SOIL MECHANICS

1.0IMPORTANCE OF SUBJECT
FOUNDATION DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION.
PAVEMENT DESIGN.
DESIGN OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE AND EARTH RETAINING
STRUCTURE. DESIGN OF EMBANKMENT AND EXCAVATION.
DESIGN OF EARTH DAMS.

2.0TYPE OF SOIL
Alluvial soils are fi ne sediments that have been eroded from rock and transported by water,
and have settled on river and stream beds.
Calcareous soil contains calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with
hydrochloric acid.
Caliche consists of gravel, sand, and clay cemented together by calcium carbonate.
Collovial soils (collovium) are soils found at the base of mountains that have been eroded by the
combination of water and gravity.
Eolian soils are sand-sized particles deposited by wind.
Expansive soils are clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting
and drying.
Glacial soils are mixed soils consisting of rock debris, sand, silt, clays, and
boulders. Glacial till is a soil that consists mainly of coarse particles.
Glacial clays are soils that were deposited in ancient lakes and subsequently frozen. The
thawing of these lakes revealed soil profiles of neatly stratified silt and clay, sometimes called
varved clay. The silt layer is light in color and was deposited during summer periods, while the
thinner, dark clay layer was deposited during winter periods.
Gypsum is calcium sulfate formed under heat and pressure from sediments in ocean
brine. Lacustrine soils are mostly silts and clays deposited in glacial lake waters.
Lateritic soils are residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in
tropical regions.
Loam is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay that may contain organic material.
Loess is a wind-blown, uniform, fi ne-grained soil.
Marine soils are sand, silts, and clays deposited in salt or brackish water.
Marl (marlstone) is a mud (see definition of mud below) cemented by calcium carbonate
or lime.
Mud is clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous fluid.
3.0PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

3.1 Texture:

Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt and clay in the soil.
The proportions of the separates in classes commonly used in describing soils are given in the textural
triangle shown in Fig.1.5. In using the diagram, the points corresponding to the percentages of silt and
clay present in the soil under consideration are located on the silt and clay lines respectively. Lines are
then projected inward, parallel in the first case to the clay side of the triangle and in the second case parallel
to the sand side. The name of the compartment in which the two lines intersect is the class name of the soil
in question. For examples a soil containing 15% clay, 20% silt and 65% sand is sandy loam and a soil
containing equal amounts of sand, silt and clay is clay loam.

The percentages of sand, silt and clay in a soil could be determined in a soil laboratory by two standard
methods - hydrometer method and pipette method (Black et al., 1965a). Both methods depend on the
fact that at any given depth in a settling suspension the concentration of the particles varies with time, as the
coarser fractions settle at a faster rate than the finer (Fig. 1.6).

In the field, soil texture could be estimated by the following methods (Fig. 1.7).

(i) Feel method. In this method, the soil is moistened with water and rubbed between the thumb and
fingers. The way the wet soil “slicks out” gives a good idea of the clay content. The sand particles are
gritty, the silt has a floury or talcum - powder fell when dry and is only moderately plastic and sticky when
wet. Accuracy of this method depends largely on experience.

Fig. 1.3. Volume and weight composition of a soil (Percentage of air and water varies according to
moisture saturation of soil)

Fig. 1.4. Mineralogical composition of soil (area within the figure denotes the relative abundance of
minerals)
Fig. 1.5. Soil textural triangle

Fig. 1.6. The settling of particles in a soil suspension

Fig. 1.7. Field methods of soil texture estimation (Feel method and Ball and ribbon method)

(ii) Ball and ribbon method: The procedure of this method as described by Coche and Laughlin (1985)
is as follows: Take a handful of soil and wet it so that it begins to stick together without sticking to the
hand. A ball of about 3 cm diameter is made and put down. If it falls apart it is sand. If it sticks together
roll the ball into a sausage shape 6 – 7 cm long. If it does not remain in this form it is loamy sand. If it
remains in this shape, continue to roll until it reaches 15 – 16 cm long. If it does not remain in this form,
it is sandy loam. If it remains in this shape, try to bend the sausage into a half circle and if it doesn't, it is a
loam. If it does, bend the sausage to form a fullccircle and if it doesn't it is heavy loam. If it does with
slight cracks in the sausage, it is light clay. If it does without any cracks, it is a clay.

(iii) Ball throwing method: The texture of the soil can be inferred by the way a ball of soil acts when it
is thrown at a hard surface such as a wall or a tree (Fig.1.8). The steps to be followed in this method as
described by Coche and Laughlin (1985) is as follows: Throw a ball of soil to a tree or wall 3 m away.
If the soil is good only for splatter shots when either wet or dry, it has a coarse texture (loamy sand). If
there is a “shot gun” pattern when dry and it holds its shape against medium range target when wet, it has a
moderately coarse texture (sandy loam). If the ball shatters on impact when dry and clings together when
moist but does not stick to the target it has a medium texture (loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam). If
the ball holds its shape for long - range shots when wet and sticks to the target but is fairly easy to remove
it has a moderately fine texture (clay loam). If the ball sticks well to the target when wet and becomes a
very hard missile when dry, it has a fine texture (clay).

The usual mechanical analysis of soils in the laboratory gives the percentages of the three size fractions,
sand, silt and clay. For special uses, the same methods of laboratory analyses (pipette method or
hydrometer method) can provide a much more detailed analysis giving further breakdown of the relative
amounts of soil particles for more size classes in the form of a table or graph. The data in the graphical
form is given as a particle - size frequency curve (PSF curve). PSF curves for selected soils are shown
in Fig. 1.9. The vertical axis represent the cumulative percentage of occurrance of the various particles
sizes and the horizontal axis represents the logarithms of the particle size. The vertical axis in the left hand
side relate to the percentages of particles passing through sieves of a particular size and the vertical axis in
the right hand side relate to the percentages of particles not passing through sieves of a particular size.
The more vertical the PSF curve or part of the curve, the more uniform the particle size; a vertical line
represents a perfect uniform particle size. The more inclined the curve or part of it, the greater the
difference between the particle sizes (i.e. smaller porosity and higher compaction). The inflexion point
of the curve shows the most frequent particle size by weight. Fine textured soils have their curves towards
the right hand side of the graph and the coarse textured soils to the left hand side. From the PSF curves, the
percentages of silt, sand and clay can be calculated and using the textural triangular diagram the texture
could be determined.

