B8. Casing and Cementing

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12th
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CASING AND TUBING
C HAP T E R
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he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by

T volunteer drilling-industry professionals with expertise spanning a broad
range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and
knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient
drilling operations, training, and equipment maintenance and repair.
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over
manufacturer, operator or individual drilling company recommendations, policies
or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual
may conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC
strongly advises adhering to local rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of

publication, each reader is responsible for his own reliance, reasonable or
otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that
technology and practices advance quickly, and the subject matter discussed
herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is
required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought.
Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that
application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book
will lead to the result desired by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS and REVIEWERS

Dan Postler, Sierra Hamilton
Dusty Sonnier, McCoy Global Inc.
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Dan Dall’Acqua, Volant Products Inc.
Malcolm Gray-Stephens, Frank's International
W.H. “Buster” Hamley, Weatherford
Neil Kimbler, Besco Tubular
Bob Moe, Viking Engineering
Kevin Robertson, EMAS Energy Services Ltd.
Allen Sinnot, Weatherford
Matthew Allen, Volant Products Inc.
CT–ii CASING AND TUBING
This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
Copyright © 2015 International Association of

Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas. All
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ISBN: 978-0-9909049-2-2
IADC Drilling Copyright ©

Manual 2015
Printed in the United States of America.

Manual 2015
CASING AND TUBING
C HAP T E R CT
CASING AND TUBING

Manual 2015
Contents
Introduction CT-1
Types of casing and tubing ........................................ CT-1 Drive, structural and conductor
casing.......... CT-1 Surface casing ....................................................... CT-1
Intermediate casing ............................................. CT-1
Drilling liners .......................................................... CT-2
Production casing and tiebacks........................ CT-2 Tubing
...................................................................... CT-2
OCTG materials ............................................................ CT-2
Manufacturing methods ..................................... CT-2 OCTG
labels...........................................................CT-4
OCTG specifications............................................CT-4
Corrosion......................................................................... CT-9
Sour service corrosion (SSC) ............................ CT-9

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Summary of API casing grades. CT-10
OCTG marking............................................................. CT-10
Transportation and handling ...................................CT-12
Transport and offloading ..................................CT-12 Handling
................................................................CT-12
Tubular storage............................................................CT-13
Pipe racks...............................................................CT-13
Storage coatings and compounds .................CT-13 Thread
protectors...............................................CT-13
Running procedure ..................................................... CT-14
Running tools and equipment .........................CT-15
Pick-up and lay-down tools..............................CT-22 References
....................................................................CT-24

Manual 2015
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CASING AND
TUBING
Introduction
Tubulars are selected for the specific conditions anticipated in a given well. The anticipated production flow rates
and economics of the well determine tubing size, which then determines the necessary size of each previous
hole and tubular. Once the tubular size and setting depths are determined, the wall thickness and grade of
material are then chosen by the well designer to ensure the strength is adequate for the expected loads. Material
grade is also selected to ensure it is appropriate for the fluids the tubular will encounter; corrosion resistant
alloys (CRA) may be required in some environments such as CO2 or H2S. Finally, tubular connections are
selected based on dimensional needs, load capacity, and gas-vs-liquid sealability.
This chapter discusses types of casing and tubing; OCTG manufacturing, labeling and specifications; corrosion;
API casing grades; transportation and handling; storage; and running procedures.
Pipe types
There are two basic types of pipes used in oil and gas exploration and production and standardized by the
American Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Standards Organization (ISO).
For in-well services (i.e., below the wellhead oil country tubular goods [OCTG]):
• Casing: API 5CT/ISO 11960 with API 5B/ISO 10422 for threads;
• Tubing: API 5CT/ISO 11960 with API 5B/ISO 10422 for threads.
Per API, the specification differences between casing and tubing are:
• Length of the drift mandrel: 6 in. or 12 in. for casing and 42 in. for tubing;
• Joint strength calculation method: Minimum tensile strength for casing, and minimum yield strength for tubing.
This chapter specifically covers casing and tubing. For information on drill pipe, heavyweight drill pipe and drill
collars, please refer to the separate chapter Drillstring of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition. For additional
advice on drillpipe practices, refer to the separate chapter on Drilling Practices.
Types of casing and tubing

Drive, structural and conductor casing
The main purpose of this first string of pipe is to protect unconsolidated shallow formations from erosion by drilling
fluids. Additional functions of the first casing string include:
IADC Drilling Copyright © 2015

Manual
• Allows for installation of a full mud circulation system, when formations are sufficiently stable;
• Guides the drill string and subsequent casing into the hole;
• Can form a part of the piling system offshore for a wellhead jacket or piled platform. In subsea wells the conductor
may form an integral part of the structural support for the wellhead system;
• Provide centralization for the inner casing strings, which limits potential buckling of subsequent casing strings;
• Minimize shallow lost returns;
• Provides a mount in onshore applications for a diverter system that would be used in the event of an unexpected
shallow influx.
Conductor casings can be driven or jetted to depth or, alternatively, run into a predrilled or jetted hole and
cemented.
Surface casing
Surface casing is installed to:
• Prevent poorly consolidated shallow formations from sloughing into the hole;
• Enable full mud circulation;
• Protect fresh water sands from contamination by drilling mud;
• Provide protection against hydrocarbons found at shallow depths;
• Provide initial support for the blowout preventers;
• Provide kick resistance for deeper drilling;
• Support the wellhead system and all subsequent casing strings.
The surface casing string is typically cemented to the surface or seabed. it is usually the first casing on which
blowout preventers are installed. The amount of protection provided against internal pressure will only be as
effective as the formation strength at the casing shoe.
Intermediate casing
Intermediate casing is used to ensure there is adequate blowout protection for deeper drilling and to isolate
formations that could cause drilling problems. The first intermediate string is typically the first casing providing
full blowout protection. An intermediate casing string is nearly always set in the transition zone associated with the
onset of significant overpressures. If the well could encounter severe lost circulation zone(s), intermediate
casing would normally be set in a competent formation below the loss zone.
Intermediate casing can also be used to case off any known hydrocarbon-bearing intervals as a contingency against
the possibility of encountering lost circulation, with attendant well control problems. An intermediate string may
also be set simply to reduce the overall cost of drilling and com- pleting the well by isolating intervals that have
caused me-

