1

Chapter I. Semiconductor fundamentals

I.1. Electrical conductivity....…..……………………...slides 2-15

Conductors, insulators, semiconductors
I.2. Intrinsic semiconductor…............….…………….slides 16-26

I.3. Extrinsic semiconductor..................….………….slides 27-41

I.4. Current transport……...............…..……………...slides 42-62
I.4.1: Ohmic current (drift current)
I.4.2: Diffusion current
I.5. Generation/Recombination …........…….………..slides 63-78
I.6. Semiconductor mathematical model …...........…slides 79-95
 2

I.1. Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity s[S/cm] and its inverse

quantity, electrical resistivity r[W cm], represent the
material capability to conduct an electrical current.

What is the electrical current transport ?

It is the motion of elementary charge carriers through
the material with a given direction.

From experience:
 3

resistivity r [W× cm]

1018 1014 1010 106 102 1 10-2 10-6
Germanium (Ge) Silver
Glass
Nichel oxide Silicon (Si) Copper

Diamond Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium

Gallium Phosphide (GaP) Platinum

Sulfure
Silicon dioxide Indium Phosphide (InP) Gold

10-18 10-14 10-10 10-6 10-2 1 102 106

conductivity s [S/cm]
insulator semiconductor conductor
 4
From the Periodic Table of the Elements
column
II III IV V VI
5 6 7
2 B C N
Boron Carbon Nitrogen
12 13 14 15 16
period

3 Mg Al Si P S
Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur
30 31 32 33 34
4 Zn Ga Ge As Se
Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium
48 49 50 51 52
5 Cd In Sn Sb Te
Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium

Elemental semiconductors (IV): Ge, Si

Compound semiconductors (III-V, II-VI): GaAs, InP, CdTe, ...
Alloys (III-V, II-VI): AlxGa1-xAs, GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y, Hg1-xCdxTe, ...
 5
Electron energy configuration in Column IV elements
E
CB Isolated
atom
p e- e-
EG
4+
VB s
e- e-

Energy levels of
e- in inner shells
0 a b c Interatomic distance d

a: insulator (e.g., diamond C: d=0,36nm; EG» 8eV)

b: semiconductor (e.g., silicon Si: d=0,54nm; EG» 1,1eV)
c: conductor (e.g., Tin Sn: d=0,65nm )
 6
Conductors: energy-band model

E
Conduction Band and CB
Valence Band
partially overlapped
(or at least very close
in some materials) VB
Valence band electrons
can gain kinetic energy
and are thus free to move

The concentration of conduction electrons has the

same order of magnitude of atomic density (~1023/cm3)
 7

Basic conductor model: three-dimensional matrix of positive

metal ions (nucleus and inner-shells electrons) in a “gas of
electrons” available for electrical current conduction.

ex. Aluminium Two-dimensional

Al Z=13 M~26 model
Isolated - e-
e e-
atom 3+ 3+ e- 3+ 3+
3+
e-
e- 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
e- : outer-shell electrons
(valence electrons) 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+

Similarly for the other metals: Cu, Au, etc.

 8
Insulators: energy-band model

E
CB
Conduction Band and
Valence Band are
separated by a large EG
Energy Gap EG (~6÷8eV)

VB

At T=300°K:
CB totally empty of conduction electrons
VB totally full of valence electrons busy to form
covalent bondings
 9
Basic insulator model: absence of mobile electrons.
Valence electrons form strong bondings between first
nearest neighbor atoms.
EG=energy gap ~ interatomic binding energy: 5÷10eV

Material characteristic parameters:

• dielectric constant e =er·e0
Absolute dielectric constant e0 = 8.85´10–14 [F/cm]
Relative dielectric constant er
(es. SiO2 : er= 3.9; Si3N4 : er= 7.5; etc.)

• maximum electric field EB [V/cm]

(ex. Silicon dioxide SiO2 : EB @ 107 V/cm)
 10
Semiconductors: energy-band model

E
CB
Conduction Band and
Valence Band are
separated by a small EG
Energy Gap EG (~1eV)

VB

At T=300°K:
CB mostly empty (presence of few conduction electrons)
VB mostly filled (lack of few valence electrons holes)
 11
Example: Silicon

E Si Z=14 M~28
e- : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 Isolated
EC CB atoms
e - e -
EG s2

4+
EV VB p2
e- e-

Silicon ion 4+ Energy levels

Nucleus and inner shell e- of inner-shall e-
0 b Interatomic distance
EG=1,12eV (a T=300°K)
 12
Basic semiconductor model: presence of a small
concentration of “mobile electrical charges” at room
temperature. Valence electrons form “relatively weak”
bondings between first nearest neighbor atoms.
EG=energy gap ~ interatomic binding energy: ~ 1eV
Silicon lattice
Example: Si Z=14 M~28
Two-dimensional model
Isolated
Si atom 4+ 4+ 4+
e- e-
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

e- e- 4+ 4+ 4+

interatomic covalent bonding: pairs of valence electrons

“shared” by first nearest neighbor atoms
 13

Silicon lattice structure: three-dimensional model

Elementary cell:
diamond lattice
cubic cell
Covalent bonding: a
Pairs of electrons
shared” between first
nearest neighbor
atoms

