PA R T C

Results and Answers to

Laboratory Experiments
Results and Answers to
Laboratory Experiments C–2
 Results and Answers to Laboratory Experiments

PROJECT 1
PART 1 LOW-PASS RC FILTER

Step 1 Table 1-1

R = 470 Ω C = 1 µF
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Calculated fco = 339 kHz (kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Step 2 85 8.94 .894 –0.97

Calculated Vout = 7.1 V 170 8.16 .816 –1.77

255 7.55 .755 –2.44
Step 4
340 7.06 .706 –3.02
Measured fco = 330 kHz (approx)
425 6.66 .666 –3.53
510 6.32 .632 –3.99
Answers to Part 1 Questions
1. The signal output is decreasing with frequency. 595 6.02 .602 –4.41
This describes the operation of a low-pass filter. 680 5.77 .577 –4.78
2. –20 dB/decade.
765 5.54 .554 –5.13
850 5.34 .534 –5.45
dB
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
85 kHz 255 340 850 kHz
kHz kHz
FIGURE 1-1

C–2
PART 2 HIGH-PASS RC FILTER

Step 1 Table 1-2

R = 470 Ω C = 1 nF
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Calculated fco = 339 kHz (kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Step 2 85 4.48 .448 –6.97

Calculated Vout = 7.1 V 170 5.78 .578 –4.76

255 6.55 .655 –3.68
Step 4
340 7.08 .708 –3
Measured fco = 340 kHz
425 7.46 .746 –2.55
510 7.75 .775 –2.21
Answers to Part 2 Questions
1. This circuit shows that the amount of signal 595 7.98 .798 –1.96
passing through it increases with frequency. 680 8.17 .817 –1.76
This describes the operation of a high-pass filter.
2. +20 dB/decade. 765 8.33 .833 –1.59
850 8.46 .846 –1.45

dB
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
85 kHz 340 kHz 850 kHz

FIGURE 1-2

C–3
PART 3 SERIES LC BANDPASS FILTER

Step 1 Table 1-3

L = 2.2 µH C = 100 pF
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Calculated fc = 10.7 MHz (MHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Step 3 1 5.35 .535 –5.43

Measured fc = 10 MHz 2 7.93 .793 –2.01

3 8.98 .898 –0.93
Step 4
4 9.46 .946 –0.48
Measured f1 = 1.5 MHz
Measured f2 = 75 MHz 5 9.70 .970 –0.26
6 9.84 .984 –0.14
7 9.92 .992 –0.07
Answers to Part 3 Questions
1. 73.5 MHz. 8 9.96 .996 –0.03
2. 0.15.
9 9.99 .999 –0.01
10 10.0 1.0 0
dB 20 9.81 .981 –0.17
–1 f1 f2
30 9.40 .940 –0.54
–2
–3 40 8.90 .890 –1.01
–4 50 8.35 .835 –1.57
–5
–6 60 7.80 .780 –2.16
–7 70 7.27 .727 –2.77
–8
80 6.77 .677 –3.39
–9
–10 90 6.32 .632 –3.99
1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz
100 5.91 .591 –4.57
FIGURE 1-3

C–4
PART 4 SERIES LC BAND-REJECT FILTER

Step 1 Table 1-4

L = 330 µH C = 0.1 µF
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Step 3 (kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Calculated fc = 27.7 MHz 2.5 8.02 .802 –1.92

5 5.48 .548 –5.32
7.5 3.86 .386 –8.27
dB 10 2.83 .283 –10.96
⫺1
f1 12.5 2.11 .211 –13.51
⫺2
f2
⫺3 15 1.58 .158 –16.02
⫺4
17.5 1.16 .116 –18.71
⫺5
⫺6 20 808 mV 80.8 mV –21.85
⫺7 22.5 512 mV 51.2 mV –25.81
⫺8
⫺9 25 252 mV 25.2 mV –31.97
⫺10 50 1.51 .151 –16.42
2.5 kHz 25 kHz 250 kHz
75 2.75 .275 –11.37
FIGURE 1-4
100 3.77 .377 –8.47
125 4.64 .464 –6.67
150 5.39 .539 –5.38
175 6.01 .601 –4.42
200 6.54 .654 –3.69
225 6.99 .699 –3.11
250 7.37 .737 –2.65

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Shorting the capacitor in a low-pass RC filter
circuit shorts the output of the circuit. So there
is virtually no output from the circuit at any
frequency. When the capacitor is open, the
filtering effect is lost altogether; and the output
will be at a constant ac level, depending on the
impedance of any load that might be connected
to the output.
2. The equations for an LC filter circuit and an
LC resonant circuit are identical because the
circuits are identical.
3. Shorting the inductor in the circuit for Part 1
would leave the capacitor in series with the
source, and the resistor in parallel with the
output—which defines a high-pass RC filter. If
the inductor is OK, but the capacitor is shorted,
the circuit would behave as a low-pass RL filter.
4. See textbook, Fig. 2-40(b).