Manual
CT-2 CASING AND
TUBING
chanical problems in the past. Intermediate casing may be required to isolate:
• Swelling clays and shale that can result in tight hole and key seats;
• Brittle caving shale or weak zones prone to washout and creation of persistent on bottom fill;
• Salt intervals;
• Chemically active formations that can upset mud chemistry;
• Over-pressured permeable formations;
• Hole sections that are used to deviate the wellbore;
• High permeability sand(s);
• Partly-depleted reservoirs that could cause differential sticking.
A good well designer should plan to combine as many of these objectives as possible when selecting a single
casing point. A liner may be used instead of a full intermediate casing string and difficult wells may actually
contain several intermediate casings and/or liners.
Drilling liners
A drilling liner is essentially a string of intermediate casing that does not extend all the way to surface. It is hung
off in or above the previous casing shoe and is usually cemented over its entire length to ensure it seals within the
previous casing string. In many subsea well designs, the liner is partially cemented around the shoe, and a liner
lap packer is used to seal the liner top. This is necessary when the fracture gradient cannot withstand the
equivalent circulating density resulting from the pressure drops associated with cementing the entire liner.
Drilling liners may be installed to:

• Increase shoe strength to allow further mud density increases;
• Isolate troublesome zones;
• Satisfy rig tension load limitations;
• Minimize the length of reduced hole diameter to overcome possible adverse effects on drilling hydraulics and the
size of drill pipe that can be used;
• Save money compared to running a full string.
There are a number of disadvantages to installing liners:
• Difficulty obtaining a quality cement job;
• Risk of liner running equipment being cemented in the hole;
• The liner lap represents a potential source of influx and typically must be isolated by a retrievable bridge plug if it
is necessary to remove the blowout preventer stack;
• The lap must be tested with both positive and negative pressure and remedial action taken if it fails to perform.
Production casing and tiebacks

Production casing is the conduit through which the well will

Manual
be completed, produced and controlled throughout its life. On exploration wells, this life may amount to only a
very short testing period, but on most development wells it will span many years, during which multiple repairs
and recom- pletions might be performed. Production casing should be designed to retain its integrity throughout
its life. In most cases, production casing must provide full pressure redun- dancy to the tubing, isolate the
productive intervals, facilitate proper reservoir maintenance and/or prevent the influx of undesired fluids.
The size of the production casing is selected to accommodate the optimum method of completion and
production, along with:
• Well flow potential, i.e., tubing size;
• Possibility of a multiple tubing string completion;
• Space required for downhole equipment, such as safety valves, artificial lift equipment, etc.;
• Potential well servicing and recompletion requirements;
• Adequate annular clearances to permit circulation at reasonable rates and pressures.
It is also possible that the production casing itself could be used as production tubing to maximize well
deliverability (casing flow), to minimize the pressure losses during fracture stimulations, for continuous or batch
chemical injection or for lift gas.
Tubing
The pipe centered in the annulus of an oil and/or gas well through which the hydrocarbons flow to the surface from
the formation is called tubing. It is important to size tubing properly. If too small, production will be restricted,
limiting the profitability of the well. However, tubing that is too large can reduce fluid velocity and allow for build up
of produced water that can kill the well. Large tubing will also affect the economics of the project, adding to the
cost of the overall well design.
OCTG materials
For OCTG, material “type” describes the composition of the steel used in manufacturing of the pipe, which
impacts resistance to various types of corrosion. The type of material for OCTG must be appropriate for the
corrosiveness of the operating environment. The six material types for OCTG are shown in Table CT-1.
Manufacturing methods
OCTG pipe is manufactured by either a welded or seamless process.
• Welded tubulars are generally large diameter with relatively thin walls, suitable for structural pipe, conductors,
surface casing, and marine risers. Welded

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CASING AND CT-3
TUBING
Table CT-1: The six materials used for OCTG manufacture

Material Name Governing specification Application
Non-corrosive wells Sour service w
Carbon steels API 5CT/ ISO 11960
CO2
13% Cr Martensitic API 5CT/ ISO 11960 Sweet corrosion (CO2)
API 5CRA/ ISO13680

Super 13 Martensitic Sweet corrosion (CO2) and tempe
Group1
API 5CRA/ ISO13680
22% Cr or 25% duplex or super duplex Sour service + CO2
Group 2
28% Cr Austenitic (Fe base alloys) API 5CRA/ ISO13680
Highly corrosive: Fit for purpose t
Group 3
Alloy 825, G3, C276. API 5CRA/ ISO13680
Extremely corrosive: Fit-for-purpose
Nickel base alloys Group 4
pipe is sometimes used for other applications such as intermediate casing, production casing, and tubing, though
these applications are less common, especially in the smaller diameters. Welded pipes have generally good
dimensional properties and are generally less expensive but have limitations:
 Prohibited for API 5CRA tubulars;
 Not suitable to 13 Cr;
 Not suitable to sour service. Only accepted for L80, forbidden when higher strength properties are required;
 Prohibited for couplings and accessories, per API 5CT;
 Limited wall thickness because of weld limitation in wall.
• Seamless pipe is suitable for all types of material and grades, and is preferred when well conditions are severe.
Per API 5CRA, all CRA tubulars are seamless. Because of manufacturing limitations, seamless pipe is generally only
available in diameters of 18 in. or less.
Seamless tube manufacturing