Directions and crystallographic planes are

identified by means of the so-called Miller indices
reticular constant: a= 0.543 nm
 14
Example: Si, crystallographic planes (110), (111) and (100)
z The index direction (hkl) is orthogonal to the
plane with the same MIller indices [hkl]

x plane (110)
direction [110]

z direction [111]

plane (100)
y
x
Preferred crystal
x plane (111) Direction [100] orientation for CMOS
 15
Example: Silicon
Tetrahedric structure
4 first nearest neighbor atoms

e-
Si Isolated
e- +4 e- Si atom

e-
Chemical-physical properties of monocrystalline Si
density: 2.33 g/cm3
melting temperature: 1436 °C
# at. Si/cm3: ~ 5×1022/cm3
 16

I.2 Intrinsic semiconductor

T=0°K: absence of mobile charges suitable for current transport
Three-dimensional Two-dimensional
unit cell model

4+ 4+ 4+

4+ 4+ 4+

4+ 4+ 4+

Valence electrons are constrained to form covalent bondings

 17

Thermal generation
T>0°K: mobile charges are generated (electrons e- and holes h+)
and are suitable for electrical current transport

A covalent bonding is broken

e- and an electron e- and the
“absence of an electron” (hole
h+ h+) become available

Binding energy (ionization energy) for the covalent bonding:

EG ~ 0.66 eV (Ge); ~1.12 eV (Si); ~1.43 eV (GaAs)
 18

Covalent bond break Þ energy must be supplied from outside

T~ 0°KÞ all covalent bondings are formed

~ 0 mobile charges e- ed h+

Þ
T~ 300°K some covalent bondings get broken
Ex. Si: ~ 1010 e-/cm3 = ~ 1010 h+/cm3
(generation of e- - h+ pairs)
 19

electron-hole (e- - h+ ) pair generation

Two-dimensional model Energy-band model

CB e-
4+ 4+ 4+ EC
e-
e- transition
4+ 4+ 4+ E from VB to CB
h+ G
4+ 4+ 4+ EV
VB h+

CB: Conduction Band

VB: Valence Band

 20

Thermal recombination
One electron and one hole recombine to build a covalent bonding

The covalent bonding is

e- rebuilt by means of the
recombination of one electron
h+ e- and one “absence of
electron” (hole h+)

Lifetime t: average time elapsed between generation and

recombination. It is a characteristic property of the
semiconductor crystal (strongly dependent on the material
history).
 21

Breaking a covalent bonding by thermal ionization

produces an e- - h+ pair

intrinsic concentration :
æ EG ö
n = p = ni = N C NV × expç - ÷ [cm-3]
è 2kT ø
The intrinsic concentration ni in the semiconductor
increases (~ exponentially) with the raising temperature T

At a given temperature T, the intrinsic concentration

represents the equilibrium taking place between
thermal generation and recombination
 22
intrinsic æ EG ö
concentration
n = p = ni = N C NV × expç - ÷
è 2kT ø
EG [eV] = energy gap
k = 8.62´10-5 eV/°K Boltzmann’s constant
T[°K] = absolute temperature
k T= 0.026eV=26meV at T=300°K=27°C
(conventionally used reference = room temperature)
NC= effective density of energy levels in CB
NV= effective density of energy levels in VB
semiconductor EG [eV] NC [cm-3] NV[cm-3]
Ge 0,66 1,02x1019 5,64x1018
Si 1,12 3,22x1019 1,83x1019
GaAs 1,42 4,7x1017 7,0x1018
 23
Experimental data:
T (°C)
Intrinsic concentration ni (cm-3) 1000 500 100 27 0

1018

1016
300°K
Ge
1014
Si ~ 2.4x1013
1012

1010 GaAs ~ 1.4x1010

108
~ 1.8x106
106
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
1000 / T (°K)
 24
intrinsic æ EG ö
concentration n = p = ni = N C NV expç - ÷
è 2kT ø
Temperature dependence:
æ E G (T ) ö
(
ni T K =
!
) BT 3/ 2
expç - ÷
è 2kT ø
For Silicon:
( )
ni 300! K = 1,4 ´ 1010 = B (300 )
3/ 2 æ
× expç -
1.12
-5
ö
÷
è 2 × 8,62 ´ 10 × 300 ø

from which: B = 6 ,8 ´1015

E G (T)[eV ] ö
( !
)
ni T K = 6 ,8 ´ 10 T 15 3/ 2 æ
× expç - -5 ÷ cm -3
[ ]
è 2 × 8,62 ´ 10 × T ø