C–5
 PROJECT 2
PART 1 LOW-PASS FILTER

Step 4 Table 2-1

Calculated fco = 3.4 kHz
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Estimated fco = 3.1 kHz (MHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Step 5 1 9.4 0.94 –0.54

Vout at –3 dB = 7.1 V 2 8.4 0.84 –1.5

Measured fco = 3.3 kHz 3 7.2 0.72 –2.7
4 6.0 0.60 –4.4

Answers to Part 1 Questions 5 5.2 0.52 –5.7

1. –13 dB/decade. 6 4.7 0.47 –6.6
2. The cut-off frequency would decrease.
3. The actual value of fco is not related to the value 7 4.2 0.42 –7.5
of vi. Changing vi has no effect on the value of fco.
8 3.8 0.38 –8.4
9 3.5 0.35 –9.1

dB 10 3.2 0.32 –10

⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
⫺4
⫺5
⫺6
⫺7
⫺8
⫺9
⫺10
1 kHz 10 kHz

FIGURE 2-6

C–6
PART 2 HIGH-PASS RC FILTER

Step 4 Table 2-2

Calculated fco = 3.38 kHz
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Estimated fco = 3.1 kHz (MHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Step 5 1 3.2 0.32 –9.9

Vout at –3 dB = 7.1 V 2 3.4 0.34 –9.4

Measured fco = 3.2 kHz 3 6.4 0.64 –3.9
4 7.2 0.72 –2.9

Answers to Part 2 Questions 5 8 0.8 –1.9

1. +18 dB/decade. 6 8.4 0.84 –1.5
2. The cut-off frequency would decrease.
3. Changing the value of vi has no effect on the 7 8.6 0.86 –1.3
cut-off frequency.
8 8.8 0.88 –1.1
9 9.0 0.90 –0.9

dB 10 9.1 0.91 –0.8

⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
⫺4
⫺5
⫺6
⫺7
⫺8
⫺9
⫺10
1 kHz 10 kHz

FIGURE 2-7

C–7
PART 3 SERIES LC BANDPASS FILTER

Step 4 Table 2-3

Calculated fc = 50.4 kHz f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
(Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)
Step 5
Measured fc = 50 kHz 1.5 kHz 0.8 .08 –22
4.5 2.4 .24 –12.4
Step 7
7.5 3.6 .36 –8.9
Estimated f1 = 44 kHz
10.5 4.6 .46 –6.7
Estimated f2 = 57 kHz
13.5 6.0 .6 –4.4
Step 8
15 6.6 .66 –3.6
Measured f1 = 16 kHz
45 10.0 1.0 0
Measured f2 = 130 kHz
75 9.8 .98 –0.18
105 8.0 .8 –1.9
Answers to Part 3 Questions 135 7.5 .75 –2.5
1. 3.9.
2. 114 kHz. 150 6.0 .6 –4.4
3. Estimated f2 is less than the measured value.
450 2.8 .28 –11.1
This is probably due to errors from marking off
and reading values from the graph. 750 1.6 .16 –15.9
1050 0.46 .046 –26.7
1350 0.09 .009 –40.9
1.5 MHz 0.09 .009 –40.9

dB
⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
⫺4
⫺5
⫺6
⫺7
⫺8
⫺9
⫺10
1.5 kHz 15 kHz 150 kHz 1.5 MHz

FIGURE 2-8

C–8
PART 4 SHUNT LC BAND-REJECT FILTER

Table 2-4 Step 3

Calculated fnotch = 50.4 kHz
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
(Vp–p) vo /vi (dB) Step 4
1.5 kHz 10 1.0 0 Measured fnotch = 50 kHz
4.5 10 1.0 0 Measured Vout(min) = 0
7.5 10 1.0 0
Step 6
10.5 10 1.0 0
Estimated f1 = 44 kHz
13.5 10 1.0 0
Estimated f2 = 57 kHz
15 10 1.0 0
45 6 0.6 –4.44 Step 7
75 9 0.9 –0.95 Measured f1 = 30 kHz

105 10 1.0 0 Measured f2 = 70 kHz _

135 10 1.0 0
150 10 1.0 0
Answers to Part 4 Questions
450 10 1.0 0 1. 3.9.
2. 13 kHz.
750 10 1.0 0
1050 10 1.0 0
1350 10 1.0 0
1.5 MHz 10 1.0 0

dB
⫺1
⫺2
⫺3
⫺4
⫺5
⫺6
⫺7
⫺8
⫺9
⫺10
1.5 kHz 15 kHz 150 kHz 1.5 MHz
FIGURE 2-9

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Capacitive coupling uses a series capacitor
between successive stages. In combination with
the input impedance of the second amplifier
stage, this configuration forms a high-pass filter
circuit which naturally attenuates lower audio
frequencies.
2. See the textbook, Fig. 2-26.
3. Capacitors are available in a wider range of
values and at lower costs than inductors.
4. Shorting the inductor will create a high-pass
filter circuit.
5. The result would be no filtering at all.