There are multiple seamless steel-tube manufacturing processes that originated at the end of the 19th century.
These include:
• Continuous mandrel rolling process and push bench process: 21-178 mm (0.8-7.0 in.);
 Continuous mandrel rolling process: 7 to 9 tandem rolling stands continuously mill and elongate the hollow shell
of the tube over a floating mandrel bar to produce a final tube. Starting material is generally round rolled billets.
First the material is heated, then pierced to produce a hallow shell. At this point the piece is elongated anywhere
from 2 to 4 times its initial length. Finally the shell is rolled out in the

Manual
continuous rolling mill to produce a continuous tube;
 Push Bench: First billets are heated to rolling temperature, and then moved through the cylindrical dies of a
piercing press, where they become thick-walled pierced billets (a.k.a., "hollow") closed at one end. Later the
hollows are stretched using a 3-roll elongator, thereby leveling the wall thickness. Once elongated the hollow is
moved to a push bench, where a mandrel is inserted and it passes through a series of rollers. The hollow passes
roller to roller, resulting in smaller wall thicknesses. Finally a hot saw removes the closed end from the hollow.
• Multi-stand plug mill (MPM) with controlled floating mandrel and plug mill: 140-406 mm (51/2-16 in.);
 MPMs and Plug Mills: In Plug mills a solid round (billet) is used. It is uniformly heated in the rotary hearth heating
furnace and then pierced by a piercer. The pierced billet or hollow shell is
roll-reduced in outside diameter and wall thickness. The rolled tube simultaneously burnished inside and outside
by a reeling machine. The reeled tube is then sized by a sizing mill to the specified dimensions. From this step the
tube goes through a straightener. This process completes the hot working of the tube. The tube (referred to as a
mother tube) becomes a finished product after finishing and inspection.
• Cross-roll Piercing and Pilger rolling process: 250-660 mm (10-26.0 in.);

 Cross-roll Piercing and Pilgering Stand: Piercing a solid billet with two or three profiled working rolls rotating in the
same direction is the basis of the cross –roll pilgering process. Once it is completed the thick-walled hollow shell
is rolled through a pilgering process to produce the finished pipe.

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CT-4 CASING AND
TUBING
Table CT-2: Casing and tubing tolerances

OD < 4 ½ in. OD  4 ½ in.
+/- 0.031 in.
+/- 0.79 mm -0.5% / +1%
The pilgering stand generally has two rolls, with a tapered pass around the circumference. The rolls rotate in the
opposite direction from the material.
OCTG Labels
Casing and tubing are generally described with four labels:
• Size;
• Weight;
• Grade;
• End finish and thread.
For example, casing bearing the label “9-5/8 47 P-110 BTC” has a 9.625-in. diameter, 47-lb/ft nominal weight, P-
110 grade, and Buttress (BTC) threads.
Size and weight labels are referred to as the designation in the API specifications. API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 lists
the various size and weight designations and the standardized grade and available end finishes for API casing
and tubing, respectively.
Knowledge of dimensional characteristics and performance properties of OCTG tubing or casing strings is essential
for all who work on oil and gas wells.
OCTG Specifications
Outer diameter (OD)
This size designation establishes the outside diameter in inches (in.) or millimeters (mm), as shown in Table CT-
2.
Wall Thickness
For a particular size, the weight designation determines the nominal pipe body wall thickness in inches or mm
(Table CT-3). Although wall thickness tolerance is normally a nominal value, buyers can request a specific
measurement of wall thickness. Tolerances may also be changed by agreement between the purchaser and
supplier.
Drift diameter
OCTG users must be assured that the pipe will have sufficient clearance to allow a bottomhole assembly (BHA)
or other drilling or completion tool to pass through it. The internal clearance of an OCTG is proven by the ability to
pass a mandrel of specified diameter and length through the pipe’s full length. This mandrel is called a drift
mandrel. Drift should not be confused with internal diameter (ID), as any given ID is only a nominal value. The
size and weight designation determines the drift diameter of the pipe body

Manual
Table CT-3: Wall thickness tolerance*
Per API 5CRA QT Per API 5CRA
Per API 5CT
and SA** CH***
Min, % Min, % Min, %
-12.5 -12.5 -10
*Max tolerance is driven by actual weight for all
** For quenched and tempered or solution-annealed products
*** For cold-hardened products
and through the threaded and coupled (T&C) connections in inches or mm. API defines three types of drift
dimensions: standard, alternate, and special.
Standard drift dimensions are given in the Tables CT-4 and

CT-5.
» Alternate drift
Alternate drift is used when the standard drift does not meet the user’s operational requirements. API has defined
some alternate drift sizes that are outside the standard drift formula, but which can be achieved within normal
manufacturing tolerances. For example, 9 -in., 53.5-lb/ft pipe has a standard API drift of 8.379 in., but can be
offered with an alternate drift of 8.5 in. Alternate drift must be specified by the user at the time of purchase.
» Special drift
Special drift is a specific drift diameter agreed between supplier and purchaser. The “special drift” option can
have an impact on the OD of the tubular as it is often necessary to shift the OD tolerances above maximum. In
this case, the pipe would be considered “oversized”, and no longer com- pliant with API.
Inside diameter (ID)