Similarly for the other semiconductors

 25

Energy gap (EG) variation with

temperature T
Measurements show a decreasing EG [eV ] vs T [°K ]

1.2
(1.17) Si
(1.12)
1.1

1.0
0.9
0 200 400 600 800

Similar trends for the other semiconductors

 26

The EG(T) relationship can be expressed by the

empirical formula:
AT 2
E G (T ) = E G (0 ) -
T+B
Semic. EG(0) [eV] A [°K-1 eV] B [°K]
Ge 0.74 4.56x10-4 210
Si 1.17 4.73x10-4 636
GaAs 1.52 5.40x10-4 204
at T= 300 °K :
Ge EG=0.66 eV
Si EG=1.12 eV
GaAs EG=1.42 eV
 27
I.3. Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic silicon

Doping with substitutional atoms (donors or acceptors)

 28
Periodic table of elements

III IV V
5 6 7
acceptor B C N
Boron Carbon Nitrogen
13 14 15
Al Si P donor
Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus
31 32 33
Ga Ge As donor
Gallium Germanium Arsenic
49 50 51
In Sn Sb donor
Indium Tin Antimony
 29

Column V donor
e- e-
e- P As Sb
5+ e-
e- e-
5+

Column III acceptor

e-
B
3+ h+

e- e- e-
3+
 30

Doping with donor atoms

(n-type semiconductor)

Two-dimensional model
donors:
4+ 4+ 4+ Column V elements (P, As, Sb)
e- present in the lattice as
4+ 5+ 4+ “substitutional” and “electrically
active” atoms with a
4+ 4+ 4+ concentration ND [at/cm3]
+ -
ND Þ N + eD

At T > few tens of °K donors are totally ionized

 31

Energy-band model: n-type semiconductor

EC - - - ED: “donor” level

ED (+) (+) (+)
EG
Very low ionization energy
(EC- ED) ~ 0,02 ÷ 0,04 eV
EV

At T > few tens of °K donors are totally ionized

 32
Doping with acceptor atoms
(p-type semiconductor)

Two-dimensional model
acceptors:
Column III elements (B, Al, In)
4+ 4+ 4+
present in the lattice as
h+ “substitutional” and “ electrically
4+ 3+ 4+ active” atoms with a
concentration NA [at/cm3]
4+ 4+ 4+
N A Þ N A- + h +

At T > few tens of °K acceptors are totally ionized

 33

Energy-band model: p-type semiconductor

EC
Very low ionization energy
EG
(EA- EV) ~ 0,02 ÷ 0,04 eV

EA (- ) (- ) EA: “acceptor” level

EV + +

At T > few tens of °K acceptors are totally ionized

 34
Extrinsic semiconductor
n-type if ND > NA ; p-type if NA > ND
• “mobile” charges: n [e-/cm3] p [h+/cm3]
• “fixed” charges:
(constrained as substitutional ions in the lattice)
N D+ [donor ions/cm3] N A- [acceptor ions/cm3]
In any case, the charge neutrality condition is valid:
+ -
N + p = N +n
D A
Under the total ionization hyphothesys:

N D+ @ N D N A- @ N A ND + p = N A + n
 35
Extrinsic semiconductor
n-type if ND > NA ; p-type if NA > ND
“Mobile” charges: n [e-/cm3] p [h+/cm3]
Thermodynamic equilibrium condition:
(absence of energy exchanges with the rest of the world)
æ EG ö
np = n = BT expç -
2
i
3
÷
è kT ø
The product of the electron (n) and hole (p) concentrations
remains constant (= intrinsic value ni2 )
and depends only on the temperature
Also known as Mass Action Law
 36

Extrinsic semiconductor analysis

Given:
Doping concentrations: ND , NA
Unknowns:
concentrations of elementary mobile charges: n, p

ìnp = n 2
i
Equilibrium condition
í
î N D + p = N A + n Charge neutrality
 37

n-type extrinsic semiconductor ( ND > NA )

Solution:
2
ND - N A æ ND - N A ö
n= + ç ÷ + ni
2
Majority carriers
2 è 2 ø
ni2
p= Minority carriers
n
Compensation effect between donors and acceptors
For “highly doped” n-type semiconductor
( ND >> NA; ni ):
Majority carriers: n @ N D
Minority carriers: p @ n /N D
2
i
 38

Example: n-type Si : ND = 1016/cm3 T = 300 °K

Highly doped: ND >> NA = 0; ni @ 1010 /cm3

Majority carriers: n@ ND = 1016/cm3

Minority carriers: p = ni2/n@ 1020/1016@ 104/cm3

 39

p-type extrinsic semiconductor ( NA > ND )

Solution:
2
N A - ND æ N A - ND ö
p= + ç ÷ + ni
2
Majority carrier
2 è 2 ø
ni2
n= Minority carrier
p
Compensation effect between donors and acceptors
For “highly doped” p-type semiconductor
( NA >> ND; ni ):
Majority carriers: p @ NA
Minority carriers: n = n 2
i /N A
 40