C–9
 PROJECT 3
PART 1 ACTIVE BANDPASS FILTER

Step 3
Table 3-1
Measured fc = 500 kHz
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Step 4 (kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)
Measured f1 = 475 kHz 400 2.42 .242 –12.3
Measured f2 = 680 kHz 420 3.06 .306 –10.3
440 4.02 .402 –7.92
460 5.59 .559 –5.05
Answers to Part 1 Questions
1. 1. 480 8.09 .809 –1.84
2. 205 kHz.
3. 2.4. 500 10.00 1.0 0
520 8.20 .820 –1.73
540 5.90 .590 –4.58
0 f1 f2 560 4.44 .444 –7.05
580 3.53 .353 –9.04
Voltage Out (V)

600 2.93 .293 –10.7

-10
400 500 600
Frequency In (kHz)
FIGURE 3-1

C–10
PART 2 ACTIVE BAND-REJECT FILTER

Step 3 Table 3-2

Measured fc = 500 kHz
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
Step 4 (kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)

Measured f1 = 470 kHz 400 9.70 .970 –0.26

Measured f2 = 535 kHz 420 9.52 .952 –0.43

440 9.16 .916 –0.76
460 8.29 .829 –1.62
Answers to Part 2 Questions
480 5.88 .588 –4.61
1. 1.
2. 65 kHz. 500 6 mV 0 —
3. 7.7.
520 5.72 .572 –4.85
540 8.08 .808 –1.85
0 560 8.96 .896 –0.95

-1 580 9.36 .936 –0.57

Voltage Out (V)

f1 f2
600 9.56 .956 –0.39
-2

-3

-4

-5
400 500 600
Frequency In (kHz)

FIGURE 3-2

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Advantages of active filters include narrower (or
wider) bandwidths, higher gain, no inductors,
easy to tune, circuit isolation, and easy
impedance matching.
2. Decreasing the value of capacitance in an active
bandpass filter will increase the center
frequency of the circuit.
3. See textbook, Fig. 2-44(b).
4. See textbook, Fig. 2-44(c).

C–11
 PROJECT 4

PART 1 ACTIVE BANDPASS FILTER

Step 3
dB fc = 62.5 kHz
–1 Vout at fco = 2.6 V
–2
–3 Step 4
–4 Calculated Vout for f1 = 1.84 V
–5
–6 Calculated Vout for f2 = 1.84 V
–7 Step 5
–8
–9 Measured value of f1 = 27 kHz
–10 Measured value of f2 = 71 kHz
6 kHz 60kHz 600 kHz
FIGURE 4-4
Answers to Part 1 Questions
1. 26.
2. 44 kHz, 1.42.

PART 2 ACTIVE BAND-REJECT FILTER

dB
Table 4-1 ⫺1
f vo 20 log(vo /vi) ⫺2 f2
(kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB) ⫺3 f1
⫺4
1.0 6.8 1 0
⫺5
2.0 6.6 0.98 –0.2 ⫺6
⫺7
3.0 6.2 0.91 –0.8
⫺8
4.0 5.7 0.84 –1.5 ⫺9
5.0 0.21 0.03 –30 ⫺10
1 kHz 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 kHz
6.0 4.8 0.71 –3
FIGURE 4-5
7.0 5.3 0.78 –2.2
8.0 5.7 0.84 –1.5
9.0 6.1 0.89 –1
10.0 6.8 1 0

C–12
Step 2
fnotch = 5 kHz
Vout(min) = 0 V
Vout(max) = 6.8 V
Step 3
Vout at half-power points = 4.8 V
Step 6
f1 = 4.2 kHz
f2 = 6 kHz
Answers to Critical Thinking
1. Capacitor C1 is in series with the signal path;
therefore it must have a significant effect on the
resonant frequency of the circuit.
2. The op amp for the bandpass filter is connected
as an inverting amplifier, and the band-reject
version is connected as a differential amplifier.
With the feedback signal through C2, the gain of
the bandpass filter is highest at the resonant
Answers to Part 2 Questions
1. 5.5 kHz.
2. –30 dB, 0 dB.
frequency. In the case of the band-reject filter,
the resonant feedback signal is still maximum
at the resonant frequency but “subtracts” from
the unfiltered signal applied to the noninverting
input to produce a dip in the output rather than
a rise.
3. Increasing the gain of the amplifier generally
narrows the bandwidth.
C–13
 PROJECT 5
PART 1 455-KHZ FILTER

Step 3 Step 4
f = 440 kHz V = 7.9 V Lower cutoff frequency f1 = 436 kHz
Middle-frequency peak: Upper cutoff frequency f2 = 474 kHz
f = 455 kHz V = 10 V
Upper-frequency peak:
Answers to Part 1 Questions
f = 470 kHz V = 7.99 V 1. 455 kHz.
2. 38 kHz.
3. 12.
Table 5-1
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
(kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)
420 2.88 .288 –10.8
10
430 5.1 .51 –5.85
Voltage Out (Vp⫺p)

440 7.93 .793 –2.01

445 6.26 .626 –4.07
450 8.38 .838 –1.54
455 10.00 1.0 0
460 8.27 .827 –1.65
0
465 6.49 .649 –3.76 410 430 455 480
470 7.99 .799 –1.95 Frequency In (kHz)

