatively the heat of compression can

be thermally stored before entering the
cavern and used for adiabatic expansion
extracting heat from the thermal storage
system.
The characteristics of CAES can be described in
terms of following three factors;
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
(i) Charge Energy Factor (CEF) = ………………..(1)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
The CEF gives the energy storage efficiency of the CAES, compared
with that of pumped hydro-storage.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
(iii) Fuel Heat Rate (FHR) = , (kJ/kWh) ….(2)
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Both CEF and FHR are employed as measures of performance because
CAES is neither pumped hydro-storage nor gas turbine power plant,
but a combination of the two.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
(iii) Charging ratio (CR) = ………………..(4)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
• The CR varies between 4:1 and 1:1. This means the CR is 1 to 4

times longer than the discharging period.
• It is relatively economical to maintain emergency operation
particularly with small compressors.
This is because the turbine can be immediately run & coupled for
power generation during the charging period.
Thermal Energy Storage
Introduction: About 40 % of the primary energy
is consumed as thermal energy at temperatures
of 250 ˚C or less, rather than electrical or
mechanical.
• Therefore storing thermal energy has become
advantageous.
• This is particularly important because of the
daily & seasonal variations in demand, & the
intermittent availability of many renewable
energy sources, such as solar energy.
Basically thermal storage can be
divided into three broad categories,
which are:
• Sensible heat
• Latent heat storage
• Thermo-Chemical Storage System.
Thermal Storage Systems
Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Sensible Heat:
Sensible heat describes the heat which is absorbed
or released by a material as a result of a change in
temperature, whereupon the material does not
undergo a change of aggregate state.
• Thermal energy storage systems for sensible heat
are distinguished into:
(i) Indirect storage and
(ii) Direct storage.
Thermal Energy Storage Systems for
Sensible Heat:
(a) Indirect Storage Systems
Four indirect storage concepts are:
(i) 2-Tank Molten Salt Indirect Storage
(ii) Packed-Bed Thermal Energy Storage
(Regenerator)
(iii) Sand Storage
(iv) Concrete Storage
Sensible Heat:
With indirect storage systems there is a
pressure drop in the charging and
discharging process of the storage.
The pressure drop results in an increase
of the work needed to be done by the
pump.
This leads to reduced storage efficiency.
Sensible Heat:
(i) 2-Tank Molten Salt Indirect Storage
The 2-tank molten salt indirect storage system is
a commercially available technology, which is
based on nitrate salts.
This storage type finds application
predominantly in parabolic trough power plants
and is the most widely-used technology.
Sensible Heat:
The receivers of the collectors carry temperature-
stable synthetic oil, which is heated to 400°C. In a
boiler the heat from the HTF is passed to the steam
cycle.
The generated steam drives a steam turbine, which
in turn drives a generator for electricity production.
As the storage medium is different than the Heat
Transfer fluid (HTF), a heat exchanger is used so
that the heat from the HTF is passed for storage.
Sensible Heat:
The indirect storage system comprises two
tanks: a hot-salts and cold-salts tank, which are
filled with molten salt, allowing peak load
operation after sunset.
In summer, it is possible to run the turbine
nearly 24 hours a day.
The composition of the salt is 60% sodium
nitrate (NaNO3) and 40% potassium nitrate
(KNO3).
Sensible Heat:
Dual tank molten salt storage
Sensible Heat:
A storage system with two tanks has also
disadvantages: It is relatively expensive.
The investment cost of a storage system with two tanks
is effectively doubled compared to a single tank
solution because two tanks and duplicate piping are
required.
Using nitrate salts as storage medium has the
disadvantages that it has high freezing points (120 –
220°C) and that the price for nitrate salts can fluctuate
because it is a commodity product that is subject to
price pressures .
Sensible Heat:
(ii)Packed-Bed Thermal Energy Storage
(Regenerator):
A packed-bed thermal energy storage (also known
as pebble bed or rock pile storage) consists of a
container filled with a bed of loosely packed
particulate material with a high heat capacity e.g.
pebbles, gravel or rocks.
This storage type was designed to utilise air as the
HTF. However, it would also be possible to use
liquid media.
Sensible Heat:
Sensible Heat:
At both the top and bottom of the storage there
is a duct through which the air is forced.
When charging, the hot air enters the storage

through the top duct, passes through the pebble
bed transferring the heat to the storage
material, and leaves the storage through the
bottom duct.
Sensible Heat:
In the discharge process, the direction of the air
circulation is reversed.
Cold air enters the storage through the bottom
duct and is heated up as it travels upwards to
the top where it exits through the top duct.
The hot air can then be passed through a steam
generator
Sensible Heat:
Temperature profile of a packed-bed thermal energy storage system for a