Example: p-type Si : NA = 1016/cm3 T = 300 °K

Highly doped: NA >> ND = 0; ni @ 1010 /cm3

Majority carriers: p@ NA = 1016/cm3

Minority carriers: n = ni2/p@ 1020/1016@ 104/cm3

 41
Carrier concentration vs. temperature
Example: p-type Si
p; n
470°K
300°K
130°K
p ~ NA

transition temperature
Majority carriers

Extrinsic-intrinsic
Minority carriers
n ~ ni2/NA T[°K]

extrinsic T-region intrinsic

Freeze
Total ionization T-region
out
 42
I.4. Current transport in semiconductors
Electrical current: motion of charge carriers through the
material with a direction
flux F [charges / cm2 s] J=qF[A/cm2]
electron -q = -1.6 10 -19 [C]
Elementary charges
(mobile) hole +q

electrons n/cm3
semiconductors:
holes p/cm3

conductors: electrons n/cm3

 43
Model: ~ random thermal motion of elementary
charges within the semiconductors
The thermal motion is random (zero in average) due to
carrier scattering, i.e., collisions with ionized impurity
atoms and thermally agitated lattice atoms
Absence of direction flux F=0
The presence of an electric field E imposes a direction to
the carrier thermal motion Collision centre
e- h+
Electric field
E[V/cm]
vdn vdp

Motion direction flux F¹ 0

 44
At a macroscopic level:
vd=average drift velocity ~ proportional to E.

drift velocity vd é cm ù 2

mobility = μ= ê ú
electric field E ë Vs û

Collision centre
e- h+
Electric field
E[V/cm]
vdn= - µn E vdp = µp E

Motion direction flux F¹ 0

 45

Electrical conduction in semiconductors

Energy-band model

Conduction Band
Electron energy

Kinetic energy of electrons

EC

Hole energy
EG
EV
Kinetic energy of holes
Valence Band
 46
a) Ohmic current (drift current)

J vdp J
1cm2
vdn
0 E (reference) x

vd: drift velocity of e- and h+ in the direction of the electric

field E parallel to the reference axis x
F: flux [carriers e- and h+/cm2s]
current density:
I
J = = q × Fp + (-q )(- Fn ) = qpvdp + qnvdn
A
 47

holes: Jp = q p vdp = q p µp E [A/cm2]

electrons: Jn = q n vdn = q n µn E [A/cm2]
in the presence of both holes and electrons:

J = Jp+ Jn = q(nµn+ pµp)E =s E

(Ohm’s law)
s = q(nµn + pµp) [S/cm] electrical conductivity
r = 1/s [W cm] electrical resistivity
s (and r ): characteristic properties of a material
Conductors (metals): J = Jn = qnµn E = s E
 48

vd
mobility =
drift velocity μ=
electric field E
The drift velocity vd and the mobility µ measure the
elementary charge e- and h+ capability to move within
a material under the effect of the electric field
semiconductors:
high µ (~ 1000 cm2 / V s)
low n or p (1014÷1017/cm3)

conductors:
low µ (~ 50 cm2 / V s)
high n (~ 1023/cm3)
 49

vd vs. E for Si and GaAs

108
T= 300°K
Drift velocity vd [cm/s]

107 vsat= saturation

e)
-
( velocity
s
aA
G
106 )
(h +
Si )
(e -

)
(h +

As
Si

Ga

105
102 103 104 105 106
Electric field E [ V/cm ]
Ohmic region Non linear region Saturation
const. µ indip. from E µ = µ (E) vd ~ const. indip. from E
 50

mobilities µn and µp in Si ( T = 300°K )

1500
mobility µ [cm2/Vs]

electrons µn

1000

500
holes µp
0
1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019

total doping concentration ND + NA = Nt [at./cm3]

 51

μ0
Empirical relationship μ = μmin +
1+ ( N t /N 0 )
α

Nt = ND + NA = total doping conc.

Parameters for Si electrons holes

µmin [cm2/Vs] 92 54
µ0 [cm2/Vs] 1268 407
N0 [cm-3] 1.3´1017 2.35 ´ 1017
a 0.91 0.88
Temperature dependence: 52

µ min ; µ 0 ; N0 ; a vs temperature
β

(
A(T ) = A 300 K × ç!
)
æ T ö
÷
è 300 ø
mainly because of collisions with the thermally
agitated lattice atoms
Parameters for Si b (exp. dep. on T)
µ min [cm2/Vs] - 0,57
µ 0 [cm2/Vs] - 2,33(e-); - 2,23(h+)
N0 [cm-3] 2,4
a - 0,146

A different trend with T is observed at high doping levels,

because of concurrent collisions with impurities
 53

Example 1: p-type Si; NA = 1016/cm3 @ p (T = 300°K)

resistivity = ?