Soil texture is an important soil parameter determining the suitability of a site for aquaculture. A clayey
soil stabilises pond bottom besides the fact that it adsorb large quantity of nutrients and release them slowly
over a long period to the overlying water. The clayey soil normally holds higher amounts of organic matter
than light textured soils and thereby increase the productivity of the pond. It should be noted that too clay a
soil (very sticky clay) may not be very satisfactory as it may give rise to fixation of phosphorus and create
other physico-chemical biological problems. Such soils may give rise to cracks on draining the ponds,
thereby increase seepage losses.

3.2 Structure:

The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but when the arrangement of the
particles is considered the term structure is used. Structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil
particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles or cluster of primary particles which are seperated
by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness. Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to
moisture and air relationships, availability of nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth. E.g. a
highly plastic clay (60% clay) is good for crop product if it has a well developed granular structure which
facilitates aeration and water movement. Similarly a soil though has a heavy texture, can have a strongly
developed structure, thus making it not very satisfactory for aquaculture as a result of this soil allowing high
seepage losses.

Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.

Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the differential between cohesion
within aggregates and adhesion between aggregates. These properties vary with the moisture content of the
soil and it should be determined when the moisture content is normal - not when unusually dry or
unusually wet. The four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3 are listed below.
orderly arrangement of natural lines of
0- weakness. Massive if coherent; single grain if
Structureless: noncoherent.
no observable aggregation or no definite
1 - Weak: That degree of aggregation characterised by poorly formed indistinct aggregates
that are barely observable in place. When disturbed, soil material that has this
grade of structure breaks into a mixture of few entire aggregates many broken
aggregates and much unaggregated material.
2- in undisturbed soil. When disturbed, they
break down into a mixture of many distinct
Moderate:
entire aggregates, some broken aggregates and
Well formed distinct aggregates that are
little unaggregated material.
moderately durable and evident but not distinct
3 - Strong: Durable aggregates that are quite evident in undisturbed soil that adhere weakly
to one another. When removed from the profile the sokl material consists very
largely of entire aggreates and includes few broken ones and little or no
nonaggregated material.
Fig. 1.8. Field methods of soil texture estimation (Ball throwing method)

Diameter of particle (mm)

 coefficient of permeability is less
1 Gravel and -6
sand(old alluvium) 2 Sand than 5 × 10 m/s
A Soil suitable for pond bottom if

3 Silt B Soil suitable for building dikes without impermeable clay

core
C Soil suitable for pond bottom or
4 Calcareous clayey soil (marl)
dike only after modification of soil
5 Heavy clay using amendments.

Fig. 1.9. Particle size frequency (PSF) curves for selected soils

Class: The Class of structure describes the average size of individual aggregates and Type describe their
form or shape (Fig. 1. 10). The various class divisions are: very fine or very thin, fine or thin,
medium, coarse or thick and very coarse or very thick.

Water movement and drainage are poor in soils having blocky, prismatic, columnar and platy structures.
These structured soils especially the platy type are most suitable for aquaculture.

3.3 Consistence:

is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the cohesive and adhesive
properties of the soil mass. This is a term used to designate the manifestation of the cohesive and adhesive
properties of soil at various moisture contents. A knowledge of the consistence of the soil is important in
tillage operations, traffic and pond constructions. Consistence gives also an indication of the soil texture.

Consistence is described for three moisture levels:

1. - Wet soil - non sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non plastic, slightly plastic, plastic and
very plastic.
2. - Moist soil - loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm.
3. - Dry soil - loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard.

Description of the consistence terms mentioned above can be obtained from “Guidelines for Soil Profile
Description” by FAO (FAO, 1974).

3.4 Partiole density

of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase) - expressed in g/c.c. Most soils
have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the density and iron
compounds increase the density.

3.5 Bulk density

of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil and pores) - expressed in
g/c.c.
3.6 Pore space:

Particle density can be determined using specific gravity bottle technique and bulk density by taking soil
core samples of known volume in the field and determining the even dry weight (Black et al., 1965a).
Water and air movements through soil depends on the pore space and the size distribution of the pores
(microPores and macropores). Lower the pore space or higher the bulk density of the soil, the higher
the suitability of the soil for aquaculture.

3.7 Atterberg limits:

From the previous section it could be noted that consistence of soils changes with the amount of moisture in
the soil. Atterberg limits correspond to the moisture content at which a soil sample changes it's consistence
from one state to the other. Liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) are two important states of
consistence. Liquid limit is the percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with decreasing
wetness from the liquid to the plastic consistence or with increasing wetness from the plastic to the liquid
consistence, whereas the plastic limit is the percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with
decreasing wetness from the plastic to the semi-solid consistence or from the semi-solid to the plastic
consistence. Plastic index (PI) = LL - PL, is the moisture content range at which the soil remains
plastic.

Table III. Typical laboratory tests showing average LL, PL and PI

(Coche and Laughlin, 1985)

Soil type LL PL PI
Sands 20 0 0
Silt 27 20 7
Clays 100 45 45
Colloidal clays 399 49
Fig. 1.10. Diagramatic representation of the various types of structures (Buchman and Brady, 1964)

Table III. shows that the heavier the texture of the soil, higher the LL, PL and PI. A soil having high PI,
has high compressibility.

According to Coche and Laughlin (1985) critical value of LL of the soil for constructing a pond dike
without clay core, should be equal to at least 35% for best compaction results and for the constructing the
impervious clay core of a pond dike soil material with LL smaller than 60%, PL smaller than 20% and PI
more than 30% should be used.

3.8 Soil colour:

Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as the type of minerals
in the soil. For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron oxide under oxidised
conditions (well-drainage) in the soil; dark colour is generally due to the accumulation of highly decayed
organic matter; yellow colour is due to hydrated iron oxides and hydroxide; black nodules are due to
manganese oxides; mottling and gleying are associated with poor drainage and/or high water table.
Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled with very low pH are indicative of possible acid sulphate soils.
Colours of soil matrix and mottles are indicative of the water and drainage conditions in the soil and hence
suitability of the soil for aquaculture.