480 4.95 .495 –6.11 FIGURE 5-1

490 2.91 .291 –10.7

C–14
PART 2 50-MHZ FILTER

Step 3 Step 4
First peak (lowest frequency): f = 42 MHz Lower cutoff frequency f1 = 41.8 MHz
Second peak: f = 46 MHz Upper cutoff frequency f2 = 58.5 MHz
Third peak: f = 50 MHz
Fourth peak: f = 54 MHz Answers to Part 2 Questions
Fifth peak (highest frequency): f = 58 MHz 1. 50 MHz. It is the highest peak.
2. 16.7 MHz.
3. 2.99.
Table 5-2
f vo 20 log(vo /vi)
(MHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB)
38 1.85 .185 –14.7 10
40 3.52 .352 –9.1

Voltage Out (Vp⫺p)

42 8.0 .8 –1.94
44 3.63 .363 –8.80
46 9.0 .9 –0.92
48 4.06 .41 –7.74
50 10 1 0 0
38 50 62
52 4.5 .45 –6.94 Frequency In (MHz)
54 9 .9 –0.92
FIGURE 5-2
58 8 .8 –1.94
60 3.59 .36 –8.87
62 1.99 .2 –14

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. The Q of ceramic filters tend to be somewhat less 3. With proper impedance matching, a ceramic
than the Q of quartz filters, but both are much filter can be used as a band-reject filter if it is
higher than can be obtained with LC circuits. connected in parallel with the output.
2. A ceramic filter is not considered to be an active
filter, because it contains no active, signal-
amplifying components.

C–15
 PROJECT 6
Step 3 Step 5
Peak 1 frequency = 440 kHz Calculated value of Vout at the cutoff
frequencies = 5.8 V
Peak 2 frequency = 455 kHz
Peak 3 frequency = 460 kHz Step 6
Measured f1 = 435 kHz
Step 4
Measured f2 = 465 kHz

Table 6-1
f vo 20 log(vo /vi) Answers to Questions
(kHz) (Vp–p) vo /vi (dB) 1. 3 peaks; see the results for Step 3.
2. 20 kHz.
420 2.4 0.29 –10.7 3. 22.8.
430 3.1 0.38 –8.45
440 4.3 0.52 –5.68
445 5.9 0.72 –2.86
0
450 7.6 0.93 –0.66
455 8.2 1 0
Voltage Out

460 7.8 0.95 –0.43

465 5.6 0.68 –3.31
470 4.2 0.51 –5.81
480 2.9 0.35 –9.03
-10
490 2.1 0.26 –11.8 420 Frequency In 500

FIGURE 6-3

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Advantages of a cermaic filter over LC and RC 2. The main disadvantage of ceramic filters is that
circuits include higher Q, long-term reliability, they cannot be made adjustable.
fewer components required, and higher accuracy
and precision.

C–16
 PROJECT 7
PART 1 OBSERVE THE OPERATION OF THE BODE PLOTTER INSTRUMENT

Step 2
fc = 250 kHz

Step 3
f1 = 138 kHz f2 = 535 kHz
BW = 397 kHz

Step 4

0 dB I = 500 mHz
⫺3 dB F = 1 GHz

l f1 fc f2 F

FIGURE 7-3

PART 2 EXPERIMENT WITH THE CIRCUIT VALUES

Step 3
fc = 8 kHz

Step 6
fc = 250 kHz

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. The Log and Lin buttons determine whether the 2. The phase display indicates the phase for the
axes use logarithmic or linear scales. circuit as a function of applied frequency.

C–17
 PROJECT 8
PART 1 LOW-PASS FILTER

Step 4
Estimated fco = 60 MHz

Answers to Part 1 Questions

1. 8.9 V.
2. 9.

FIGURE 8-1

PART 2 HIGH-PASS FILTER

Step 2
Frequency at the start of the sweep = 100 kHz
Frequency at the end of the sweep = 1 GHz
Horizontal scaling of the sweep = 100 MHz/div

Step 3
Estimated fco = 550 kHz

Answers to Part 2 Questions

1. 8.9 V.
2. 6.2 nF.

FIGURE 8-2

C–18
PART 3 BANDPASS FILTER

Step 2
Frequency at the start of the sweep = 312 MHz
f1 f2
Frequency at the end of the sweep = 687 MHz
Horizontal scaling of the sweep = 68.7 MHz/div

Step 3
Estimated fc = 350 MHz
Estimated f1 = 288 MHz
Estimated f2 = 412 MHz

Answers to Part 3 Questions

1. 2.26 V.
2. 124 MHz.
FIGURE 8-3

PART 4 BAND-REJECT FILTER

Step 2
Frequency at the start of the sweep = 375 MHz
Frequency at the end of the sweep = 625 MHz
Horizontal scaling of the sweep = 62.5 MHz/div

Step 3
Estimated fc = 312 MHz
f1 f2
Estimated f1 = 275 MHz
Estimated f2 = 350 MHz

Answers to Part 4 Questions

1. 75 MHz.
2. 5.12 V.
FIGURE 8-4

C–19
PART 5 CERAMIC FILTER

Step 2
Frequency at the start of the sweep = 250 MHz
f1 f2
Frequency at the end of the sweep = 750 MHz
Horizontal scaling of the sweep = 75 MHz/div

Step 3
Estimated fc = 375 MHz
Estimated f1 = 158 MHz
Estimated f2 = 600 MHz
Estimated frequencies of the two lower peaks
= 225 MHz and 300 MHz
Estimated frequencies of the two upper peaks
= 450 MHz and 525 MHz
FIGURE 8-5

Answers to Part 5 Questions

1. 442 MHz.
2. 9.6 V, 7.68 V.