Majority carrier mobility:

μ p = 54 +
407
[
@ 437 cm 2 /Vs ]
( )
17 0 .88
1 + 1016 / 2.3 ´ 10

s = q(pµp + nµn) @ 1.6×10-19·1016 · 437 @ 0.67 [S/cm]

r = 1/ s @ 1.5 [W ·cm]
 54

Example 2: n-type Si; ND = 1014/cm3 @ n (T = 300°K)

resistivity = ?
Majority carrier mobility:

μ n = 92 +
1268
[
@ 1358 cm 2 /Vs ]
(
1 + 10 / 1.3 ´ 10
14
)
17 0 .91

s = q(pµp + nµn) @ 1.6×10-19 ·1014 ·1358 @ 0.02 [S/cm]

r = 1/ s @ 46 [W ·cm]
 55
Resistivity r[W × cm] vs. concentration
Si; T=300°K (Irvin plots)
103
102
p-type Si
r [ohm·cm]

10 example 2
1
10-1

10-2 example 1 n-type Si

10-3
10-4
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
NA or ND [at/cm3]
 56
Example 3a: p-type Si; NA = 1016/cm3 @ p (T = 200°K)
resistivity = ?
at T = 200°K: E G @ 1,124eV ni @ 1,3 ´106 /cm3

p @ N A = 10 /cm
16 3
n = ni2 /p @ 0/cm3

Majority carrier mobility:

μ p = 68 +
1005
@ [
955 cm 2
]
/Vs
(
1 + 1016 / 8,7 ´ 1016)0 ,93

conductivity
σ = q(pμ p + nμ n ) @ 1,6 ´10 ×10 × 955 @ 1,53[S/cm]
-19 16

1
resistivity: r( 200° K ) = @ 0 ,65[W × cm]
s
Resistivity decreases with respect to T=300°K
because of the h+ mobility increase
 57
Example 3b: p-type Si; NA = 1016/cm3 @ p (T = 400°K)
resistivity = ?
E G @ 1,05eV ni @ 1,2 ´1013 /cm3
at T = 400°K:
p @ N A = 1016 /cm3 n = ni2 /p @ 1,4 ´1010 /cm3
Majority carrier mobility:

μ p = 46 +
214
[
@ 252 cm 2 /Vs ]
(
1 + 1016 / 4 ,6 ´ 10 )
17 0 ,64

conductivity
σ = q(pμ p + nμ n ) @ 1,6 ´10 -19 ×1016 × 252 @ 0 ,4[S/cm]
1
resistivity: r( 400° K ) = @ 2 ,5[W × cm]
s
Resistivity increases with respect to T=300°K
because of the h+ mobility decrease;
the behavior is still completely “extrinsic”
 Example 3c: p-type Si; NA = 1016/cm3 @ p (T = 600°K) 58

resistivity = ?
at T = 600°K: E G @ 1,032eV ni @ 4 ,2 ´ 1015
/cm 3

p @ 1,15 ´10 /cm

16 3
n = ni2 /p @ 1,53 ´1015 /cm3
Majority carrier mobility:
μ p ( T = 600° K ) @ 121[cm 2 /Vs ]
Minority carrier mobility:
[
μ n ( T = 600° K ) @ 307 cm 2 /Vs ]
σ = q(pμ p + nμ n ) @
conductivity:
( )
@ 1,6 ´ 10 -19 1,15 ´ 1016 ×121 + 1,53 ´ 1015 × 307 @ 0 ,3[S/cm]
resistivity: r( 600° K ) = 1 / s @ 3,36[W × cm]
• the electrical conductivity s depends also on the minority
carriers, whose concentration is no longer negligible
 59
b) Diffusion current
Due to “carrier concentration gradients”

Unidimensional model

Flux F [Carriers / cm 2 s]
x
1st Fick’s law
Flux F is proportional to the concentration gradient
Proportionality constant: diffusion coefficient D

Einstein relationship holds: D = (kT/q)µ [cm2/s]

 60
holes p (x, t) electrons n (x, t)
¶p ¶n
Fp = - D p Fn = - Dn
¶x ¶x

x x
¶p ¶n
J p = + qFp = -qD p J n = -qFn = + qDn
¶x ¶x
Total diffusion current:
¶p ¶n
J = J p + J n = - qD p + qDn
¶x ¶x
 61
electrons: Dn = (kT/q)µn Dn and Dp are derived from
µ n and µ p (graphs and
holes: Dp = (kT/q)µp
empirical relationships)

Diffusion coeff. D [cm2/s]

mobility µ [cm2/Vs]

1500 39
electrons Si (T = 300°K)
1000 26

500 13
holes
0
1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019
Total doping concentration ND + NA = Nt [at./cm3]
 62

Total current density in semiconductors

Contributions: ohmic (drift) + diffusion

Transport equations: (unidimensional model)