Soil colour is described by the parameters called hue, value and chroma. Hue represents the dominant
wave length or colour of the light; value, refers to the lightness of the colour; chroma, relative purity or
strength of the colour. The colour of the soil in terms of the above parameters could be quickly determined
by comparison of the sample with a standard set of colour chips mounted in a note-book called MUNSELL
SOIL COLOUR CHARTS (Munsell Soil Colour Charts, 1973). In these charts, the right hand top corner
represents the Hue; the vertical axis, the value; and the horizontal axis, the chroma.

3.9 Soil permeability:

is the ability of the soil to transmit water and air. An impermeable soil is good for aquaculture as the water
loss through seepage or infiltration is low. As the soil layers or horizons vary in their characteristics, the
permeability also differs from one layer to another. Pore size, texture, structure and the presence of
impervious layers such as clay pan determines the permeability of a soil. Clayey soils with platy structures
have very low permeability.

Permeability is measured in terms of permeability rate or coefficient of permeability (cm per hour, cm per
day, cm per sec.).

Permeability rate or coefficient of permeability is determined in the laboratory by measuring the rate of flow
of water from a constant head of water through a column of soil at specific moisture content and other
conditions. It is determined in the field by digging a hole of approximately 30 cm diameter, smearing the
sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or lining with plastic sheet and measuring the rate of infiltration of
water by filling the hole repeatedly with water and noting the time it takes for the water level to go down by
a specific depth.
4. COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION
Compaction Consolidation

1 Compaction is a process where a Consolidation is a process where steady

mechanical pressure is used to compress and static pressure causes compression of
the soil mass for the purpose of soil saturated soil.
improvement.

2 Dynamic loads by rapid mechanical Static and sustained loading is applied for
methods like tamping, rolling and vibration a long interval in soil consolidation.
are applied for a small interval in soil
compaction.

3 In compaction process, soil volume is In consolidation process, soil volume is

reduced by removing air void from the reduced by squeezing out pore water
saturated and dry soil. from the saturated soil.

4 Compaction of soil is mainly used for Consolidation of soil is mainly used

sandy soil. for clayey soil.

5 Compaction is intentionally done to produce Consolidation is a natural process where

a high unit weight of soil and consequently soil below the building and other structure
improve other soil properties. compacted by the transferred load to the
soil through the provided foundation
system.

4.1 METHODS OF COMPACTION

Standard Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil

To assess the amount of compaction of soil and water content required in the field, compaction tests are
done on the same soil in the laboratory. The test provides a relationship between the water content and the
dry density.
The water content at which the maximum dry density is attained is obtained from the relationship provided
by the tests. Proctor used a standard mould of 4 inches internal diameter and an effective height of 4.6
inches with a capacity of 1/30 cubic foot.

The mould had a detachable base plate and a removable collar of 2 inches height at its top. The soil is
compacted in the mould in 3 layers, each layer was given 25 blows of 5.5 pounds rammer filling through a
height of 12 inches.

IS: 2720 part VII recommends essentially the same specification as in Standard Proctor test, some minor
modifications. The mould recommended is of 100mm diameter, 127.3 mm height and 1000 ml
capacity.
The rammer recommended is of 2.6 kg mass with a free drop of 310mm and a face diameter of 50mm.
The soil is compacted in three layers. The mould is fixed to the detachable base plate. The collar is of
60mm height.

Procedure of Proctor’s Test for Compaction of Soil

About 3kg of air dried soil is taken for the test. It is mixed with 8% water content and filled in the mould
in three layers and giving 25 blows to each layer. The volume of the mould and mass of the compacted soil
is taken. The bulk density is calculated from the observations. A representative sample is placed in the
oven for determination of water content. The dry density id found out from the bulk density and water
content. The same procedure is repeated by increasing the water content.

Presentation of Results of Proctors Test

Compaction curve

A compaction curve is plotted between the water content as abscissa and the corresponding dry density as
ordinate. It is observed that the dry density initially increases with an increase in water content till the
maximum density is attained.

With further increase in water content the dry density decreases. The water content corresponding to
maximum dry density is known as the optimum water content (O.W.C) or the optimum moisture content
(O.M.C).

At a water content more than the optimum, the additional water reduces the dry density as it occupies the
space that might have been occupied by the solid particles.

For a given water content, theoretical maximum density is obtained corresponding to the condition when
there are no air voids (degree of saturation is 100%). The theoretical maximum density is also known as
saturated
dry density. The line indicating theoretical maximum density can be plotted along with the compaction
curve. It is known as the zero air void line.

Modified Proctor Test for Compaction of Soil

The modified Proctor test was developed to represent heavier compaction than that in the standard Proctor
test. The test is used to simulate field conditions where heavy rollers are used. The test was standardized
by American association of State Highway Officials and is, therefore also known as modified AASHO test .

In this, the mould used is same as that in the Std Proctor test. However, the rammer used is much heavier
and has a greater drop than that in the Std Proctor test. Its mass is 4.89 kg and the free drop is 450mm.
The soil is compacted in five equal layers, each layer is given 25 blows. The compactive effort in modified
Proctor test is 4.56 times greater than in the Std Proctor test. The rest of the procedure is same

Factors Affecting Compaction of Soil

Water Content
At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As the water content is
increased, the soil particles get lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable and the particles have
closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the water content till the O.M.C is
reached.

Amount of compaction
The increase in compactive effort will increase the dry density at lower water content to a certain extent.

Type of soil
The dry density achieved depends upon the type of soil. The O.M.C and dry density for different soils are
different

Method of compaction
The dry density achieved depends on the method of compaction
 Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soil
1. Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure
Soils compacted at a water content less than the optimum generally have a flocculated structure. Soils
compacted at water content more than the optimum usually have a dispersed structure.

2. Effect of Compaction of Soil on Permeability

The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of voids. The permeability of a soil decreases with an
increase in water content on the dry side of optimum water content.