range of load percentages
Sensible Heat:
Blue line: Up to approximately 1/3 of the
storage height, ambient temperatures prevail.
The temperatures then begin to rise along the
height of the storage.
At the top of the pebble-bed, the temperatures
are close to, but still below the maximum
material temperature. Therefore, this condition
is referred to as having 0% load, as the
maximum air temperature has not yet been
reached .
Sensible Heat:
Red line: In the process of charging the storage, hot air passes
through the pebble-bed in the downward direction. The time
needed to fully charge the storage depends on the design of
the storage. When commencing the charging process, only the
pebbles near the top are heated to maximum temperature
and less heat is available for the lower levels. This is due to
the rapid heat transfer. When the material at the top level has
reached maximum temperature (i.e. the temperature of the
hot air), the hot air then passes through the top layer without
transferring any heat until a layer at a lower temperature is
reached. Over time the lower layers will also have been
heated to maximum temperature. This is a continuous process
of the material layers being heated from the top to the
bottom.
Sensible Heat:
The storage is said to be fully loaded when the hot
air passing through it transfers so little heat to the
material that on exiting, the air temperature is near
to the maximum allowed by system boundary
conditions.
Moreover, the warmer the exiting air exiting the
storage at the bottom is, the greater would be the
loss of energy. The condition that a storage system
is defined to be fully loaded therefore depends on
the power plant air system’s configuration and
component limitations.
Sensible Heat
(b) Direct Storage Systems
Three direct storage concepts are considered.
(i) 2-Tank Molten Salt Direct Storage
(ii)Single-Tank Thermocline Storage
(iii)2-Tank Oil Storage
Sensible Heat:
(i) 2-Tank Molten Salt Direct Storage
• The direct storage system has been
successfully applied in the solar tower
technology.
• In direct storage systems, the HTF, which is
heated by a receiver, is used directly as a
storage medium.
Direct storage system of the solar
tower power plant
Sensible Heat:
Criteria for an ideal storage:
• No storage losses, i.e. the insulation is ideal
• No exergy storage losses, i.e. the exergy of the
stored heat is equal to the exergy that is
withdrawn (no mixing of hot and cold storage
medium, no temperature balance during storage,
no temperature loss through heat transfer during
the charge and discharge processes.
• The discharge capacity is equal to the charge
capacity
Sensible Heat
The storage capacity Q is calculated as the
product of the salt mass, the average specific
heat capacity and the temperature difference
between the charging and discharging
temperatures:
Q = m.𝑐𝑝.𝑚 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑥 ……………………………(1)
Sensible Heat
(ii) Single-tank thermocline storage
• The single-tank thermocline storage provides
one possibility for further reducing the cost of
a 2-tank molten salt direct storage. In this
design, both the hot and the cold storage fluid
are stored in a single tank, where the hot fluid
is at the top and the cold fluid at the bottom
of the vessel. The thermocline is the zone
between the hot and cold fluids
Sensible Heat
The major advantage of this type of storage is
that it is possible to replace most of the storage
fluid with a low-cost filler material (the
requirement is as low as 30% of entire storage
medium). The filler material provides the bulk of
the thermal capacitance of the system (i.e. it
stores heat well) and also prevents convective
mixing.
Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat
(iii) 2-tank oil storage
Sensible Heat
Storage media for sensible storage system
According to the properties of regenerators it
would be necessary to include the actual storage
material utilisation coefficient 𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 for the
calculation of the true storage capacity. The
factor depends on the heat conductivity of the
storage medium and the operational mode of
the storage.
Sensible Heat
The true storage capacity Q is hence calculated
using the equation:
Q = m.𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑝.𝑚 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑥 [J] ………(2)
where m is the mass [kg],
𝑐𝑝.𝑚 is the mean heat capacity [J/(kgK)], and
∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the temperature difference of the
working fluid [K]
Sensible Heat
Important thermo-physical properties for storage materials:
• Specific heat capacity: The higher the heat capacity, the less material is required
and thus the lower the costs
• Heat conductivity: The higher the heat conductivity, the faster the material is
heated, thus the better the material utilisation and hence the lower the material
usage. Also, for fluid storage materials, high heat conductivity is important in
enabling small heat exchangers to be sufficient.
• Temperature and cycle stability: must be sufficiently high.
• Compatibility of materials/corrosivity: “Aggressive” storage materials require high
quality construction materials and thus negate a possible cost advantage.
• Inflammability/combustibility: Should be as low as possible. The same applies to
the toxicology of the storage material.
Sensible Heat
Liquid storage media:
The liquid storage media can also be used as
HTF, i.e. the HTF is the same as the storage
medium. For the storage the crucial factors are
the possible operating temperatures and the
achievable temperature ranges, the storage
capacity in kWhth/m³ (influence of tank size and
construction costs) and finally the storage media
costs.
Sensible Heat
The storage capacity Q is calculated with the
following equation:
Q = m.𝑐𝑝.𝑚 ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑥 ……………………………(3)
Latent Heat Storage
• When storing latent heat, the property of
materials to absorb or release heat energy during
a phase change is used. Latent-heat storage
systems therefore use a phase change material
(PCM) as storage medium. n principle there are
three possible phase changes:
• solid – vapour
• solid – liquid
• liquid – vapour
• However solid – liquid phase is the one which is
mainly used.
Latent Heat Storage
• When charging the storage, the solid PCM is melted
and when discharging, the fluid PCM becomes colder
and solidifies. The melting and solidification process
takes place either at a constant melting temperature or
in a temperature range, depending on the
substance/composite of the PCM.
• Achieving constant process temperatures is generally
desired for the stable operation of a power plant.
• For latent-heat storage systems used in medium and
high temperature applications, materials are chosen
whose melting temperatures lie within the
temperature range of the process.
Latent Heat Storage
The heat Q (in J) stored (i.e. storage capacity) in a
latent-heat storage system is composed of three
terms:
Qsol (sensible heat): required to heat up the PCM
from a solid state at temperature 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 to the
melting temperature 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡
Qmelt (latent heat): required for melting the PCM
Qliq (sensible heat): required for heating the liquid
PCM to the storage temperature 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
Latent Heat Storage
Storage capacity Q of a latent-heat storage system is calculated
via the temperature increase, which the storage experiences
during operation:
Q = m. 𝒇𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 . 𝒄𝒑,𝒔𝒐𝒍,𝒎 . ∆𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏/𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕 + ∆𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕 + 𝒄𝒑,𝒍𝒊𝒒,𝒎 . ∆𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕/𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒇𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 is the actual storage material utilisation coefficient,
𝒄𝒑,𝒎 is the mean heat capacity (subscripts: m stands for mean, sol for solid,
liq for liquid),
∆𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏/𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕 is the temperature difference of the melting temperature and the
minimum temperature of the phase change material in solid phase [K]
∆𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕/𝒎𝒂𝒙is the temperature difference of the maximum temperature and
the melting temperature of the phase change material in liquid phase [K], and
∆𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕 is the specific melting enthalpy [J/kg]
Examples
Example 1: Calculate required storage medium volume in
order to store 1 MWhth of thermal energy using Latent
heat storage with salt mix for the given parameters.
Temperature range: 210 – 310 ˚C (phase change at 220
˚C)
𝑐𝑝,𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑚 = 0.95 kJ/(kg.K)
𝑐𝑝,𝑙𝑖𝑞, = 1.36 kJ/(kg.K
𝜌 = 1790 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.95
∆ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 = 100 kJ/(kg.K)
Example
Solution:
Q = m. 𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .൫𝑐𝑝,𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑚 . ∆𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 + ∆ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 +
Thermo-Chemical Energy Storage: Reversible
reactions are used to store energy, which are
endothermic when charging and exothermic when
discharging.
• However, this technology is currently at a very
early stage. In the long term, though, this storage
system could offer relatively low costs and offer the
prospect of systems with inherent energy
storage for continuous (24 h, round-the-clock)
generation of electricity.
Thermo-chemical Storage
Principle of thermo-chemical storage of heat energy