¶n
electrons: J n = qnμn E + qDn
¶x
¶p
holes: J p = qpμ p E - qD p
¶x
so that:
¶n ¶p ö
J = J n + J p = q (nμn + pμ p )× E + q ç Dn
æ
- Dp ÷
è ¶x ¶x ø
 63
I.5. Generation and recombination

a) Generation: process whereby e-

electrons and holes are created.
h+
It is not a single process,
but rather a group of similar
processes:
• Thermal
e- CB
• Avalanche
• Optical G
• ...
Generation rate: h+ VB
G[pairs/cm3s]
 64

b) Recombination: process whereby

electrons and holes are annihilated
e-
It is not a single process, h+
but rather a group of similar
processes:
• Thermal
• Auger
• Radiative CB
• ...
R
Recombination rate: VB
R=b np [pairs/cm3s]
b : proportionality coefficient; it depends on the semiconductor
and on the presence of crystallographic defects, impurities, etc.
 65
In the absence of energy exchange with the
external world (thermodynamic equilibrium):

G=Gth = thermal generation rate [pairs/cm3s]

R=Rth = thermal recombination rate [pairs/cm3s]

Rth = βn 0 p0 = βn = Gth
2
i
Perfectly balanced

n0 ; p0 : equilibrium concentrations

Rth; Gth : depend only on the temperature T (°K),

being ni=ni(T)
 66
In the presence of energy exchange with the
external world, equilibrium is perturbed:
Example.: incident beam of
photons with an energy
(hc /l ) > EG (Energy Gap) e-
Gopt generation [ pairs/cm3s]
h+
non equilibrium condition:

np ¹ ni2 EG » ionization energy

np > ni2 “injection” of charges e- and h+

A different non-equilibrium condition can also be forced:
np < ni2 “depletion” of charges e- and h+
 67
Steady state: R = Gopt+ Gth
e- e-
Gth depends on T°K
Gopt Gth R EG
(does not vary if T~ const.)
R= b np changes because of h+ h+
the Gopt effect on the carrier concentrations
Net recombination rate:
2
( 2
)
U = R - Gth = βnp - βni = β np - ni [pairs/cm s]
3

proportional to positive for injection np > ni2

the carrier excess
2 negative for depletion np < n 2
np - ni i

U counteracts Gopt: internal reaction trying to re-establish

thermodynamic equilibrium in the semiconductor
 68

Direct recombination Indirect recombination

(photon emission) (assisted by traps at Et)

CB CB
Et

VB VB
Thermal energy
released by means
of lattice vibrations
(phonons)
Example: GaAs Example: Si
“Direct gap” “indirect gap”
semiconductor semiconductor
 69

Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) generation-recombination

Indirect recombination assisted by traps
trap: induces a single energy level Et localized in the gap.
Concentration Nt [traps or levels Et /cm3]

SRH statistics
EC
G Ra Rb
Et
Rc Rd
EV
Ra + Rc Þ e- - h+ pair recombination
Rd + Rb Þ e- - h+ pair generation
 70

Assuming:
Ra (= e- transition from CB to Et) prop. n × Nt [1-f(Et)]
Rc (= e- transition from Et to VB) prop. p × Nt [f(Et)]
Rb (= e- transition from Et to CB) prop. Nt f(Et)
Rd (= e- transition from VB to Et) prop. Nt [1-f(Et)]

f(Et) being the probability the defect level is occupied

In non-equilibrium condition, and steady state regime :

(Ra + Rc) º (Rb + Rd)

Dynamic equilibrium between generation and
recombination takes place
 71

Net recombination rate: (

U = b np - ni2 )
It can be demonstrated that:
1
b=
tp0 [n + ni exp[(E t - Ei ) / kT]] + tn0 [p + ni exp[(Ei - E t ) / kT]]

t p = 1 /(s p v th N t )
0
t n = 1 /(s n v th N t )
0

vth = thermal velocity (depends on T)

sp = hole capture cross-section
sn = electron capture cross-section
 72

The Et value maximizing U can be found imposing:

d
U (Et ) = 0
dEt
From which:
kT σ p
E t = Ei + ln
2 σn

because sp and sn have the same order of

magnitude, the most effective traps for generation and
recombination are mid-gap levels
 73

Example: Si at T = 300 °K

Conduction Band
Li Sb P As Ni
EC
0.03 0.039 0.044 0.049
0.35

Energy levels
introduced by 0.54 0.55
Ei
dopants and 0.52
impurities 0.39 0.40
0.37 0.35
0.16 0.24
0.04 0.057 0.065 0.03
EV B Al Ga In Ca Cu Au Fe O
Valence Band
 74
Low level injection
Only the minority carrier concentration is perturbed
(majority carrier concentration remains approx.
constant at the equilibrium value)
Example: n Si; ND = 1015 [don./cm3]; Gext [pairs/cm3]
Low level High level
equilibrium injection injection
1020
1016 pn nn
ND nn0 nn
1012 pn Gext
ni
108 Gext
pn0 104