The size/weight designation defines the inside diameter of the pipe body in inches (or mm). There are no specified
tolerances for the inside diameter of the pipe body; it is gov- erned by the outside diameter and weight
tolerances. Ex- treme line casing and integral joint tubing have special inside diameter drift requirements.
Weight
The size/weight designation determines the mass (i.e., the nominal plain end unit weight) of the pipe body. Although
generally expressed in pounds per foot (lb/ft), the nominal weight given by API and manufacturer literature is
actually dimensionless and is only a nominal value. The dimensionless weight designation is an adequate
approximation of the mass of the pipe in lb/ft (x 1.4895 for kg/m). Actual weight depends on wall thickness
tolerances, OD tolerances, and connection weight. When nominal weight is unknown, a tubular can be specified
with only the nominal outside diameter and nominal wall thickness.

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CASING AND CT-5
TUBING
Table CT-4: Standard drift dimensions for API Table CT-5: Standard drift dimensions for
5CT tubulars API 5CRA tubulars
Drift Drift Drift
Drift Length,
OD range, in. Length, Diameter*, OD range, Diameter*,
in. (mm)
in. (mm) in. (mm): in. in. (mm):
OD  2 ⅞ d-3/32 (2.38) OD  2 ⅞ d – 3/32 (d-2.38)
Tubing 2 ⅞ < OD  8 42 (1,067) d-⅛ (3.18) Tubing 4 (1067)
OD > 2 ⅞ d – ⅛ (d – 3.18)
8 < OD < 10 ¾ d-5/32 (3.97)
4 1/2  OD < 9 6 (152) d-⅛ (d-3.18) OD  8 6 (152) d – ⅛ (d-3.18)
Casing
Casing 9  OD  13 d-5/32 (d-3.97)
12 (305) OD > 8 12 (305) d - 5/32 (d – 3.97)
OD > 13 ⅜ d-3/16 (d-4.76)
* d = nominal OD - 2x nominal wall thickness * d = nominal OD - 2x nominal wall thickness
Weight tolerances are:

• Single lengths: +6.5%, -3.5%;
• Carload lots (40,000 lb or 18,140 kg minimum): -1.75%, with no + tolerance.
Grade
For API OCTG, material “grade” is a letter and/or number combination that signifies the composition and
mechanical strength of the tubular. The grade of steel sets the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance
of the product. Cer- tain grades also carry restrictions on the process of manufacture and heat treatment.
» Grade naming for API 5CT (non-CRA)
The names of the API 5CT grades are a combination of one prefix letter and one number. Past practice
associated the prefix letter with quality, with early letters in the alphabet indicating poorer performance: the closer
to “A”, the worse the performance. However, this is no longer true and can be confusing. Currently, the prefix
letter has no particular significance with three exceptions, two of which indicate suitability for sour service, while
the third indicates ultimate strength difference:
• L and N 80 (L grade suitable for sour service);
• R and T 95 (T grade suitable for sour service);
• J and K 55 (K grade has higher ultimate strength).
Grade number corresponds to the specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) of the material in thousands of psi
(ksi). For example, material grade C90 has minimum yield strength of 90 ksi (90,000 psi).
» Grade naming for API 5CRA
The names of the API 5CRA grades are a combination of four numbers separated by dashes. The first 3 numbers
represent the material composition in chromium, nickel and molybdenum, while the fourth corresponds to the
SMYS of the material in ksi. For example, 27-31-4-110 CRA material contains 27% chromium, 31% nickel, and
4% molybdenum, with a SMYS of 110 ksi.

Manual
External clearance
The OD of an OCTG tube body is generally NOT the largest diameter of the joint of pipe, because the
connections are often larger than the tube body. Users need to know the external clearance between the tubular
and the hole or outer tubular in which it is installed. The largest outside diameter measured across the full length
of the casing or tubing is the coupling OD for T&C pipes or the OD at the box end level for integral semi-flush
connections. API specifications define the coupling OD for API connections. For proprietary connections, the
coupling diameter is obtained by machining. The values should be provided by the supplier.
Casing and tubing lengths

The Range length and tolerances are listed in API RP 5CT/ IS011960 and in API RP 5CRA/ISO 13680. Due to the
various manufacturing processes used to make pipe, pipe lengths can vary considerably from one mill to another
for the same product and within the same product from the same mill. Conversely, pipe lengths can be very
consistent. By agreement between purchaser and supplier, special ranges may be defined due to rig
constraints, transportation in closed containers, etc.
For operational purposes, all tubulars should be individual- ly measured. At the mill and in the pipe yard, the
lengths of pipe are measured from the end of the coupling, or box connection, to the end of the pin. For the
running (rig or driller's) tally, the lengths of pipe are measured, "less threads" (i.e., from the end of the coupling,
or box connection, to the position on the pin that will be flush with the end of the box connection made up fully on
the prior run joint).
Casing and tubing strength

Please refer to API 5C3/ISO 10400 for detailed calculations:
• Pipe body yield strength (PBYS) is the maximum tensile load that can be applied to the pipe body without
yielding the steel (in the absence of internal and

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CT-6 CASING AND
TUBING
Table CT-6: API 5CT grades, YS range and tensile strengths