Thermo-chemical Storage
Concept CSP with integrated thermo-chemical storage

Thermo-Chemical Energy Storage
• Ideally, the reaction products can be easily
separated and no further reactions take place
• Certain reaction steps of catalytic reactions, as for
example the back reaction, can only be reached
by the addition of a catalyst and not through the
change of the chemical balance. This is why after
the reaction the products can be stored side by side
without them undergoing a reverse reaction.
• If the reacting substances and the catalyst
form a homogeneous mixture, i.e. both are
either gaseous or dissolved in a fluid then this
is referred to a homogeneous catalysis.
• In a heterogeneous catalysis(surface catalysis)
the reacting substances are gaseous or
dissolved in a fluid while the catalyst exists in
a solid form
• In the thermal dissociation the starting substance AB exists solid or
liquid.
• Through the supply of the molar reaction enthalpy at temperature
and a corresponding pressure p1, the chemical bond of the
substance pair AB is removed. The product A then also exists solid
or liquid while B is gaseous. This reaction is also referred to as
heterogeneous evaporation.
• The reversal of the process (absorption) occurs when the balance is
disrupted by a temperature reduction or a pressure increase. Here,
B is the absorptive, A is the absorbent and AB is the absorbate. In
the process the employed reaction enthalpy of the dissociation is
released.
• For the storage of energy the products A and B must be stored
separately.
• The basic principle of the storage technology with adsorption
processes is the ability of highly porous bodies like charcoal, pumice
stone, silica gel or zeolith to retain gases or vapours in great
quantities over their active surfaces. This leads to a reaction with
corresponding reaction enthalpy.
• The operating principle of adsorptive storage types begins with the
drying of the adsorbent, e.g. by using air with a low relative
moisture. This is how the storage unit is charged. The storage unit is
discharged by means of introducing cold and moist air. The moist air
passes the moistures to the hygroscopic adsorbent, whereby bond
energy is released, which contributes to the heating of the air.
Hence, the dry storage condition corresponds to stored energy,
which, when hermetically sealing the storage material, is practically
storable for an unlimited time
Advantages:
• after separating the reaction products the energy can practically be
stored loss-free over a longer period of time
• high storage energy densities
• heat-pumping capability
• thermo-chemical energy storage materials have very low masses
and volumes compared to sensible energy storage materials
Disadvantages:
• more complex than conventional sensible energy or latent-heat
storage systems
• the storage material costs are very high
• How important the thermo-chemical energy
storage can become for CSP plants in the future
can be explained by the example of a heat pipe.
• The heat pipe is a system which could one day be
used for the storage and also for the long-
distance transfer of solar energy. Hence, the heat
pipe constitutes a very interesting option for
transporting energy from e.g. North Africa or the
Mediterranean area to Central Europe.
The heat pipe can be used, e.g., in the solar
tower technology. The solar tower technology has a
central receiver which absorbs solar radiation and
heats up to very high temperatures. The heat from
the receiver can be used for a catalytic reforming
process (the so-called Eva process) in the reformer
of the heat pipe. In the reformer, methane reacts
with water in an endothermic reaction at a
temperature of 960°C (heat is provided by solar
tower).
The reaction is as follows:
CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 , (6020 kJ per kg CH4)
The produced gas mixture (CO + 3H2) is a synthetic or energy
carrier gas. The gas can be transported in a pipeline. In a
further process, methane can be produced from the gas
mixture in a methanator (the methanator uses the Adam
process). In the methanator, heat is released, which, having a
temperature of 500 – 700°C, is sufficient for the generation of
steam. Rhodium or Nickel can be used as catalysts for both
reactors. The thermo-chemical energy transport can be
realised in subterranean pipelines. The advantages of the
pipeline transportation are practically no energy losses and
the high energy density of the storage material
Thermo-chemical energy storage with
a chemical heat pipe
Electrochemical Storage
Batteries for Renewable