100
 75

Net recombination rate for low level injection

a) n-type semiconductor:
ni2
nn @ nn0 @ N D pn >> pn0 @
nn0

( i ) ( 2
i )
U = β nn pn - n = β nn pn - n /nn @ β N D pn - pn0
2
( )

pn - pn0 where tp @ 1/b ND

U=
τp = minority carrier (hole) lifetime
 76

Net recombination rate for low level injection

b) p-type semiconductor:
2
n
p p @ p p0 @ N A n p >> n p0 @ i
p p0

( ) ( ) (
U = β n p p p - ni2 = β p p n p - ni2 /p p @ β N A n p - n p0 )
n p - n p0 where tn @ 1/b NA
U=
τn = minority carrier (electron) lifetime
 77
Semiconductor in non equilibrium
n(x, t) × p(x, t) ¹ ni2

Continuity equations (unidimensional model):

¶n 1 ¶J n
electrons in CB: = Gext - U +
¶t q ¶x

¶p 1 ¶J p
holes in VB: = Gext - U -
¶t q ¶x
 78

Continuity equations: physical meaning

Balance between local variation of carrier
concentrations and input/output fluxes

¶p 1 ¶J p Fp(x + dx) - Fp(x)

Example: = Gext - U - » Gext - U -
¶t q ¶x dx

Unidimensional model Gext

Unitary cross-section

holes p(x;t) U Fp(x+dx)

Fp(x)

x x+dx x
 79

I.6. Semiconductor mathematical model

1) Transport equations: ¶n
J n = qnμn E + qDn
¶x
¶p
J p = qpμ p E - qD p
¶x

2) Continuity equations:
¶n 1 ¶ Jn
= Gext - U +
¶t q ¶x
¶p 1 ¶ Jp
= Gext - U -
¶t q ¶x
 80

3) Poisson’s equation:

¶ 2Ψ æ ¶Eö ρ( x ) q (N D + p - N A - n )
ç= - ÷=- =-
¶x 2
è ¶xø εs εs
+ boundary conditions and initial conditions

given: semiconductor parameters:

D = (kT/q)µ ; U; doping conc. ND(x) and NA(x)
and external generation Gext

unknowns: Ψ(x ,t) ; n(x, t) ; p(x, t)

Unidimensional model Three-dimensional model

 81

Analysis and design of electronic devices

Þ solution of semiconductor mathematical model

• analytical solution (with simplification assumptions)

• numerical solution Technological CAD (T-CAD)

 82

Functional
Top-down
specifications

Chip (I.C.)
architecture
Lithography
Circuit Chip masks
simulations layout and
fabrication
Device process
Bottom-up

simulations T-CAD

Process Professional software packages

simulations for microelectronics design
 83

Mathematical model : simplifications

Example: n-type semiconductor

Low level injection (Þ only minority carriers pn(x, t) )

¶ pn
transport: J p = qpn μ p E - qD p
¶x
¶ pn pn - pn 1 ¶ J p
continuity: = Gext - 0
-
¶t τp q ¶x
 84
Low injection + stationary regime:
d pn
transport: J p = qpn μ p E - qD p
dx
d pn pn - pn0 1 d J p
continuity: º 0 = Gext - -
dt τp q dx
Low injection + steady state + absence of external
generation (Gext = 0) + absence of electric field (E =0)

d pn
transport: J p = - qD p
dx
pn - pn0 1 d J p
continuity: 0=- -
τp q dx
 85

Example 1: photoconductivity decay

Silicon sample, n-type, uniformly doped and
uniformly illuminated

Gopt [pairs/cm3s]
uniform in the sample
n-type semicon.

t < 0: light “on” Calculate the variation in time

of the carrier concentration and of
t >0: light “off ” the electrical conductivity
 86

• t < 0: light “on”

(non equilibrium steady state)
Minority carrier continuity equation:

d pn 1 d Jp pn - pn0
dt
= Gopt - U -
q dx
º0 Þ Gopt = U =
tp

Excess of minority (and majority) photogenerated carriers:

pn - pn0 (= Δpn ) = Gopt τ p

nn - nn0 = Δnn = Δpn = Gopt τ p << nn0

 87

• t ³ 0: light “off ” (Gopt = 0)

(decay of the conductivity back to equilibrium value)

Minority carrier continuity equation:

d pn 1 d Jp d pn pn - pn0
dt
= Gopt - U -
q dx Þ dt
=-U =-
τp

Initial condition: pn (t = 0 ) - pn0 = Gopt τ p

pn (t ) - pn0 = [pn (t = 0 ) - pn0 ]e

- t/τ p
Solution:
- t/τ p
Δpn(t) = Δpn(t = 0 )e = Δnn(t) << nn0
 88

pn
Minority carrier concentration
Δpn = Gopt τ p
p n0
tp
0 t

Dσ (t )=qDpn(t)μ p + qDnn(t)μn = Dσ on e
- t/τ p

Dσ on = qGopt τ p (μ p + μn )