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. The advantage of a semilog display is that more
of the response curve can be fit onto the screen.
2. The settings of the sweep generator have no
effect on the half-power points of the filter
circuit but, rather, determine where the points
appear on the display.
3. A sweep generator produces a sawtooth waveform
of a fixed frequency and amplitude. This
waveform is applied to the horizontal axis of the
oscilloscope. The waveform is also applied to a
voltage-to-frequency converter which produces a
frequency that is proportional to the amplitude of
the sawtooth waveform. The converter is
adjustable in terms of its center frequency and
range of frequencies. The output of this converter
is applied to the input of the filter circuit under
test. The output of the filter circuit is applied to
the vertical axis of the oscilloscope.

C–20
 PROJECT 9
PART 1 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS
Answers to Part 1 Questions Table 9-1
1. The first harmonic is present; no others are.
2. Only the first harmonic is defined. Frequency vo
Harmonic (Calculated) (Measured)
First 100 kHz 100
Second 200 kHz 0
Third 300 kHz 0
Fourth 400 kHz 0
Fifth 500 kHz 0

PART 2 TRIANGULAR WAVEFORMS

Answers to Part 2 Questions Table 9-2
1. Odd harmonics are present; even harmonics
are not. Frequency vo
2. Third = –20 dB; fifth = –40 dB. Harmonic (Calculated) (Measured)
First 100 kHz 100
Second 200 kHz 0
Third 300 kHz 10
Fourth 400 kHz 0
Fifth 500 kHz 1

PART 3 RECTANGULAR WAVEFORMS

Answers to Part 3 Questions Table 9-3
1. Odd harmonics are present; even harmonics
are not. Frequency vo
2. Third = –11 dB; fifth = –14 dB. Harmonic (Calculated) (Measured)
First 100 kHz 100
Second 200 kHz 0
Third 300 kHz 30
Fourth 400 kHz 0
Fifth 500 kHz 20

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. See Fig. 2-62 in the text. evidence of even harmonics in a rectangular
2. Even harmonics are required for “rounded waveform that has slightly rounded edges.
edges.” You would thus expect to find some

C–21
 PROJECT 10
Step 2 2. Changes in carrier frequency shift the entire
spectrum along the frequency axis.
Lower sideband: 3. Changes in modulation frequency shift the
spacing between the carrier and sidebands.
frequency = 4 MHz
amplitude = 75 V
Carrier: CARRIER
frequency = 5 MHz
amplitude = 175 V
LSB MSB
Upper sideband:
frequency = 6 MHz
amplitude = 75 V

Answers to Questions
1. It matches the theory of AM sidebands. The
USB frequency is equal to the carrier frequency
plus the audio modulating frequency, and the
LSB frequency is equal to the difference
between the two.
FIGURE 10-1

Table 10-1
Carrier Modulation
Freq Freq Modulation LSB LSB Carrier Carrier ISB ISB
(MHz) (kHz) Index Freq Ampl Freq Ampl Freq Ampl
2.0 1000.0 1.0 1 MHz 75 V 2 MHz 150 V 3 MHz 75 V
8.0 1000.0 1.0 7 MHz 75 V 8 MHz 150 V 9 MHz 75 V
2.0 500.0 1.0 1.5 MHz 75 V 2 MHz 150 V 2.5 MHz 75 V
5.0 500.0 1.0 4.5 MHz 75 V 5 MHz 150 V 5.5 MHz 75 V
8.0 500.0 1.0 7.5 MHz 75 V 8 MHz 150 V 8.5 MHz 75 V
2.0 1000.0 0.5 1 MHz 40 V 2 MHz 150 V 3 MHz 40 V
5.0 1000.0 0.5 4 MHz 40 V 5 MHz 150 V 6 MHz 40 V
8.0 1000.0 0.5 7 MHz 40 V 8 MHz 150 V 9 MHz 40 V
5.0 1000.0 0.0 NA 0V 5 MHz 150 V NA 0V
5.0 1000.0 1.2 4 MHz 95 V 5 MHz 150 V 6 MHz 95 V

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Changing the modulation index changes the 3. When there is no carrier amplitude, there is no
amplitude of the sidebands. AM signal. A spectral display would show a flat
2. When the modulation index is zero, the spectral horizontal line.
display shows only the carrier frequency.

C–22
 PROJECT 11
PART 1 MODULATION INDEX = 0

Table 11-1
Modulation
Index Vmax(p–p) Vmin(p–p)
0 2
.25 2.4 1.4
.5 3 1
.75 3.5 0.5
1 4 0
m⫽0
2 6
FIGURE 11-2
3 8
4 10
5 12

PART 2 MODULATION INDEX GREATER THAN 0, LESS THAN 1

m ⫽ 0.25

FIGURE 11-3

C–23
PART 3 MODULATION INDEX EQUALS 1

m⫽1

FIGURE 11-4

PART 4 MODULATION INDEX GREATER THAN 1

m⫽2 VERT = 2V/DIV m⫽5

FIGURE 11-5 FIGURE 11-6

Answers to Questions
1. 0 Vp-p.
2. Figure 11-4, where m = 1.
3. The frequencies are not relevant.