Energy Systems
PRIMARY CELLS
• CANNOT BE RECHARGED
• CHEMICAL PROCESS NOT REVERSABLE
• ZINC CARBON (1.5V)

• ALKALINE (1.5V)
SECONDARY CELLS
• CAN BE RECHARGED
• CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSABLE
• LEAD ACID (2.0V)

• NICKEL - CADMIUM (1.2V)
• NICKEL - METAL HYDRIDE (1.2V)
• LITHIUM – ION (3.3V)
Type of Batteries
• Lead-Acid
– Cheapest, mature technology, readily available in a wide range
of types
– Easily damaged by improper discharge control, some types
require periodic maintenance
• Nickel-Cadmium
– Expensive, mature technology, not readily available
– Not sensitive to overcharging and high discharge levels
– Long life, minimal maintenance
• Other
– Under development for electric and hybrid cars. Main advantage
light weight and high energy density, no maintenance, not touchy
regarding charging and discharging. Expensive.
LITHIUM IRON PHOSPHATE
24V (26.4V Nominal) 160Ah 4.3kWh
COMPOSITION OF A
BATTERY
• The Lead Acid battery is made up of separator plates,
lead plates, and lead oxide plates (various other
elements are used to change density, hardness,
porosity, etc.) with a 35% sulphuric acid and 65%
water solution.
• This solution is called electrolyte which causes a
chemical reaction that produce electrons.
• When a battery discharges the electrolyte dilutes and
the Sulphur deposits on the lead plates.
• When the battery is recharged the process reverses
and the Sulphur dissolves into the electrolyte.
BATTERY CROSS SECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
• Flooded
– Sometimes called “flooded” or “free-vented”
• Gelled Electrolyte (Gel)

– Also called Valve-Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)
• Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

– Also called Valve-Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)
FLOODED VENTED
GEL
AGM
Lead Acid Battery Construction
• Basic requirement: To allow the reversible
chemical reaction that absorbs then releases
electricity to function efficiently:
Pb + 2H2SO4 + PbO2 PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4
Lead Sulfuric Acid Lead Oxide Lead Sulfate Water
Lead Sulfate
- + - +
Lead is a metal. Lead oxide is a hard, black gritty solid.

Lead Sulfate is a softer whitish solid. Sulfuric Acid is
a liquid as is water.
103
Electrochemistry
• In the discharged state both the positive and
negative plates become lead(II)sulfate (PbSO
4).
• The electrolyte loses much of its dissolved
sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water.
• The discharge process is driven by the
conduction of electrons from the negative
plate back into the cell at the positive plate in
the external circuit.
Negative plate reaction
• Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−
• Release of two conducting electrons gives lead
electrode a net negative charge.
• As electrons accumulate they create an electric
field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels
sulphate ions, leading to a double-layer near the
surface.
• The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode
from the solution which limits further reactions
unless charge is allowed to flow out of electrode
Positive plate reaction
• PbO2(s) + HSO−4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− →
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l).
• The total reaction can be written as:
• Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s)
+2H2O(l)
• In the fully charged state, the negative plate
consists of lead, and the positive plate lead
dioxide, with the electrolyte of concentrated
sulfuric acid.
Discharging
• When a fully charged battery is connected to a
load (light bulb) and the chemical reaction
between sulfuric acid and the lead plates
produces the electricity to light the bulb.
• This chemical reaction also begins to coat both
positive and negative plates with a substance
called lead sulfate also known as sulfation (shown
as a yellow build-up on plates).
• This build-up of lead sulfate is normal during a
discharge cycle.
• As the battery continues to discharge, lead sulfate
coats more and more of the plates and battery
voltage begins to decrease from fully charged
state of 12.6-volts.
Discharging
• When the battery is fully discharged, the
plates are almost completely covered with
lead sulfate (sulfation) and voltage will drop to
10.5-volts.
• If a lead acid battery is not immediately
recharged, the lead sulfate will begin to form
hard crystals, which can not be reconverted by
a standard fixed voltage (13.6 volts) battery
converter/charger.
• NOTE: Discharging a lead acid battery below
10.5 volts will severely damage it!
Charging
• Overcharging with high charging voltages

generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by
electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell.
• The design of some types of lead-acid battery
allow the electrolyte level to be inspected and
topped up with any water that has been lost.
• Due to the freezing-point depression of the
electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the
concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the
electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter
weather when discharged.
Cycle life
• A basic measure of the life of a battery for any
application is its rated cycle life, a characteristic
provided by the manufacturer based on actual tests by
cycling batteries.
• The number of full charge/discharge cycles that a
battery can provide before losing 20% of its rated
capacity.
• A battery slowly loses capacity as it ages but once about
20% of capacity is lost the ageing process accelerates
and the battery quickly fails completely.
• So a battery is considered to be at the end of its useful
life when its capacity has decreased to 80% of its rated
capacity.
• Differentiate battery life and battery life span.
Cycle life (2)
• Partial cycles add up to make full cycles. So five
20% discharge cycles = 1 full cycle.
• Ten 10% cycles = 1 full cycle, etc.
• But cycle life usually represents the maximum life
not average life so actual life usually is less than
indicated by cycle life.
• Still cycle life is a good indicator of the
comparative life of batteries.
• A 100 cycle battery probably will only last half as
long as a 200 cycle battery.
• Cycle life changes with rate of discharge. Cycle life
at C10 is much less than at C100 .
118
Cycle life relative to DoD
• For a high quality solar battery, if the average DoD is
80% the cycle life is rated at 600 cycles (about 2 years)
• For an average DoD of 40%, the cycle life is rated at
1450 cycles (about 10 years)
• For an average DOD of 20%, the cycle life is rated at
2000 cycles or more than 25 years.
• Unless maintenance is excellent and the system very
well designed, it is possible for a very good battery to
last longer than 15 years in solar service and more
than 20 years in stationary backup service.
• So cycle life should be specified to allow it to survive
at least that long at the average depth of discharge
for the solar system.
119
Exercise
• Determine the number of days in theory that
a battery that is always discharged 20% each
day will have if it has a cycle life of 1000
cycles.
The effect of discharge rates
• The more hours taken to discharge a battery, the
more energy can be transferred because with a
slow discharge the chemical process that
produces electricity is more efficient.
• So a battery delivers more Ah at C100 than at C10
by a quite significant amount.
• Note that C100 means that the battery takes 100
hours to discharge fully while C10 means it only
takes 10 hours to discharge fully.
• A 100Ah battery at C100 may become a 65 Ah
battery at C10 discharge rate.
Battery Ah ratings
• To compare batteries, the battery Ah rating must include the Cx
rate for the stated capacity and you must compare at the same Cx
rate.
• Manufacturers of solar batteries, particularly those of
questionable quality, often give Ah ratings using a C100 discharge
rate. That gives a substantially inflated Ah value but that capacity is
never reached in practice.
• Always compare battery capacities at the same discharge rate,
preferably C10 or C20 (C20 represents the typical solar discharge rate
for SHS and is best though C10 comparisons are commonly done
and are ok. Just be sure all comparisons are at the same Cx rate.)
Internal construction
• Determined by the type of use and cost
– Type of use mainly the speed that the battery
must deliver and/or accept power and depth of
discharge.
• 1. Starting battery: Very high current (speed of energy
delivery) for a short time. Never discharged more than
1% or 2%
• 2. Traction battery (like for electric car or boat
motor): Medium current delivery for medium time.
Often discharged 50%-80%
• 3. Solar battery: Slow current delivery for long time.
Sometimes discharged 80%, mostly 20%-30%
• 4. Backup battery: Most of the time kept at full charge
then must reliably deliver energy to operate
equipment (telecom, UPS, etc.) to deep discharge
Positive plate construction
• Flat plate: Large surface area in contact with
acid allows fast chemical reaction and high
current delivery.
– Need lots of surface in contact with electrolyte to
allow chemical reaction to work. Tiny grains of lead
oxide (like sand) packed (pasted) into a lead grid.
Huge surface area but grains deeper into the pack
are harder for the electrolyte to get to quickly.
– The more external surface area the more current so
for starting batteries that need high current, many
thin plates are used. But fragile and high surface area
also means high probability of loss of grains of lead
oxide from the plate surface
Positive Plate Construction (2)
• Tubular plate
– Lead oxide grains packed in a tubular shape
around a central electrode inside a porous tube.
– Minimal surface area to lose grains of lead oxide
and held in place by tube so the battery has a
long life but because electrolyte is slower to
penetrate the thick layer of active material high
current cannot be maintained.
– Best for lower current but long times of
discharge. Excellent for deep discharge
applications
Internal changes with charging
• Lead sulfate is a larger molecule than lead oxide
so when discharging and lead oxide is converted
to lead sulfate the material swells.
• The difference in bulk between charged and
discharged plates is around 10%.
– Deep discharge of flat pasted plates causes swelling
that can push grains of active material off the surface
of the plates and they then fall to the bottom of the
battery and are no longer available to be charged or
discharged. Causes loss of Ah capacity
• Can be reduced by putting porous sheets over the plate
surface but that slows down rate of chemical reaction and
reduces the maximum current the battery can produce
• Starting batteries are therefore quickly damaged by deep
discharge
Starting battery
• Starting battery: Large number of thin plates to maximize
the rate of the chemical process and therefore to instantly
produce high current for engine starting. Only produces
current for a few seconds so the total depth of discharge
(DoD) is normally 1% or less. So swelling of the plates is
minimal and few problems with loss of surface grains.
– If used in solar with DoD of 20%-30% there is substantial
swelling and the large surface area of the many thin
plates allows rapid loss of grains from the surfaces and a
short life (6 months to 2 years according to the quality of
construction of the battery)
– Type of use effectively C0.2 I.e. very high rate of discharge
though for a very short time usually
– Cycle life only 5-50 according to quality of construction
Tubular positive plate batteries
• Relatively low maximum current capability
because getting electrolyte to interior grains in
the tube is fairly slow
• Least possible surface area for losing grains of
material so very long life
• Physically bigger than flat plate batteries
because tubular construction takes more
internal space for the same amount of active
material
• Best for C20-C100 applications. Modest current
delivered over a long period - e.g. most solar
systems such as SHS and remote telecom power
• Cycle life 500-3000+ according to quality of
construction and rate of discharge
Back up batteries
• Sometimes called “stationary” batteries. Used as an
emergency power source if the main source fails.
Typically kept at full charge for long periods but then
may be deeply discharged.
– Telecom back up batteries, UPS batteries for computer

power backup, electronic control equipment backup, etc.
– Service life based on frequency of power outages.
Typically very long service life relative to other
applications. Cycle life not very relevant since batteries
are not normally cycled between charge and discharge.
Life largely determined by resistance to sulfation, water
loss rate and resistance to internal corrosion.
General Battery Characteristics
• Nominal voltage (number of 2V cells)
• Capacity in Ampere hours
• Open cell or sealed
• Liquid or Gel electrolyte
• Cycle life
• Acceptable repeated depth of discharge
• “Starting Amps” “Number of Plates” or “Starting