Yield Strength ksi Tensile stre
Grade Type min. max. ksi
H40 40 80 60
J55 55 80 75
K55 55 80 95
Group 1
N80 1 80 110 100
N80 Q 80 110 100
R95 95 110 105
M65 65 85 85
L80 1 80 95 95
L80 9Cr 80 95 95
Group 2 L80 13Cr 80 95 95
C90 1 90 105 100
T95 1 95 110 105
C110 110 120 115
Group 3 P110 110 140 125
Group 4 Q125 1 125 150 135
Table CT- 7: Range length for API RP 5CT tubulars

Range 1 Range 2 Range
Min 18 ft (4.88 m) 28 ft (7.62 m) 36 ft (10.36
Casing* Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.6
Variation 6 ft (1.83 m)) 5 ft (1.52 m) 6 ft (1.83
Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58
Tubing** Max 24 ft (7.31 m) 32 ft (9.75 m) 42 ft (12.8
Variation 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61
Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58

Integral joint tubing
Max 26 ft (7.92 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 45 ft (13.7
* 95% of the order shall meet the values shown in the table above for casing. The last 5% minimum values may be smaller a
variation on lengths may be more scattered (see API 5CT).
** Range 3 Tubing can be increased to 45 ft max by agreement between Purchaser and manufacturer.

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CASING AND CT-7
TUBING
Table CT-8: Range length for API 5 CRA Tubulars

Range 1 Range 2 Range
Min 16 ft (4.88 m) 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36
Casing or tubing Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.6
Table CT-9: Pup joint length tolerance

+ / - 3 in. (+ /- 76 mm)
external pressure, bending and torsion). It is defined as the product of the cross-sectional area and the specified
minimum yield strength for the particular grade of pipe ;
• Internal yield pressure (often referred to as burst pressure) is the internal pressure that is guaranteed before
risk of pipe yielding; Per API 5C3, it is based on specified minimum yield strength for the particular grade of pipe,
outside diameter, and minimum wall thickness;
• External pressure resistance is often referred to as collapse pressure. Collapse is an unstable failure mode leading
to a sudden deformation of the pipe body. It cannot be calculated from a single simple formula. API 5C3/ISO
10400 recognizes four collapse equations based primarily on the outside diameter / thickness (D/t) ratio.
OCTG connections
Lengths of casing and tubing are joined together with threaded connections. Besides joining the pipe together,
connections must withstand all expected wellbore loads for the life of the well (e.g., tension and compression,
collapse and burst pressures, and bending). In addition to wellbore loads, connections often must meet other
requirements that may include OD/ID clearance, makeup characteristics, and hostile-service environments.
Although connections represent less than 3% of the length of the pipe run in a well, they deserve spe-
cial care and handling. The integrity of the entire wellbore can depend on them, and, further, more than 90% of
pipe string failures occur in the connection.
Casing and tubing connections are commonly categorized as either API connections or Proprietary
connections. The API has published a number of standards, recom-

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mended practices, and specifications describing minimum requirements for the manufacture and physical perfor-
mance of API connections. The specifications most commonly used are:
• API Specification 5CT/ISO 11960, “Specification for Casing and Tubing”;
• API Specification 5B, “Threading, Gauging, and Thread Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads”.
API connections have been in use for decades and have proven to perform well in many applications. However,
the increased structural, dimensional, and sealability demands placed on tubulars, particularly in hostile well
environments, have led to the development of a number of proprietary (non-API) connection designs.
Both API and proprietary connections can have different end finishes. They may be:
• Threaded and coupled (T&C);
• Integral joint (IJ);
• Flush joint (FJ).
Threaded and coupled connections

Threaded and coupled connections (T&C) are the most common connection in use (Figure CT-1). They consist
of two externally threaded ends of pipe (called pin ends) joined together by a shorter internally threaded section of
pipe stock (called a coupling or collar). The OD of the coupling is larger than the OD of the pipe body. Note that
the ID of the API connection is not flush. It therefore creates turbulence in fluid returns. This, in turn, can cause
washout in the tur- bulent zone, pushing API dope out and creating a leak path in the API connection.
Figure CT-1: Threaded & coupled connection.

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CT-8 CASING AND
TUBING
Figure CT-2: Integral-joint (IJ) connection.
Figure CT-3: Flush-joint (FJ) connection.
» Integral-joint connections
Integral-joint (IJ) connections were developed to provide a strong, leak-tight connection with an OD that was
smaller than a T&C connection while reducing problems with downhole makeup or tight clearances. IJ
connections do not use couplings, but instead require some form of pipe expansion to achieve the desired tensile
strength. An IJ connection consists of two joints of pipe, joined together by an internally threaded box end and
an externally threaded pin end, and has only half as many potential leak paths as a T&C connection. Figure CT-
2 shows a schematic of an IJ connection.
The integral-joint connection shown in Figure CT-2 has had both the pin and box upset for improved tensile load
carrying capacity. Many IJ connections are used for liner applications or for contingency casing strings where
clearances are particularly tight.
» Flush-joint connections
Flush-joint (FJ) connections are a special class of IJ connections developed to provide high-pressure integrity in
applications with small annular clearance. A true flush-joint connection has OD and ID dimensions equal to that of
the pipe body itself. The thread is cut directly onto the pipe wall with no upsetting and no coupling. Therefore, the
connection tensile strength is relatively low as compared to IJ, and especially as compared to T&C connections.
Figure CT-3 shows a flush-joint connection.
» Proprietary connections
Proprietary connections are used when API connections cannot meet one or more of the requirements for the
well. For example:

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• Some proprietary connections have leak resistance and higher pressure capabilities that are
superior to API connections;
• Proprietary connections are frequently the best solution for small annular clearance
applications;
• Proprietary connections may also be chosen because of superior makeup characteristics. A

connection’s resistance to galling, mishandling, or cross threading can greatly affect its performance. Proprietary
connections generally have less thread interference than API connections and as a result usually have greater
resistance to galling.
ERW pipe
In calculating performance properties, API/ISO specifications treat casing and tubing manufactured by the
electric resistance weld (ERW) process the same as
casing and tubing manufactured by the seamless process. However, this is not the case in specifying which of the
two manufacturing processes are suitable for sour service. API 5CT stipulates that sour service grades of casing
and tubing, L80, C90 and T95, must be manufactured using the seamless process. This was done because of
concerns about maintaining acceptable sour service metallurgical properties across the weld area. There are
other API requirements particular to ERW tubular products:
• There are special chemistry requirements for ERW P-110;
• There are special heat treating requirements for ERW P-110 and Q-125;
• Any pipe component with an API threaded box (female thread) must be made of seamless material.
Some of the benefits of ERW pipe are:

• Since the pipe starts out as a flat plate, tight control of the wall thickness is easily achieved;
• The inside surface finish condition can also be controlled to some extent while the pipe is still in the plate
configuration;
• ERW pipe is available in much larger diameters than seamless.
ERW pipe introduces additional quality control measures associated with the process used to produce the weld
seam:
• The pressure welding process used to join the seam requires very tight quality control;

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CASING AND CT-9
TUBING
• Heat treatment and ultrasonic inspection of the weld seam must also be tightly controlled and documented.
ERW manufactured pipe is currently used in many drilling and completion applications by a broad cross section of
operators, with the exception of those applications excluded by API Specifications and mentioned above. It is
worth noting that many of the expanded tubular applications utilize ERW casing because of its consistent wall
thickness. Uniform wall thickness is critical to achieving a uniform expansion and this implies at least one reason
why ERW pipe is widely used for this application.
Corrosion
Corrosion can have a major detrimental effect on the mechanical integrity of tubing and casing systems and
must be considered in the design. Corrosion can attack the pipe in two ways:
1. Metal loss will reduce the wall thickness of the casing and lead to a corresponding reduction in its load resistance.
This is typical of CO2 corrosion;
2. The pipe material can be damaged to an extent that it can no longer withstand operating loads. The most severe
forms of this type of corrosion are corrosion fatigue, sulfide or chloride stress-corrosion cracking, and hydrogen
damage. These can lead to sudden and often catastrophic failure of the material. The corrosion resistance of a
particular material is affected by complex interactions of many factors, including:
• The material under corrosive attack,
• The composition and concentration of the corrosive agents such as CO2, H2S, Salts (NaCI, CaCl2, MgCl2),
elemental Sulfur (S), and Oxygen (O2),
• Temperature, pressure, and a host of other factors that must be considered by the well designer but are beyond
the scope of this chapter.
Sour service corrosion (SSC)

Sour environments and sour service
An environment can contain H2S without being considered a sour environment or necessitating sour-service
OCTG. The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) MR0175 defines a sour environment according
to the partial pressures of H2S in the well; environments that contain H2S concentrations lower than those
specified by NACE are not considered sour and design for H2S is not necessary.

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SSC characteristics
• SSC is a hydrogen-induced phenomenon that can be nearly instantaneous;
• As temperature increases, a material’s tolerance for H2S increases;
• As yield strength increases, the material’s tolerance to H2S decreases;
• CO2 has no direct effect on SSC, but it can lower the pH of the environment, which will encourage cracking.
SSC resistance
The resistance of steel to SSC is a function of chemical, metallurgical and mechanical properties of the steel,
and is also affected by:
• Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of the environment;
• H2S concentration and total pressure;
• Stress;
• Temperature;
• Time.
Alloying elements can lead to a significant improvement in the SSC resistance.
Hardness
In addition to the chemistry, one of the most significant mechanical properties affecting SSC resistance is steel
hardness, which reflects steel strength. Since higher-strength, higher-hardness steel has less SSC resistance,
maximum hardness values are specified for the various steels.
Corrosion resistant alloys (CRA)

The vast majority of oilfield applications utilize low-alloy carbon steel for tubular, wellhead, and other pressure-
containing purposes. Generally, more expensive corrosion resistant alloys (CRA) may be appropriate for one
or more of the following reasons.
• Weight loss and pitting corrosion resistance;
• Velocity Enhancement;
• Higher Strength.
Sour service conclusion

Many environmental factors influence the suitability of any given material in a given medium. Foremost among
these are partial pressures of H2S, CO2, concentration of chlo- rides, and temperature. Other influencing
parameters include pH, and carbonate (HCO3) concentration, produced water concentration, and a myriad of
produced formation minerals. When planning casing for an H2S application, the casing designer should select
materials with care and within the guidelines of NACE MRO175. A qualified metallurgist should always be
involved in assessing the severity of a corrosive environment and in recommending appropriate tubulars and/or
corrosion monitoring and mitigation measures.