3. Swelling

4. Pore water pressure

5. Shrinkage

6. Compressibility

7. Stress-strain relationship

8. Shear strength

Methods of Compaction of Soil used in Field

Several methods are used in the field for compaction of soils. The choice of method will depend upon the
soil type, the maximum dry density required and economic consideration. The commonly used methods are

1. Tampers

2. Rollers

3. Vibratory compactors

The compaction depends upon the following factors:

o Contact pressure
o Number of passes
o Layer thickness
o Speed of roller

Types of rollers
o Smooth Wheel rollers
o Pneumatic tyred rollers
o Sheepsfoot rollers
 Controlling Compaction of Soil
Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and the water content of compacted soil in the field

o Dry density
The dry density is measured by core cutter method and sand replacement method

o Water content
For the measurement of water content, oven drying method, sand bath method, calcium carbide method etc
are used. Proctor needle is also used for this.

4.2 METHOD OF CONSOLIDATION

Theory:
Consolidation of a saturated soil occurs due to expulsion of water under static, sustained load. The
consolidation characteristics of soils are required to predict the magnitude and the rate of settlement. The
following characteristics are obtained from the consolidation test.

Coefficient of compressibility,

Coefficient of volume change

Compression Index

Coefficient of consolidation

Equipment:
1. Consolidometer with a loading device

2. Specimen ring made of a non-corroding material

3. Water reservoir to saturate the sample

4. Porous stones

5. Soil trimming tools like fine wire saw, knife, spatula, etc

6. Dial gauge, accuracy 0.002mm

7. Water content cans

8. Large container

9. Steel ball
10. Weighing balance, accuracy 0.01 g.

11. Oven

12. Desiccator

13. Pressure pad

Procedure:
1. Clean and dry the metal ring. Measure its diameter and height. Take the mass of the empty ring.

2. Press the ring into the soil sample contained in a large container at the desired density and water
content. The ring is to be pressed with hands.

3. Remove the soil around the ring. The soil specimen should project about 10mm on either side of the
ring. Any voids in the specimen due to the removal of large size particles should be filled back by pressing
the soil lightly.

4. Trim the specimen flush with the top and bottom of the ring.

5. Remove any soil particles sticking to the outside of the ring. Weigh the ring with the specimen.

6. Take a small quantity of the soil removed during trimming for the water content determination.

7. Saturate the porous stones by boiling them in distilled water for about 15min.

8. Assemble the Consolidometer. Place the bottom porous stone, bottom filter paper, specimen, top filter
paper and the top porous stone, one by one.

9. Position the loading block centrally on the top porous stone. Mount the assembly on the loading
frame. Centre it such that the load applied is axial. In the case of the lever loading system,
counterbalance the system.

10. Set the dial gauge in position. Allow sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil.

11. Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir having the water level at about the same as the soil
specimen. Allow the water to flow into the specimen till it is fully saturated.

12. Take the initial reading of the dial gauge.

13. Apply an initial setting load to give a pressure of 5 (2.5 for very soft soils) to
the assembly so that there is no swelling. Allow the setting load to stand till there is no change in the dial
gauge reading or for 24 hours.
14. Take the final gauge reading under the initial setting load.

15. Apply the first load increment to apply a pressure of 10 , and start the stop watch.
Record the dial gauge readings at 0, 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4.0, 6.25, 9.0, 12.25, 16.00, 20.25, 25.00, 36, 49,
64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400, 500, 600, and 1440 minutes.

16. Increase the load to apply a pressure of 20 and repeat the step (15). Likewise increase
the load to apply a pressure of 40, 80, 160, 320 and 640 or upto the desired pressure.

17. After the last load increment had been applied and the readings taken, decrease the load to 1/4 of the
last load and allow it to stand for 24 hours. Take the dial gauge reading after 24 hours. Further reduce the
load to 1/4 of the previous load and repeat the above procedure. Likewise, further reduce the load to 1/4
previous and repeat the procedure. Finally reduce the load to the initial setting load and keep it for 24
hours and take the final dial gauge reading.

18. Dismantle the assembly. Take out the ring with the specimen. Wipe out the excess surface water
using a blotting paper.

19. Take the mass of the ring with the specimen.

20. Dry the specimen in the oven for 24 hours and determine the dry mass of
specimen.

Fig: Consolidation Test of Soil

DATA SHEET FOR CONSOLIDATION TEST

Specific gravity of solids =

Diameter of ring=

Area of the ring (A)=

Volume of the ring =

Mass of ring +wet soil =

Mass of ring + dry soil =

Mass of water –

Initial height , =

Water content before test =

Mass of dry soil (Ms)=

Height of solids =

Initial void ratio

Height of ring =

Mass of ring =

Degree of saturation

Water content after test =

(a) Coefficient of compressibility

Plot a curve between as abscissa and final void ratio (e) as ordinate for determination of and .
Plot a graph between log as abscissa and final void ratio as ordinate for examination of .
(b) Coefficient of consolidation
Dial gauge readings

For each load increment, plot as abscissa and the dial gauge reading (R) as ordinate. Determine the
value of from the plot.

Now
5. DEFINATION
o Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. Soils, as
they exist in nature, consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock fragments) with water and air in
the voids between the particles. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in
ambient conditions and location.
 o As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to consider a soil
model which will represent these phases distinctly and properly quantify the amount of each phase.
A schematic diagram of the three-phase system is shown in terms of weight and volume symbols
respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The weight of air can be neglected.

o
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully saturated (no air content) or
be perfectly dry (no water content).

In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases only, as shown.

For the purpose of engineering analysis and design, it is necessary to express relations between the weights
and the volumes of the three phases.

The various relations can be grouped into:

Volume relations
Weight relations
Inter-relations
As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as the reference
quantity. Thus, several relational volumetric quantities may be defined. The following are
the basic volume relations:
 1. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (Vs), and
is expressed as a decimal.

2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V ), and is expressed

as a percentage.

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

and

3. The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume
of voids. This can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.

For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.

4. Air content (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of

voids.

5. Percentage air voids (na) is the ratio of the volume of air to the total

volume.

Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure
of the weight of a unit volume of material. Both can be used interchangeably. The units of density
are ton/m³, kg/m³ or g/cm³. The following are the basic weight relations:

1. The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content
(w), or sometimes the moisture content.

Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.

2. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle unit weight or
specific gravity (Gs) of the soil grain solids .

where = Unit weight of water

For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of organic
material reduces the value of Gs.

3. Dry unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit
 volume.

4. Bulk unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per unit

volume.

5. Saturated unit weight is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is filled up with water.

6. Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per unit volume when the
soil is submerged below standing water or below the ground water table.

6. LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL.

Plate load test is done at site to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and settlement of foundation
under the loads for clayey and sandy soils. So, plate load test is helpful for the selection and design the
foundation. To calculate safe bearing capacity suitable factor of safety is applied.

Apparatus for Plate Load Test on Soil

o Mild Steel plate
o Hydraulic jack
o Reaction beam or reaction truss
o Dial gauges
o Excavating tools

Procedure of Plate Load Test on Soil

A Pit is excavated in the ground at which foundation is to be laid. The size of pit is generally 5 times the
size of the plate. The depth excavated should be equal to proposed foundation depth.

The plate used is made of mild steel. It may be square (0.3m x 0.3m) or circular (0.3m diameter)
with 25mm thickness.

After excavation of pit, at center of excavated pit steel plate sized hole with “Dp” thickness is excavated
and arrange the plate in it.

The Thickness of plate Dp is calculated by below formula

After arranging the plate in central hole hydraulic jack is arranged on top of plate to apply load. Reaction
beam or reaction trusses is provided for the hydraulic jack to take up the reaction. Otherwise a loaded
platform is created (using sand bags etc.) on the top of hydraulic jack and provided the reaction.

After that seating load of 7kN/m2is applied to set the plate and released after some time. Now load is
applied with an increment of 20% of safe load.
Dial gauges are arranged at bottom to record the settlement values. At 1min, 5min, 10min, 20min, 40min,
and 60min and after that for every one-hour interval the settlement is observed and noted. The
observations are made until the total settlement of 25mm has occurred.

In case of reaction truss loading, a truss is arranged on jack and both sides of truss are anchored to the
ground with strong support. Two ends of truss are loaded uniformly, then truss transforms the load into the
plate and settlement occurs.

Load is applied with an increment of 2kN at every interval. Settlement is observed at different intervals as
said in above method. For clayey soils, the observations are made until the rate of settlement is to be
0.2mm per hour.
Calculation of Bearing Capacity from Plate Load Test
From the results obtained in plate load test, a logarithmic graph is drawn between loads applied to the
corresponding settlement. Load is taken on x-axis and settlement is on y-axis.
From the graph, we can find out the value of ultimate load for the plate, which is equal to the corresponding
settlement of 1/5th of plate width.

The curve breaks at one point, the load corresponding to that break point is considered as ultimate load for
plate. From this ultimate load for plate we can determine the value of ultimate bearing capacity and safe
bearing capacity of soil for foundation.

Bearing Capacity Calculation for Clayey Soils

Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load for plate

I.e. qu(f) = qu(p)

Bearing Capacity Calculation for Sandy Soils
Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load for plate x {Width of pit (Bf) / Size of Plate (Bp)}
qu(f) = qu(p) x Bf / Bp
Finally, safe bearing capacity = ultimate bearing capacity / factor of safety
 The factor of safety ranges from 2 to 3.
Calculation of Foundation Settlement from Plate Load Test
We can also calculate settlement for given load from plate load test as follows

Foundation Settlement Calculation on Clayey Soils

Settlement of foundation (sf) = sp x Bf/Bp
Foundation Settlement Calculation on Sandy Soils
Settlement of foundation (sf) = sp [{Bf(Bp + 0.3)}/{Bp(Bf + 0.3)}]2
Where Bf and Bp are widths of foundation and plate.
7. SELECTION OF SUITABLE FOUNDATION

Selection criteria for foundation for buildings depend on two factors, i.e. factors related to ground (soil)
conditions and factors related to loads from the structure. The performance of foundation is based on
interface between the loadings from the structure and the supporting ground or strata. The nature and
conditions of each of these varies, so, the selection of appropriate foundation becomes necessary for these
variations depending on circumstances.

Selection of Foundation based on Ground Conditions:

The ground or soil condition is necessary for determining the type of suitable foundation. The soil on
which the industrial, commercial or residential building rests may be stable, level and of uniform
composition, but in some situations it may be otherwise.

Following are criteria for selecting suitable foundation based on soil condition:
o Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow foundations can be
provided.
o Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard strata is searched for,
and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-storey buildings, where loads are very high.
So, deep foundations are suitable for such cases.
o Field up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that place, whereas uniform
stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation.
o Level of the ground also affects foundation selection. If the ground is not levelled, and has gradient then
 step foundation may be preferred.

Selection of foundation based on Loads from Building:

The loading condition i.e. type and magnitude of loads, depends on the form and type of building to be
constructed. In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively modest, so
shallow foundation is preferred in this case. While high-rise building with short span has high loads.
Therefore, deep foundation is required in such cases. Deep foundation is provided because ground at
greater depth are highly compacted.
In case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are concentrated at the point of application,
the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the buildings are uniformly distributed, like from
masonry claddings, the piles are not needed.
Factors Affecting Selection of Foundation
Following are the factors which affect the selection of suitable foundations for building construction:

1. Loads from building

2. Type of soil
3. Type of structures in neighborhood
4. Type of foundations

1. Loads from Building

The first factor considered is loads from building on the foundation. This load is a combination of dead
load and imposed loads on the buildings. Other loads such as wind loads, earthquake loads, snow loads
etc. are also considered based on location.

The quantity of loads depends on the type of structure, number of floors and material of construction. As
the number of floors increases, the dead load and imposed loads also increase.

Choice of material for construction such as reinforced concrete or steel construction also has impacts on
foundation. Reinforced concrete buildings exert more loads on the foundation compared to steel
structures.
Based on the safe bearing capacity of structure and quantity of loads on foundation, type of foundation and
its base area is calculated.

2. Type of Soils
Soil is a mixture of solid particles, moisture and air. Soil can be of many types such as clayey soil or
expansive soil, sandy soil or loose soils etc. The soil near surface is called as top soil and below a depth of
300mm is called as sub soil. Generally subsoil is used as base for foundation for small buildings.