Minutes” not useful for solar specifications
Accuracy of charge estimation
• The use of voltage to determine level of charge is not
very accurate because the rate of charge or discharge
affects the voltage too.
• As the battery gets older the accuracy of voltage
readings as an indicator of state of charge during
charging or discharging gets less and less because the
battery’s internal resistance goes up.
• The use of specific gravity is accurate when a battery
is new but as the battery ages, the hydrometer tends
to show a lower charge than is actually present due to
increasing sulfation
Voltage changes during charging
STATE OF CHARGE
Causes of Battery Failures
• Sulfation – Most common problem. Sulfation is where
part of the cell becomes resistant to charge. Caused
by the battery remaining at partial charge for long
periods. May be offset by equalizing charges when
cells are seen to have unequal specific gravity.
• Internal corrosion – results in high internal resistance
and open circuits. Caused by cheap design, adding
acid instead of water and stratification of the acid in
some types of batteries
• Internal shorts – results in one or more cells not
producing voltage. May be due to cheap construction,
overheating or mechanical damage
• Loss of active material from plates – caused by
excessive depth of discharge and age. Mostly a
problem with cheaper batteries.
Sulfation
• When a battery discharges, Lead Sulfate is created.
When the battery is recharged, the Lead Sulfate is
supposed to dissolve.
• But if the Lead Sulfate is not dissolved after a week or
so because the battery is not fully charged, it tends to
form a mass that is very difficult to dissolve when
charging does take place.
• Over time the amount of Lead Sulfate increases and
the battery loses its ability to be charged fully.
• The effect is a loss of capacity. A 100Ah battery may
become a 50Ah battery after serious sulfation has
occurred.
Failure modes of batteries
• Total loss of power. Zero volts, cannot charge. Caused
by an internal open circuit. This may be because of
corrosion eating through a cell connector or
mechanical damage
• Gradually decreasing capacity. The time to charge

and discharge gets shorter and shorter. Caused by
sulfation or loss of active material from the plates or
both.
• Accelerated by deep discharge conditions and
operation at partial charge levels for weeks at a time.
• Reduced voltage at full charge. Cannot get the

battery to charge to more than about 10V. Caused by
a short in a cell making one cell inoperative. Excessive
discharge and mechanical damage are typically the
reasons for this mode of failure.
137
What are the signs of sulfation?
• When battery voltage indicates a full charge but the
hydrometer reading indicates a partial charge, that is
a strong indicator that serious sulfation has occurred
in the battery.
• Lead Sulfate is white in color. When looking at the

plates in a battery, if the battery has been fully
charged and the plates look light in color or have
white sections, that is an indication of sulfation
138
Stratification
• Battery Stratification is caused by the fact that
the electrolyte in the battery is a mixture of water
and acid and, like all mixtures, one component,
the acid, is heavier than water. Therefore, acid
will begin to settle and concentrate at the bottom
of the battery.
• This higher concentration of acid at the bottom of
the battery causes additional build-up of lead
sulfate (sulfation), which reduces battery storage
capacity and battery life.
• In order to prevent Battery Stratification, an
Equalization Charge(increasing charging voltage
to 14.4-volts) must be applied periodically
Main Causes of Early Battery Failure (Open Cell Batteries)
• Use of wrong kind of battery

• Panel capacity inadequate so the battery does not
come to full charge regularly
• System design not based on lowest solar month
causing batteries to stay at partial charge condition
during low months
• Controllers not working properly
• Over use of electricity keeping the battery in a
constant state of partial discharge
• Inadequate or incorrect maintenance
• Addition of acid to cells instead of water
• Addition of impure water to cells
• High temperature of operation (35º or more)
• Too deep a discharge for the type of battery being
used
• Mechanical damage caused by hammering on the
posts, lifting the battery by the terminals, jolting the
battery too much in transport.
141
Main Causes of Early Battery Failure (Sealed Batteries)
• Repeated overcharging (wrong controller setting)
• Failure to maintain a high average charge level

thereby encouraging sulfation
• High operating temperature (over 30°C)
• Repeated deep discharge
• Mechanical damage caused by hammering on the

terminals, lifting the battery by the terminals, jolting
the battery too much during transport
142
How are batteries damaged by excess discharge?
• When a battery discharges the plates swell. The deeper

the discharge the more the plates swell.
• Batteries that are not designed for deep discharge have
flat plates that have the active material pressed into
pockets in the plate.
• When the plates swell greatly due to deep discharge,
some of the active material is pushed out of the pockets
and falls to the bottom of the battery causing loss of
capacity and possible shorting of cells.
• Batteries that are designed for deep discharge have plates
that have the active material wrapped in porous
membranes to prevent the swelling from causing the
active material to fall off. This adds considerably to the
cost but increased battery life.
143
Time between charging for idle
batteries
Ambient Temperature during Maximum time before
storage recharge
20°C 6 months
30°C 4 months
40°C 2 months
If a battery is being stored fully charged, a high

temperature of storage means the battery must
be recharged more frequently than if a cooler
storage temperature can be maintained. Delaying
charging beyond these limits allows sulfation to
occur and a permanent loss of some capacity.
144
Self-discharge
• The effect of storage temperature on self-discharge

percentage of high quality tubular cell batteries
The number in the table is the percent of charge lost at the given time period and
temperature. For example, a charged battery stored at 40C for 4 months will lose 36%
of its charge
145
Choices for Solar Use
• Open cell batteries, either flat plate or tubular
cell types, provide the best value and longest life
but electrolyte levels have to be checked and
water added when needed
• Tubular cell, deep discharge batteries provide

the longest life and should be used where access
for replacement is expensive or very difficult
• Valve regulated, sealed batteries are only

recommended where there is no one to
properly maintain an open cell battery
• Worst choice is an automotive type