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CT-10 CASING AND
TUBING
Summary of API casing grades

The following is a summary overview of API casing grades, with comments regarding suitability for sour service.
This is not intended to be a definitive classification and a qualified metallurgist should be involved in the selection
of any materials for sour service.
• H-40
 Used for non-critical, shallow wells;
 Do not use for sour service applications.
• J-55
 Fit for H2S service at all temperatures;
 Often used for shallow tubing strings.
• K-55
 Often used for large diameter surface casing strings, although line pipe grades X-52 and X-56 are becoming a
popular replacement.
• M-65
 Fit for H2S service at all temperatures.
• L-80
 Has a maximum hardness requirement;
 Often used for sour service production casing, production liners, and tubing.
• N-80
 Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than 150 °F for quenched and tempered (Q&T);
 Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than 175 °F if not Q&T.
• C-90
 Type 1 grade fit for H2S service at all temperatures;
 An SSC test is required to demonstrate a minimum threshold stress of 80% of YP;
 This grade is becoming obsolete in favor of T-95. May be used for sour service production casing and production
liners when L-80 does not have enough strength for the desired wall thickness.
• R-95
 R-95 is not a sour service grade;
 Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than 150°F;
 Used for intermediate casing strings that may be exposed to H2S during a gas kick.
• T-95
 Type 1 grade fit for H2S service at all temperatures;
 An SSC test is required to demonstrate a minimum threshold stress of 80% of YP;
 Often used for HPHT sour gas production casing strings when L-80 and C-90 do not have enough strength for the
desired wall thickness;

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 Relatively expensive.
• P-110
 Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than 175°F;
 Minimal chemistry requirements.
• C-110
 A proprietary sour service grade that may or may not be fit for H2S service at all temperatures. Suitability
depends on a number of factors including: the manufacturer, the pH of the produced fluids, and the partial
pressure of H2S;
 Relatively expensive.
• Q-125
 Type 1 is fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than 225°F;
 Often used for critical service wells.
• S-135
 Not suitable for sour service at any temperature.
• U-140
 Not suitable for sour service at any temperature;
 May be very brittle and generally discouraged for OCTG service.
• V-150
 Not suitable for sour service at any temperature;
 May be very brittle and generally discouraged for OCTG service.
If an electric weld (EW) product is used, use only products with a full body anneal as opposed to a seam-
annealed product.
OCTG Marking
Characteristics of API tubulars are identified by die stampings or stencil markings. The markings, which assist in
visually inspecting and verifying the pipe, provide all key elements: manufacturer’s name or mark, size, weight,
grade, length, manufacturing process, hydrostatic pressure test and thread type.
API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 requires API tubulars to be identified with paint stencil markings (or die stampings) to aid
in the process of visual inspection and verification. The markings give the manufacturer’s name or mark, size,
weight, grade, length, process of manufacture, hydrostatic pressure test, and the type of thread. Table CT-10
summarizes the tubular paint stencil information requirements of API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960, and Figure CT-4 shows
the locations for the markings on the pipe.
Figure CT-4 indicates the pipe was rolled by XYZ manufacturing company and produced to API Spec 5CT/ISO
11960. (Use of “API” is optional.) The “41” indicates the date of manufacture, with the “4” denoting 2014 (or any
year end- ing in “4” such as 2024) and the “1” the quarter of the year.

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CASING AND CT-
TUBING 11
Table CT-10: Tubular paint stencil requirementsa,b
Marking Sequence Grade
Manufacturer’s name or mark All Grades
ISO 11960 with date of manufacture. Inclusion of “API” is optional. All Grades
Unthreaded pipe or special end finishc All Grades
Size All Grades
Weight per ft All Grades
Grade All Grades
Heat treatmentc Grades J55, K55, M65
Manufacturing process All Grades
Supplementary requirementsb All Grades
Hydrostatic test pressure All Grades
Type of threadc All Grades
Full Length driftc All Grades
Serialization of products Grades C-90, T-95, Q-125
Notes:
a Source: API Spec 5CT, ISO 11960.
b A die stamp may be substituted for the paint stencil by mutual agreement of the manufacturer and the purchaser. c If appli
“UF” indicates the pipe was shipped with unfinished ends (threading to be done by another party). The pipe is 7
in., 39 lb/ft and grade Q125 Type 1. “S” indicates the pipe was manufactured by the seamless process, and “P10000”
2 ft “D” indicates the pipe
means that it was hydrostatic pressure tested to 10,000 psi. Finally, 2 ft was drifted along its
full length with an API standard drift.
Paint stencil
marking in this area
API couplings are also required to have specific markings. However, because of space limitations on the
coupling, this information is generally die stamped rather than paint stenciled. In general, the markings on the
coupling include the manufacturer’s name or symbol,XYZ
ISO 11960 with manufacture date, thread type, and the grade.
ISO 11960 41 UF 7-5/8 39.00 Q1 S P10000 D
API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 also require that pipe and couplings be identified by color-coded paint bands to
indicate the grade. The paint bands are applied by one
Paintorband
more of the following methods:
Coupling paint
42.23 ft

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Figure CT-4: Location of paint stencil marking and paint bands. See text for a discussion of the markings.
• A paint band encircling the pipe at a distance not greater than 2 feet from the coupling or box end;
• Paint entire outside surface of coupling;

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CT-12 CASING AND
TUBING
Table CT-11: ISO pipe paint color code identification

J55 Tubing One bright green C90 Type 2 One purple, o
J55 Casing One bright green T95 Type 1 One silver
K55 Two bright green T95 Type 2 One silver, o
M65 One bright green, one blue C95 One brown
N80 Type 1 One red P110 One white
N80 Q One red, one bright green Q125 Type 1 One orange
L80 Type 1 One red, one brown Q125 Type 2 One orange, o
L80 9Cr One red, one brown, one yellow Q125 Type 3 One orange, o
L80 13Cr One red, one brown, two yellow Q125 Type 4 One orange, o
C90 Type 1 One purple
• For pup joints shorter than 6 ft in length, the entire surface is painted, except the threads.
The ISO pipe paint color code identification is summarized in Table CT-11.
Other paint codes that indicate the results or types of inspections performed at the pipe yard may also be
present on the pipe. Inspection paint-code bands are red for reject- ed pipe and white for accepted pipe.
These bands will be placed as close as possible to the coupling without conflict- ing with pipe grade paint bands.
Transportation and handling