However, soil investigation should be carried out to know the nature of soil, depth of water table, type of
soil, depth of different layers of soil and to know the bearing capacity of soil at different levels for large
structures.

When the load is transferred from the structure to soil through foundations, the soil tends to consolidate and
settlement of foundation occurs. This consolidation process can be quick in case of non-cohesive soils
such as sands and can even take years for other soils.

The complete settlement of foundation in sandy soil may occur even before the building construction has
been completed. Clayey soil can hold the water for longer time and thus settlement is very slow and can
take years. Soil clayey holds large amount of water, and thus settlement of foundation is large in such
soils.

The settlement of foundation causes cracks in building walls, beams, slabs etc. and building can even fail
in case of large settlement.
 The soil investigation is necessary when the loads from the building are large and the bearing capacity
cannot be estimated based on type of soil condition at site.

The soil investigation should be carried out for following information:

o The nature and thickness of made-up ground/top soil above the sub-soil

o The nature, thickness and stratum depth of sub-soil

o An assessment of allowable bearing pressure
o Groundwater levels, chemicals in the ground, etc.
o Existing structures or hazards in the ground.

3. Type of Structure in Neighborhood

The selection of foundation for building construction can also be done based on the type of foundation
selected for the buildings in the neighboring buildings for the same types. Based on the success or failure
of foundations for such buildings, decision can be taken for the selection of foundation.

4. Types of Foundations
Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile foundations and raft or mat
foundations etc. based on the type of soils and loads from the buildings can be selected based on suitability
and requirementFollowing are the considerations for foundation based on soil types:
Soil Foundation Trouble areas
Type
Types Reason for use

Sand Footings Easy to construct and Bearing capacity may be a

economical
Retaining Structures Must be used since
sand cannot support
themselves
problem but in most cases it is
sufficient
Excessive settlement in wet and
loose deposits.

Deep foundations (Piles) Uses friction resistance

but low in bearing Confining pressure is usually low.
capacity

problem with bearing Generally low shear strength

Footings capacity in saturated clays when
Economic but may have
Low bearing capacity.
Deep foundations (Piles)
High consolidation in soft clays
Clay
Swelling is possible.
Retaining Structures
Over-consolidated clays may
contain cracks and fissures.

wet.

Following table shows solutions to some problems in foundations based on soil types:
Soil Type Nature of problem Possible solution

Sand Settlement Loose sands must be compacted

Lowering water table may result in sand densification

Bearing Capacity Compaction increases cohesion and friction thus

bearing capacity increases
 Use of deep foundation

Clay Consolidation Lowering water table

Pre-loading

Drive pile to rock

Bearing capacity Compaction

Use of deep foundations

Expansion or swelling Treat or stabilize soil

Maintain constant water table

Alter soil nature (similar to stabilization)

Include swell pressure in design

Two Major Problems with soil settlement analysis are:

Obtaining reliable values of the “elastic” parameters

Obtaining a reliable stress profile from the applied load.

Components of Settlement:
The components of settlement of a foundation are:

1. Immediate settlement
2. Consolidation Settlement, and
3. Secondary compression (creep)

ΔH = ΔHi + U ΔHc + ΔHs

ΔH = total settlement, ΔHc = consolidation settlement, ΔH = secondary compression, U = average degree

of consolidation. Generally, the final settlement of a foundation is of interest and U is considered equal to 1
(i.e. 100% consolidation)

1. Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time period of about 7
days. Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay
Immediate settlement analysis are used for all fine-grained soils including silts and clays with a
degree of saturation < 90% and for all coarse grained soils with large co-efficient of permeability
(say above 10.2 m/s)

2. Consolidation Settlement (ΔHc)

Consolidation settlements are time dependent and take months to years to develop. The leaning
tower of Pisa in Italy has been undergoing consolidation settlement for over 700 years. The lean is
caused by consolidation settlement being greater on one side. This, however, is an extreme case.
The principal settlements for most projects occur in 3 to 10 years.
 Dominates in saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation theory applies. Here
we are interested to estimate both consolidation settlement and how long a time it will take or most
of the settlement to occur.

3. Secondary Settlement/Creep (ΔHc)

Occurs under constant effective stress due to continuous rearrangement of clay particles into a more
stable configuration.
Predominates in highly plastic clays and organic clays.

Immediate Settlement Calculations

Immediate settlement computation

Where q0 = intensity of contact pressure in units of Es (Undrained Modulus of Elasticity)

B’ = least lateral dimension of contributing base area in units of ΔHi

Es, μ = Elastic Soil Parameters. A major problem is of course to obtain correct stress-strain modulus Es.
Es can be found from laboratory tests like unconfined compression tests,
Triaxial compression tests, and in-situ tests like SPT, CPT, Plate load tests, Pressure meter etc

m = number of corners contributing to settlement ΔHi. At the footing center m= 4; and at a corner m =
1, at a side m = 2.

IF = Embedment reduction factor, which suggests that the settlement is reduced when it is placed at some
depth in the ground. For surface footing IF = I

Is = Influence Factor

The above equation for Is is strictly applicable to flexible bases on the half space. In practice, most
foundations are flexible because even every thick footing deflects when loaded by superstructure load. If
the base is rigid, reduce Is factor by about 7%. The half space may consist of either cohesion less material
or any water content, or unsaturated cohesive soils.

Consolidation Settlement Calculations

Secondary compression/creep

After primary consolidation the soil structure continues to adjust to the load for some additional time. This
settlement is termed secondary consolidation/secondary compression. At the end of secondary
consolidation the soil has reached a new Ko-state (at-rest state).

Secondary consolidation may be the larger component if settlement in some soils, particularly in soils with a
large organic component. Secondary consolidation is associated with both immediate & consolidation type
settlements, although it is usually not of much significance with immediate settlements. The magnitude of
secondary compression for a given time is generally greater for NCC than for OCC.

The rate of secondary compression Jin the consolidation (oedometer) test can be defined by the slope Cα
of the final part of the compression/log time curve. Where Hsl=thickness of the laboratory sample at time
t1, ΔHsl = Change in sample thickness of soil sample between t1 and t2.