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Overmodulation cause unwanted harmonic
frequencies.
2. Percent modulation = 100 × modulation index.

C–24
 PROJECT 12

FIGURE 12-1 FIGURE 12-2

FIGURE 12-3 FIGURE 12-4

Step 1 Step 3
Vout (audio = 0.0V) = 15 Vp–p % modulation = 50%

Step 2 Step 4
% modulation = 100% % modulation = 23%

C–25
Step 5 Answers to Questions
Vmax = 8.25 V Vmin = 1.5 V 1. % modulation = (modulating signal)/(carrier
signal) × 100.
Vmax p–p = 17.5 V Vmin p–p = 3 V 2. Set the carrier amplitude to any value; set the
modulating signal amplitude to zero.
Step 6 3. The waveform in Figure 12-5 represents a case
of overmodulation.
% modulation = 125%

FIGURE 12-5

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. When the modulation exceeds 100%, there are
regions of no signal between successive
waveform envelopes.
2. Refer to Figures 12-1 and 12-2.

C–26
 PROJECT 13
VMAX = 8v pp VMAX = 8v VMIN = 2.5v

FIGURE 13-3 FIGURE 13-4

VMAX = 8v VMIN = 0v

FIGURE 13-6

Step 7 Answers to Part 1 Questions

Receiver frequency = 1000 kHz
Step 8
Receiver frequency = 1000 kHz
1. Losses through the input coupling circuits, and
the gain of the amplifier, account for most of the
differences between input voltages and output
levels.
2. The greater the percent modulation, the louder
the audio signal from the receiver.
3. The main purpose of the transistor is to provide
the linear mixing that is necessary for
amplitude modulation. A secondary purpose is to
amplify the signal.

C–27
 VMAX = 8v VMAX = 8v

FIGURE 13-7 FIGURE 13-8

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Coupling capacitors, such as C1 and C2 in this 2. The LC circuit causes the gain of the amplifier
circuit, make up an unwanted high-pass filter to be highest at the resonant frequency.
effect. In order to pass the lower audio
frequencies, capacitor C1 must have a larger
value than rf coupling capacitor C2.

C–28
 PROJECT 14

Step 1 Step 5
% modulation = 50% % modulation = 200%

Step 2 Step 6
% modulation = 50% % modulation = 200%

Step 3 Step 7
% modulation = 100% Via = 25.6 V

Step 4
% modulation = 100%

FIGURE 14-1 FIGURE 14-2

FIGURE 14-3 FIGURE 14-4

C–29
 FIGURE 14-5 FIGURE 14-6

FIGURE 14-7 FIGURE 14-8

Step 8 Answers to Part 1 Questions

Vmin = 75 V Vmax = 57 V 1. Figures 14-1, 14-2, 14-7, and 14-8.
2. Figures 14-3 and 14-4.
Step 9 3. Figures 14-6 and 14-7.

Via = 25.6 V
Vmin = 15 V Vmax = 60 V

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. When modulation is less than 100%, the figure
has four sides. When the modulation is 100%,
the figure is a triangle that has the maximum
amount of horizontal displacement. When the
modulation exceeds 100%, the figure is still
triangular, but the apex closes to a horizontal
line before reaching the end of the horizontal
displacement.
2. Changing the amplitude of the carrier signal
changes the percent of modulation and,
therefore, the size and shape of the trapezoidal
pattern.
3. Losses in signal amplitude are not taken into
account when the percent of modulation is
calculated from the input signal levels. Direct
measurement of the signal ratios from a
trapezoidal display provides more realistic data.

C–30
 PROJECT 15
PART 1 TIME-DOMAIN MODULATION DISPLAY

Step 3
Vic at 100 percent modulation = 1.25 V

Answers to Part 1 Questions

1. 100 × (Vmax – Vmin)/(Vmax + Vmin).
2. Vimax, Vimin.

FIGURE 15-5

FIGURE 15-6 FIGURE 15-7

C–31
PART 2 TRAPEZOIDAL MODULATION DISPLAY

Step 3 Answers to Part 2 Questions

Measured Vmax = * 1. Pin 2; pin 3; pin 5.
2. A “tail” appears at the pointed end.
Measured Vmin = *

Step 4
Measured Vmax = *
Measured Vmin = *

*Note: Measured values will vary, but the data should

be consistent.

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Losses in signal amplitude are not taken into
account when the percent of modulation is
calculated from the input signal levels. Direct
measurement of the signal ratios from a
trapezoidal display provides more realistic data.
2. The relatively poor upper frequency response
of OTAs prevents them from being useful as
modulators for carrier frequencies above
500 kHz.

C–32
PROJECT 16

FIGURE 16-1 FIGURE 16-2

FIGURE 16-3 FIGURE 16-4

C–33
 Answers to Questions
1. 3 V/div. This is determined by setting the
function generator for zero output and measuring
the output of the rf generator at TP 2. The signal
level is 6 Vp-p, and it spans two divisions. This
means that the vertical scaling is 3 V/div.
2. The waveforms in Figures 16-4 and 16-5 show
the effects of overmodulation.