Ds(t) Electrical conductivity

Dσ on σ 0 @ q ( pn 0 μ p + nn 0 μn )
tp
0 t
 89

Minority carrier lifetime measurement

Photoconductivity decay

Light pulse
oscilloscope

semiconductor

V R

Experimental setup
 90
From measurements:
“Electronic grade” silicon

Minority carrier lifetime [s] 10-4

Si (300°K)
tn
10-6 tp

10-8

10-10

1014 1016 1018 1020

Nt= total doping concentration [at/cm3]
 91

Scharfetter’s empirical relationship:

t max
t= b
1 + (N / Nref )

Si tmax [s] Nref [cm-3] b

tn 10-5 ~ 1016 ~ 1
tp 3 x 10-6 ~ 1016 ~ 1

(typical parameters for silicon production)

Similarly for GaAs and other semiconductors

 92

Example 2: minority carrier injection in neutral

regions
n-Si r(x) ~ E (x) ~ 0 (neutral region)
nn ~ nn0 ~ N D Majority carriers

from p-Si Fp

Minority carriers
pn(x) = ? pn0 = ni2 / nn0

0 x
 93
Mathematical model :
Low injection: pn(x, t)<< nn~ND;
Steady state; absence of external generation

dpn
Transport eq. J p ( x ) = qpn μ p E - qD p
dx

¶pn pn - pn 1 dJ p
Continuity eq. º 0 = Gext - - 0

¶t τp q dx
from which:
d 2 pn pn - pn0 d 2 pn pn - pn0
Dp 2
- = 0; 2
=
dx τp dx Dp τ p
 94

Solution:

[ ]
pn ( x ) - pn0 = pn ( x = 0 ) - pn0 exp(- x / L p )

That can be written as:

Δpn ( x ) = Δpn (0 ) exp(- x/L p )

Lp = D p t p Minority carrier diffusion length

pn(x=0)= given initial condition (depends on flux Fp )

 95

Minority carrier injection in neutral regions

n-Si r(x) ~ E (x) ~ 0 (neutral region)

nn ~ nn ~ N D
0
Majority carriers

from p-Si . Fp
pn(x=0)
Dpn(x=0) pn(x) Minority carriers
Dpn(x) pn0 = ni / nn0
2

x
 96

Suggested readings
(available at the UniTN Libraries)

1. R. F. Pierret: “Semiconductor fundamentals“, Addison

Wesley Modular Series on Solid State Devices”,
volume 1, 2nd Ed., R. F. Pierret, G.W. Neudeck
Editors, 1988
2. S. M. Sze: “Semiconductor Devices – Physics and
Technology”, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd Ed., 1985
3. A. Grove: “Physics and Technology of Semiconductor
Devices”, John Wiley & Sons, 1967
4. R. S. Muller, T. I. Kamins: “Device Electronics for
Integrated Circuits”, John Wiley & Sons, 3rd Ed., 2002
 97
2 EG(0)=1.17 eV
AT
E G (T ) = E G (0 ) - A=4.73´10-4 eV/K
T+B B=636 K
E G (T)[eV ]
( )
ni T K = 6 ,8 ´ 10 T
! 15 3/ 2 æ
× expç - -5
ö
÷ cm[-3
]
è 2 × 8,62 ´ 10 × T ø
2
ND - N A æ ND - N A ö n 2
n= + ç ÷ + ni
2
p= i
2 è 2 ø n
2
N A - ND æ N A - ND ö
2
n
p= + ç ÷ + n 2 n= i

2 è 2 ø
i
p

μ0 β

A(T ) = A(300 K )× ç
μ = μmin + ! æ T ö
÷
1+ ( N t /N 0 )
α
è 300 ø
 98

μ0
Empirical relationship μ = μmin +
1+ ( N t /N 0 )
α

Nt = ND + NA = total doping conc.

Parameters for Si electrons holes

µmin [cm2/Vs] 92 54
µ0 [cm2/Vs] 1268 407
N0 [cm-3] 1.3´1017 2.35 ´ 1017
a 0.91 0.88
Temperature dependence: 99

µ min ; µ 0 ; N0 ; a vs temperature
β

(
A(T ) = A 300 K × ç!
)
æ T ö
÷
è 300 ø
mainly because of collisions with the thermally
agitated lattice atoms
Parameters for Si b (exp. dep. on T)
µ min [cm2/Vs] - 0,57
µ 0 [cm2/Vs] - 2,33(e-); - 2,23(h+)
N0 [cm-3] 2,4
a - 0,146

A different trend with T is observed at high doping levels,

because of concurrent collisions with impurities