To find secondary consolidation settlement in the field (ΔHs),

H = Thickness of the field consolidating stratum at the end of primary consolidation. Commonly initial
thickness is used unless the primary consolidation is very large. Say more than 10% of initial thickness.

t100 (f) = time taken for primary consolidation to complete in the field

Δt = time interval beyond t100(f)

t2 = t100 (f) + Δt = time for which secondary settlement is to be calculated.

To find t100 (f) following relationship is used

Where t100 (lab) and t100 (f) = time taken for primary consolidation to complete in the laboratory df, dlab =
are respectively maximum drainage paths in the field and laboratory. For one-way drainage d= thickness
of the layer of interest or sample thickness in the laboratory, for two-way drainage d = half of the thickness
of the layer of interest/sample.

Settlement Limits

Total settlement is the magnitude of downward movement. Differential settlement is non-uniform

settlement. It is "the difference of settlement between various locations of the structure. Angular
distortion between two points under a structure is equal, to the differential settlement between the points
divided by the distance between them.

Theoretically, no damage will be done to a structure if it settles uniformly as a whole regardless of how large
the settlement may be. The only damage would be to the connections of the underground utility lines.
However, when the settlement is non-uniform (differential), as is always the case, damage may be caused
to the structure.

The tolerable, settlements of different structures, vary considerably. Simple-span frames can take
considerably greater distortion than rigid frames. A fixed-end arch would suffer greatly if the abutments
settle or rotate. For road embankments, storage silos and tanks a settlement of 300mm - 600mm may be
acceptable, but for machine foundations the settlement may be limited to 5mm 30mm. Different types of
construction materials can withstand different degrees of distortion. For example, sheet metal wall panels
do not show distress as readily as brick masonry.

To reduce differential settlement, the designer may limit the total settlement and use the following equation
for the calculation of the differential settlement:
 (ΔHdiff) max = ½ ΔHtotal

Guidelines to limiting values are suggested by a number of sources, but following routine limits appear to be
conventionally acceptable (Skempton and Mac Donald, 1956)

Sands

Maximum total settlement = 40 mm for isolated footings = 40 to 65 mm for

rafts Maximum differential settlement between adjacent columns = 25 mm

Clays

Maximum total settlement = 65 mm for isolated footings = 65 to 100 mm for

rafts Maximum differential settlement between adjacent columns = 40 mm.

The differential settlement may also be evaluated in terms of the angular distortion given by: (ΔHdiff) =
Δ/L
Where Δ = relative settlement between the two points and L = Horizontal distance between the two
points.

Based on a large number of settlement observations and performance of structures, the suggested limits for
tolerable differential settlements are show in table below.
Angular distortion Type of limit and structure

1/150 Structure damage of general buildings expected

1/250 Tilting of high rigid buildings may be visible

1/300 Cracking in panel walls expected

Difficulties with overhead cranes

1/500 Limit for buildings in which cracking is not permissible

1/600 Over-stressing of structural frames with diagonals

1/750 Difficulty with machinery sensitive to settlement

8. Causes of Failures of Foundations and Preventive Measures

The main causes of failure of foundations are as follows:

a. Unequal settlement of the sub-soil

b. Unequal settlement of the masonry

c. Withdrawal of moisture from the sub- soil

d. Lateral pressure on the superstructures

e. Horizontal movement of the earth

f. Transpiration of trees and shrubs

g. Atmospheric action.

Unequal Settlement of the Sub-soil

This occurs due to various reasons such as unequal distribution of load on the foundation, varying bearing
power of the sub-soil, eccentricity of the loaded. Due to unequal settlement of the sub-soil, cracks are
formed in the buildings, which in future, leads to serious defects. Following are the measures to be adapted
to prevent such failure:

Causes of Failures of Foundations and Preventive Measures

Unequal settlement of sub-soil

Foundation should rest on

rock or hard moorum.
Design of foundation should be appropriate to the nature of sub-soil.
It should be seen that the allowable bearing pressure on the soil is not exceeded, even under the
worst conditions.
Proper attention should be given to the eccentricity of the load on the foundations and design should
be accordingly modified.

Unequal Settlement of the Masonry

Mortar joints may shrink and compress which may lead to unequal settlement of the masonry.
Measures to avoid such situations are as follows:
Mortar to be used in the masonry should be stiff and in line with the workability desired.
The masonry work should be raised evenly.
The height of wall to be raised per day should be limited to one metre, if lime mortar is used and to 1
-50 metres, if cement mortar is used.
Proper watering should be done to the masonry work.

Withdrawal of Moisture from the Sub- soil

This occurs at places where there is considerable variation in the height of water table. When water table
falls, the soil particles lose cohesion and hence, there is shrinkage of soil, resulting in the cracks to the
buildings. The precaution to be taken to avoid such failure would be to drive piles unto the hard rock.

Lateral Pressure on the Superstructure

The thrust of a pitched roof or arch or wind action on the superstructure causes wall to overturn. Remedial
measures to prevent this failure would be to provide a sufficient wide base and to design the foundations for
the worst conditions.

Horizontal Movement of the Earth

Very soft soil is liable to give way under the action of load especially at places such as sloping ground, river
banks, etc. hence, in such cases, it is desirable to construct retaining walls or to drive sheet piles to prevent
the escape of the earth.

Transpiration of Trees and Shrubs

The roots of trees planted near a building may extend up to the foundation level and may absorb the
moisture. This effect is seen in the form of a depression on the ground and it may lead to cracks in the
building. Remedial measures are as follows:

Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep. A minimum depth of one meter is required for this
purpose.
Fast growing and water seeking trees should not be planted near the building with a minimum
distance of 8 meters.

Atmospheric Action

Rain and sun are the main atmospheric agents to seriously affect the foundations of a building. Heavy rains
or considerable variation in temperature or frost action may damage the foundations. Rain water may
create pockets near the walls and while descending, it may carry certain chemicals and salts obtained from
sewage, animal dung, etc. These chemicals and salts may react with the materials used for the foundation
work and turn them into powder. Remedial measures to be taken are as follows:

Foundation should be taken beyond the depth up to which rain water can reach. Ingress of rain
water and harms associated with it can therefore be avoided.
Suitable underground drains should be provided to maintain the water table at a definite level.
After the masonry work is completed, the sides of trenches should be carefully filled with earth and
well consolidated. A gentle slope should be provided so as to keep rain water away from the wall.
Plinth protection should be provided and given due consideration.
9. IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil improvement in its broadest sense is the alteration of any property of a soil to improve its
engineering performance. This may be either a temporary process to permit the construction of a
facility or may be a permanent measure to improve the performance of the completed facility. The
result of an application of a technique may be increased strength, reduced compressibility, reduced
permeability, or improved ground water condition.