FIGURE 16-5

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Capacitor C2 eliminates the carrier component 2. Overmodulation flattens the peaks of the
of the AM waveform, leaving only the audio demodulated AM waveform, causing distortion
modulating signal. If C2 opens, carrier of audio signal.
frequencies appear at the output of the circuit.

C–34
 PROJECT 17

Before

After

FIGURE 17-3

FIGURE 17-4

FIGURE 17-5 FIGURE 17-6

C–35
 FIGURE 17-7 FIGURE 17-8

Answers to Questions
1. D1 and C4. (Arguably, R3 may be included.)
2. The larger the percent modulation, the greater
the amplitude of the demodulated signal.

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Overmodulation of the AM signal causes the
demodulation signal to be distorted. This is
undesirable because the audio signal is no
longer a faithful reproduction of the audio signal
that was applied back at the transmitter.
2. Diode qualities of rectification and nonlinearity
are both important.
3. Reversing the direction of the diode would
reverse the polarity of the baseline of the
demodulated signal. This would most likely
cause biasing problems with the audio amplifier
stage that follows the detector.

C–36
 PROJECT 18
PART 1 NORMAL OPERATION

Step 3
AM waveform 7.5 Vp–p
Demodulated waveform 0.5 Vp–p

Answers to Questions
1. 7.5 Vp-p at 0% modulation.
2. 5.5 Vp-p at 10% modulation, and 5.6 Vp-p at 50%
modulation.

FIGURE 18-2

PART 2 MODULATION INDEX GREATER PART 3 OPEN OUTPUT CAPACITOR

THAN 1

FIGURE 18-4
FIGURE 18-3

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Capacitor C1 forms a low-pass filter that
eliminates the radio frequencies and passes the
audio frequencies.
2. Resistor R1 provides a dc (or low-frequency) load
for the rectifier action of the circuit.
3. This circuit is a half-wave rectifier that is
adjusted to filter radio frequencies rather than
the ripple frequency of a dc power supply.

C–37
 PROJECT 19
PART 1 DOUBLE SIDEBAND WITH CARRIER

Step 1
Vertical scale = 2.5 V/div

Step 2
Horizontal scale = 500 Hz/div

Step 3
Carrier amplitude = 10 V
Carrier frequency = 20 MHz
USB amplitude = 5 V
USB frequency = 20.0005 MHz
LSB amplitude = 5 V
LSB frequency = 19.9995 MHz
FIGURE 19-1

Modulation index = 0.5

Step 4
Carrier amplitude = 10 V
Carrier frequency = 20 MHz
USB amplitude = 2.5 V
USB frequency = 20.00075 MHz
LSB amplitude = 2.5 V
LSB frequency = 19.99925 MHz
Modulation index = 0.25

Answers to Part 1 Questions FIGURE 19-2

1. Only the carrier frequency.
2. 50%.
3. 25%.

C–38
PART 2 SUPPRESSED-CARRIER DOUBLE SIDEBAND

Step 1
Carrier amplitude = 0 V
Carrier frequency = 20 MHz
USB amplitude = 5 V

USB frequency = 20.0005 MHz

LSB amplitude = 5 V
LSB frequency = 19.9995 MHz

Modulation index = 0.5

Step 3
Carrier amplitude = 0 V
FIGURE 19-3
Carrier frequency = 20 MHz

USB amplitude = 2.5 V

USB frequency = 20.00075 MHz
LSB amplitude = 2.5 V
LSB frequency = 19.99925 MHz
Modulation index = 0.25

Answers to Part 2 Questions

1. The displays in Part 2 show no carrier
frequency.
2. The carrier frequency amplitude is zero in both
displays.
3. 25%.

FIGURE 19-4

C–39
PART 3 SUPPRESSED-CARRIER LOWER SIDEBAND

Step 1
LSB amplitude = 5 V
LSB frequency = 19.9995 MHz
Modulation index = 0.5

Step 2
LSB amplitude = 2.5 V
LSB frequency = 19.99925 MHz
Modulation index = 0.25

Answers to Part 3 Questions

1. The displays in Part 3 show only the LSB. FIGURE 19-5
2. The carrier frequency amplitude is zero.
3. Zero.

FIGURE 19-6

C–40
PART 4 SUPPRESSED-CARRIER UPPER SIDEBAND

Step 1
USB amplitude = 5 V
USB frequency = 20.0005 MHz
Modulation index = 0.5

Step 2
USB amplitude = 2.5 V
USB frequency = 20.00075 MHz
Modulation index = 0.25

Answers to Part 4 Questions

1. The displays in Part 4 show only the USB. FIGURE 19-7
2. The amplitudes are identical, but the
frequencies are different.
3. Zero.

FIGURE 19-8

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. If the receiver is tuned to the wrong sideband,
either no signal or a signal from a different
transmitter will appear at the output of the
detector.
2. The sidebands are selected in this project by
filtering out the sideband that is not wanted.
The alternative is to change the carrier
frequency so that the desired sideband matches
the center frequency of a bandpass filter.
3. SSB transmission occupies about half the radio
spectrum as double sideband transmission. With
increasing radio traffic, it is important to use
the available spectrum as efficiently as possible.