“maintenance free” battery.
146
Increasing battery voltage
• Add cells or batteries in series. Increments may be 2V
(single cells for large batteries), 6V (three cells in one
case – medium sized batteries), 12V (six cells in one
case, smaller batteries).
• No problems usually develop because of series
connections though a battery with a shorted cell can
create overcharging conditions for the rest of the cells
because the lower battery voltage that results from a
shorted cell makes the controller think that the
battery still needs charging so the charging current is
not shut off when the good cells do come to full
charge.
• The result is excessive water loss from the battery, a
definite symptom of a shorted cell in an SHS battery
along with voltage that is lower than expected.
147
Increasing Ah capacity
• Put in a larger battery. It is always preferred to use a
single large battery than to connect batteries in
parallel
• It is possible to parallel identical batteries just as it is
possible to parallel panels.
• However never should more than two batteries be
placed in parallel and even then do not expect as long
a life as a single larger battery.
• If one cell of either battery loses capacity, both
batteries may rapidly develop sulfation problems.
• Note that many battery manufacturers void battery
warranties if more than two are paralleled.
148
Large battery Bank
48V battery bank (Cook Islands)
149
Battery label
150
Battery characteristics from
label
151
Battery Safety
• Most injuries relating to batteries are the result of dropping them or being hurt
somehow by their weight. Do not carry batteries by the connections, always support the
battery from the bottom or sides of the case.
• Preferably use a special carry strap made for the purpose. For large batteries share the
load with another person. Many smaller batteries have built in handles. Use them
• For open cell batteries, note that the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid and can cause mild
chemical burns on the skin and is toxic if swallowed. If the acid gets into your eyes,
immediate flushing with water is vital to avoid eye damage. For that reason, keep a full
bucket of water nearby when working with batteries and battery acid.
• Be sure cell caps have clear ventilation holes. A plugged ventilation hole will cause
pressure build up in the cell and will cause the battery case to swell and may cause
damage to the battery.
• Never lay tools on top of the battery. A short circuit could occur and may damage the
battery, cause an explosion or cause burns.
• Do not smoke around batteries that are charging. Explosive gas is present in the cells.
• Do not take the caps off battery cells when charging.
152
Don’t lay tools on batteries!
153
When should you add more acid?
• Unless electrolyte is actually spilled out of
the battery, you should never add acid, only
pure water. It is not the sulfuric acid that
evaporates, it is water only.
• Adding more acid gradually increases the
strength of the acid and increases the rate of
internal corrosion but in no way increases the
charge in the battery or makes it easier to
charge.
154
BATTERY TERMINOLOGY
• VRLAB Flooded Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries
• GEL Gelled Electrolyte Lead Acid Battery
• AGM Advanced Glass Mat Battery
• CCA Cold Cranking Amps -18°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.
• CA Cranking Amps 0°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.
• RC Reserve Capacity 25°C terminal V ≥ 10.5V 25A Load = time
• AH 100Ah = 20 hrs @ 5A load terminal V ≥ 10.5V
• Peukert Exponent (ⁿ) Charge factor indicating efficiency of a battery

Flooded cell battery is 80%. Must be recharged 1.2 times the capacity to reach
100%. Dynamic. Lower the factor – more efficient. Lithium-Ion 1.05.
• Cp=Iⁿt Battery capacity = Discharge Current ⁿ x Time hrs
IMPACT OF PEUKERT
LOAD vs TIME
Battery Simulation
• Batteries are an essential sub system for any renewable energy system,
more so for stand alone systems
• Batteries can also make up as much as 50% of the system cost and 25% of
mass.
• Batteries of various chemistries and capacities are being produced since
many decades
– But for Renewable Energy applications, configuring the right battery

pack is an important systems engineering task.
– With virtual model based systems engineering, a lot of development &
integration activities can be front loaded.
– This provides ample course correction opportunities during
development without having to build costly prototypes.
Comparison of Popular EV Battery
Chemistries
Battery Basics: Resistance, Capacitance
and Inductance
Battery Basics
Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) & State of
Charge (SoC)
Battery Basics
Cell Voltage & Internal Resistance
Internal Resistance and SoC
• Total cell capacity = 10 W-h
• Cell internal resistance = 30 mΩ
• Initial SoC = 85%
• OCV = 3.9 V
• Q1: For 5 A current drawn, what is the cell voltage?