Need for Stabilization of Earth Roads

An earth road is one whose foundation and wearing surface is composed of solely of the natural soil
present originally on the site. Soils can be classified into two categories – cohesion less and cohesive
soils. It has been observed that regions that are predominantly clayey do not usually have sandy
materials. Clays must be considered as very important and often determining soil component since it
has two objectionable qualities that make it the most troublesome of the materials to be dealt with. It
swells when subjected to wetting, and shrinks with drying.

Clays and silts are low-grade construction materials, which find use in impervious elements such as
cores (dams), cut-offs, they are poorly drained, and they shrink and swell. Also, clays when wet lose
all strength; they are highly compressible, producing undesirable settlement as sub-grades of highways.
Sands, though, having good drainage properties are also not suitable, as they lack cohesion and spread
laterally under vertical loads. Thus, either of the two types alone cannot take the traffic independently.
Therefore, combination of the two in certain specific proportions and thorough compaction with or
without the use of additives may result in a stable sub-grade. A stabilized material may be considered
as a combination of binder-soil and aggregates preferably obtained at or near the site of stabilization, and
compacted so that it will remain in its compacted state without detrimental change in shape or volume
under the force of traffic and exposure of weather. Several materials have been used as soil stabilizing
agents. Of these, the best stabilizer will be the one involving minimum cost and at the same time
providing durable effect. The technique is mainly applied in Road construction soil, and is termed as
Mechanical Stabilization or Granular Stabilization. The process of mechanical stabilization is used both
for base-courses as well as surface-courses. A good mechanically stable base or surfacing usually
consists of a mixture of coarse aggregates (gravel, crushed rock, slag, etc.), fine aggregates (natural or
crushed stone, sand, etc.), silt and clay, correctly proportioned and fully compacted. The use of
correctly proportioned materials is of particular importance in the construction of low-cost roads. The
principle of grading soils may be applied to the improvement of sub-grade soils of low bearing capacity,
by adding to them materials having particle sizes that are lacking, e.g. sand can added to clay
sub-grades and vice versa.

Techniques of Soil Improvement

The various techniques of soil improvement are:-

1 Surface Compaction

2 Drainage Methods

3 Vibration Methods

4 Precompression and consolidation

5 Grouting and Injection

6 Chemical Stabilization
7 Soil Reinforcement

8 Geotextiles and Geomembranes

9 Other Methods

These techniques are briefly described as follows:

1. Surface Compaction
One of the oldest methods of soil densification is compaction. Construction of a new road, a runway,
an embankment or any soft or loose site needs a compacted base for laying the structure. If the depth to
be densified is less the surface compaction

alone can solve the problem. The usual surface compaction devices are rollers, tampers and rammers.
All conventional rollers like smooth wheel, rubber-tyred, sheep foot, vibratory and grid rollers can be
used.

2. Drainage Methods

Ground water is one of the most difficult problems in excavation work. The presence of water
increases the pore water pressure and decreases the shear strength. Further heavy inflow of water to the
excavations is liable to cause erosion or collapse of the sides of open excavations. Certain methods are
available to control the ground water and ensure a safe and economical construction scheme.

Common drainage methods are Well-point Systems, Deep- well Drainage, Vacuum Dewatering
system, Dewatering by Electro-osmosis etc

3. Vibration Methods

Vibration methods can be effectively used for rapid densification of saturated non-cohesive soils.
Vibrations and shock waves in loose deposits of such materials cause liquefaction followed by
densification accompanying the dissipation of excess pore water pressures. Some of the mostly
adopted vibration methods are blasting, Vibrating probe, Vibratory rollers, Vibro-displacement
Compaction Piles, Vibro-floatation, and Heavy Tamping etc.

4. Pre-compression and Consolidation

This method aims to consolidate the soil before construction. Various techniques adopted are
Preloading and Surcharge Fills, Vertical Drains, Dynamic Consolidation, Electro osmotic Consolidation
etc.

5. Grouting and Injection

Grouting is a process whereby’ stabilizers, either in the form of suspension or solution are injected into
subsurface soil or rock for one or more of the following applications: -Control of ground water during
construction

-Void filling to prevent excessive settlement

-Strengthening adjacent foundation soils to protect them against damage during excavation, Pile driving,
etc.

-Soil Strengthening to reduce lateral support requirements

-Stabilization of loose sands against Liquefaction

-Foundation Underpinning

-Reduction of machine foundation vibrations

Grouting is done by Suspension Grouts which include grouting with Soil, Soil-cement Mixes, Cement,
Lime, Displacement Grouting and by Solution Grouts using "one shot" or "two shot" systems.

6. Chemical Stabilization

Chemical Stabilization has been widely used in the form of lime, cement, fly ash and the combination of
the above is widely used in soil stabilization. Chemical Stabilizations reduce permeability of the soils,
improve shear strength, increase bearing capacity, decrease settlement and expedite construction.
Chemical Stabilization is used for surface soils more successfully. Mixtures of soils and chemicals are
mixed either mechanically in place or by batch process. Some of the chemicals used are Lime, Cement,
and Fly Ash etc.

7. Soil Reinforcement

Soil Reinforcement is in the form of a weak soil reinforced by high-strength thin horizontal
membranes. A large variety of materials such as rubber, aluminum and thermoplastics have been used
successfully.

8. Geotextiles and Geomembranes

Geotextiles are porous fabrics manufactured from synthetic materials, which are primarily petroleum
products and others, such as polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride, nylon,
fibreglass and various mixtures of these. Geotextiles are used as separators, filters, Drains,
reinforcement, geomembranes etc.

9. Other Methods

Other methods include Thermal methods, Moisture barriers, Prewetting, addition or removal of soils,
etc.