C–41
 PROJECT 20
Step 3
Generator frequency = results will vary
Step 4
Generator frequency = results will vary
Answers to Critical Thinking
1. The primary advantage of SSB technology is
that it cuts the required amount of radio
bandwidth in half. The main disadvantage is
that the receiver circuits are more complicated
than for standard AM reception.
C–42
Answers to Questions
1. 20 kHz.
2. Assuming 10-kHz modulating signal, the
maximum bandwidth is 20 kHz.
3. Actual fmax is the generator frequency plus
10 kHz; actual fmin is equal to the generator
frequency.
2. The VFO effectively injects the carrier
frequency, thereby creating a complete
modulation waveform that can be demodulated
in the usual way.
 PROJECT 21
Step 3
Vmax p–p = 10 V Vmin p–p = 8 V
% modulation = 11%

Step 7
V1 = 5 VPK V2 = 5 VPK
Vmax p–p = 10 Vmin p–p = 0

Answers to Questions
1. V2 is the carrier source (100 kHz), and V1 is the FIGURE 21-2
modulating signal source (100Hz).
2. D1 and D5 conduct when the center tap of T1
is more positive. D2 and D3 conduct when the
center tap of T1 is more negative. (See textbook
Figure 4-26)

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Adding a high- or low-pass filter at the output of
this circuit will eliminate the upper or lower
sideband, respectively. The carrier frequency is
already eliminated by the fundamental nature
of this type of modulator.
2. The waveform is basically the modulating signal
with the carrier frequency “riding” on it. There
is no modulation.

C–43
 PROJECT 22
Step 1
Peak voltage = 1.00 V
Peak frequency = 125 MHz
Modulation index = 0

FIGURE 22-1

Step 2
Modulation index = 1.0

FIGURE 22-2

C–44
Step 3
Modulation index = 2.5

FIGURE 22-3

Step 4
Modulation index = 4.0

Answers to Questions
1. For Steps 1 to 4: 1, 3, 11, 15.
2. Within 10%.

FIGURE 22-4

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. Negative amplitudes represent 180° phase 3. Responses will vary, depending on the depth of
inversion. the student’s understanding of Bessel functions.
2. The amplitude of the modulating waveform
determines the spacing between the peaks on
the spectral display.

C–45
 PROJECT 23
PART 1 DEFAULT SETTINGS

Step 3
fin = 100 Hz Vin = 5 V

Step 4
fohi = 10 kHz folo = 5 kHz

FIGURE 23-2

PART 2 ADJUSTING THE FSK SETTINGS

Step 5
f1 = 1 kHz f2 = 2 kHz

Answers to Part 1 Questions

1. The term mark refers to a signal-on condition,
whereas space refers to a signal-off condition.
2. In this project, mark refers to the logic-1 binary
level.

FIGURE 23-3

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. If the digital waveform has a higher frequency
than the mark and space frequencies, the result
will be a distorted or unintelligible signal. Using
a minimum ratio of 10:1 ensures a sufficient
number of cycles for making a clear distinction
between the mark and space levels.
2. The transmitted signal from a digital FSK
modulator is a sinusoidal waveform. Although
the shifting frequencies will generate some
harmonic frequencies, the effects of these
harmonics is very small compared to
transmitting the digital waveform, itself.

C–46
 PROJECT 24
Step 2 Answers to Questions
1. J0.
1.0 2. 4.

.8

.6

.4

.2
Value of Jn

.0

⫺.2

⫺.4

⫺.6

⫺.8

⫺1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Modulation Index

FIGURE 24-2

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. No. The relationship is far less direct for FM.
2. A negative for any sideband pair indicates a
phase inversion.

C–47
 PROJECT 25
PART 1 DC INPUT
Table 25-1 Step 3
Minimum frequency = 900 MHz
dc Voltage Frequency Voltage
In Out Out Maximum frequency = 1100 MHz
−
–10 900 MHz 20 V( p-p) Frequency at oⴚ√ input = 1000 MHz
–8 920 MHz 20 V( p-p) Maximum frequency deviation = 200 MHz

–6 940 MHz 20 V( p-p) Step 4

–4 960 MHz 20 V( p-p) Frequency-volt = 10 MHz, 1 V
–2 980 MHz 20 V( p-p)
0 1000 MHz 20 V( p-p)
Answers to Part 1 Questions
2 1020 MHz 20 V( p-p) 1. The input voltage level probably has no effect on
the output amplitude.
4 1040 MHz 20 V( p-p)
2. fmin = 1400 kHz; fmax = 1600 kHz; maximum
6 1060 MHz 20 V( p-p) frequency deviation = 200 kHz.

8 1080 MHz 20 V( p-p)

10 1100 MHz 20 V( p-p)

PART 2 AUDIO INPUT

Answers to Part 2 Questions
1. Changing the input amplitude has no effect on
the output amplitude.
2. Changing the frequency of the input signal has
no effect on the output amplitude.

FIGURE 25-1

Answers to Critical Thinking

1. The inverting amplifier should be placed 2. Answers will vary from one student to another.
between the dc voltage source and the input of Student should draw a waveform as seen on the
the modulating circuit. oscilloscope.

C–48