• Q2: For 10 s pulse of 5 A current, what is the final SoC?
Excel Model for Unit Cell
V cell = OCV I x r i
Battery Basics
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Battery Basics
Kirchhoff’s VOLTAGE Law
Battery Basics
Series & Parallel Configurations
Excel Model for Series and Parallel Cells
Excel Model for Series and Parallel Cells
Energy Batteries
• When a battery pack is designed and sized for
maximizing energy density, it is called an energy
battery.
• The charge & discharge rates of these battery
packs are relatively lower, but they tend to run for
a longer time before needing a recharge.
• These type of battery packs are more suitable for a
steady power requirement over a long duration.
Illustrative applications…
Power Batteries
• When a battery pack is designed and sized for

maximizing power density, it is called an power
battery.
• The charge & discharge rates of these battery
packs are relatively higher, but they tend to run
out of charge quite fast and need frequent
recharge.
• These type of battery packs are more suitable for
transient power requirement in short bursts.
Illustrative applications…
Battery Specifications
Capacity and A hr Ratings
• C rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being
charged or discharged safely (based on internal
• circuitry as well as heat dissipation limits). Unit 1/h. It
determines the peak power capacity of the battery.
• Ampere hour (A hr or Ah) rating of a battery is the measure
of its charge storage capacity. It is defined as
• the electric current (supplied to or drawn from a battery)
multiplied by duration. 1 Ah is equal to the charge
• transferred by a steady current of 1 A flowing for 1 h. It can
also be expressed as W hr = A hr x V pack .
Depth of Discharge (DoD)
• ‘Useful’ Energy Capacity of a battery is the amount
of useful electric charge the battery can hold in
fully charged condition without going over or
under voltage thresholds during operation.
• Restricting the battery usage within these
thresholds provides significant enhancement to
battery life.
Battery Aging
• Throughout the vehicle operation, the battery is subjected to…
• Charge –discharge cycles due to either solar of grid power supply,
regeneration as well as slow & fast charging
• High –low temperature cycles due to changes in ambient as well as heat
generation inside battery
– Each cycle can leave permanent changes in the battery internals, which
culminates into…
• Layer formation around electrodes increasing cell internal resistance
• Disintegration of battery internal structure decreasing the rates of chemical reactions
• This is known as battery aging. Over time, this leads to either or both of
the following…
– Reduction in battery peak power capacity, limiting the vehicle performance
– Reduction in battery energy capacity, limiting the vehicle range per charge
• Battery aging and accurate estimation of age in REs, is a matter of deep
research because, it not only influences battery warranty or lease
financial models, but also the liability of battery repurposing or disposal
at its end of life in the RE system.
Battery Functional Model for
Energy Estimation
Battery Functional Model for
PACK MODELLING
Assignment Question 1
• Determine which battery chemistry would you
select for a self-driven on-lease fleet vehicle to
be used for last-mile transport where per km
cost is the highest priority. Explain your choice
with techno economic reasons. [10]
– Total cell capacity = 0.01 W-h
– Cell internal resistance = 45 mΩ
– Initial SoC = 55%
– OCV = 3.7 V
a: For 2.5 A charging current, determine the cell

voltage. [5]
b: Determine how long it will take for 2.5 A
current to charge the battery to 75% SoC. [5]
For a unit cell with internal resistance = 45 mΩ
a: For 18 cells in series, determine the internal

resistance for a series bank. [2]
b: For 10 such 18-cell-in-series-banks (as in a:),
what will be the pack internal resistance. [3]

ME 314 (Energy Storage All)

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ME 314 (Energy Storage All)

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ME 301 Renewable Energy

Storage Components Section

Electrical energy storage technologies include the following

• The energy density is proportional to 𝜌𝑔𝑧,

The energy supplied to the electrical network by a generator

Overall efficiency of the energy storage system

• A pumped storage project would typically be designed

• By increasing plant capacity in terms of size and

(i) average power output,

(ii) energy output,

(iii) input power to the pumps,

(iv) total electrical energy required for pumping and

(v) the overall energy efficiency of the pumped storage plant.

(ii) Energy Output = 5 x 13.2MW = 662.1 MWh

(iv) Total electrical energy required for pumping = 6.5 x 139.74 =

(v) Overall energy efficiency of the pumped storage plant =

• Correspondingly higher turbine outputs are

• The large compressed air storage is charged by

• The combustion system, typically made up of a ring

• Charging of the reservoir is carried out by high

• The power-to-power efficiency is approx.

• Instead of compressing the air with valuable gas,

• Alternatively the heat of compression can

• The CR varies between 4:1 and 1:1. This means the CR is 1 to 4

When charging, the hot air enters the storage

Temperature profile of a packed-bed thermal energy storage system for a

Principle of thermo-chemical storage of heat energy

Concept CSP with integrated thermo-chemical storage

Batteries for Renewable

• CHEMICAL PROCESS NOT REVERSABLE

• ZINC CARBON (1.5V)

• CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSABLE

• LEAD ACID (2.0V)

• Gelled Electrolyte (Gel)

• Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Lead is a metal. Lead oxide is a hard, black gritty solid.

• Overcharging with high charging voltages

– Telecom back up batteries, UPS batteries for computer

• Capacity in Ampere hours

• Open cell or sealed

• Liquid or Gel electrolyte

• Acceptable repeated depth of discharge

• “Starting Amps” “Number of Plates” or “Starting

• Gradually decreasing capacity. The time to charge

• Reduced voltage at full charge. Cannot get the

• Lead Sulfate is white in color. When looking at the

• Use of wrong kind of battery

• Repeated overcharging (wrong controller setting)

• Failure to maintain a high average charge level

• High operating temperature (over 30°C)

• Repeated deep discharge

• Mechanical damage caused by hammering on the

• When a battery discharges the plates swell. The deeper

If a battery is being stored fully charged, a high

• The effect of storage temperature on self-discharge

• Tubular cell, deep discharge batteries provide

• Valve regulated, sealed batteries are only

• Worst choice is an automotive type

48V battery bank (Cook Islands)

• AGM Advanced Glass Mat Battery

• CCA Cold Cranking Amps -18°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.

• CA Cranking Amps 0°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.

• RC Reserve Capacity 25°C terminal V ≥ 10.5V 25A Load = time