Tubular-handling practices are described in API Recom- mended Practice 5C1, “Recommended Practices for
Care and Use of Casing and Tubing”. Additional industry rigging courses are available to teach standards and
practices for working with forklift trucks and cranes. Personnel who should receive training for handling of tubulars
may include roustabouts, floor hands, deck hands (offshore), riggers, crane operators, drillers, deckhands, thread
representa- tives, casing hands, drivers and dock hands.
Transport and offloading

The forces applied to a load when a vehicle brakes, accel- erates, or changes directions may be sufficient to
cause the load to slide or shift Approved restraining devices should be sufficient to withstand a force equal to the
total weight of the load acting in a forward direction when braking and half the weight of the load acting
backwards or sideways. An- chor points must be designed to resist twice the weight of the load in any direction.
Tensioning devices/lashings points should be checked prior to moving the loaded vehicle, after

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a few miles, and at regular intervals thereafter during the journey.
The stowage and transportation of tubulars by marine craft is the sole responsibility of the Master of the marine
vessel. Handling of tubulars to and from the vessel should be gov- erned by the same guidelines indicated for
land transport. In preparation for handling offshore, casing and tubing should be bundled with slings and secured
with a bulldog grip and a plastic tie-wrap to prevent loosening of the bundle.
The use of metallic supports and slings is acceptable for carbon and low-alloy steel, but corrosion-resistant alloys
should be placed on non-metallic supports, and forks of the forklift should be protected with wood or plastic.
Textile or plastic-coated slings should be used for handling any CRA material.
For safety reasons, use of hooks is not recommended for handling any type of tubular because of the possibility
of accidental release. Instead of hooks, it is recommended to handle tubulars with slings and/or cables. Slings and
cables must be stored out of the weather and inspected prior to storage. Damaged slings or cables must be handled
according to instructions for repair or destruction.
Regardless of material, a sufficient number of supports are required to accommodate the weight and quantity of
the tubular. To prevent bending, space the supports evenly but no farther than 10 ft apart.
Handling
Racking practices should allow protectors to be removed, connections inspected, and threads cleaned and
doped. Provide a space equal to twice the circumference of one pipe between tube bodies on each layer.

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CASING AND CT-13
TUBING
Unless a crane is available, pipes must be rolled to the catwalk. If pipes are higher than the catwalk, use planks
of wood to create a very slight slope. When rolling CRAs, use a rope to control rolling speed. To pick up and
position a joint in the V-door, use a “single joint elevator” rather than a rope or a chain to lift the pipe, or use a pick
up/laydown machine or hydraulic catwalk.
Impact of low temperatures

Low temperature reduces the impact resistance of steel. Pipes that are dropped, bent or deeply scratched should
be inspected. Take care to avoid scratching surfaces when separating frozen tubes, and do not hammer thread
protectors to remove. Use a stabbing guide to avoid damage while making up connections, and ensure pin and
box are similar temperatures to ensure proper torque response. Use Arc- tic-grade thread lubricant when
appropriate.
Tubular storage
At the rig-site, tubulars are typically stored above ground or deck level on pipe racks. Tubulars stored for long
periods in wet climates should be separated, using a plastic wedge or T-piece to allow drainage and the rack
should be tilted towards the pin-end to enhance self-drainage. For storing tubulars, use open-ended thread
protectors to allow evap- oration.
Pipe racks
Practices for the design of pipe racks are provided in API RP 5C1, Section 6.3. The design depends on local
conditions, such as the required load-bearing capacity and degree of permanency. Racks should be spaced at
about 6.5 ft (2 m), which allows 20-ft (6.1-m) joints to be stored on two racks, and 40-ft (12.2-m) joints on four
racks. Timbers are often used for temporary stringers. Dimensions depend on soil-bearing capacities, but 10 ft
length x 10 in. diameter generally suffices.
Layers must be separated and the separators must be aligned vertically to avoid bending the pipe. Timbers of ap-
proximately 5-in. (7.5-cm) diameter are commonly used as separators, with a wedge secured to the timber at
each end. Green timber should not be used, because their moisture content may cause corrosion. Stack height
should not exceed 10 ft (3 m), including the pipe rack.
The length of each pipe rack should accommodate Range 3 tubulars. (Refer to Table CT-7 for lengths of Range 1-3
tubulars and to Table CT-8 for CRA tubulars.) The width should not exceed 40 ft (12 m) nor be less than 20 ft
(6 m). For transport and handling operations, allow a lane of not less than 20 ft (6 m) wide on each side of the
racks and a space of approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) between racks. For small quantities, reduce the stacking height
and increase the stacking

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width in proportion. As a rough guide, the height of tubulars in a stack should not exceed the base width;
therefore, when planning pipe racks, allowance must be made for small quantities that require more space than
the table indicates.
Storage coatings and compounds

The choice of preservative or coatings that may be applied to protect stored tubulars depends on the
corrosiveness of the environment and cost. Casing manufactured in accordance with API RP 5CT will have a mill
coating to protect it during transit. If casing is to remain in storage for a long period, the mill coating can be
supplemented, or completely removed and new coating applied. Internal and external surfaces of production
tubulars may be grit-blasted to achieve this and thread protectors are fitted to prevent contamination. Par- ticular
care is need with notch-sensitive casing, such as C95 and P110. (Notch-sensitive metals suffer significant strength
loss from notches.) If storage for more than three months is expected, assess whether the mill coating is
adequate, and the pipe should be cleaned and coated internally and externally, if needed. Evidence suggests
that coatings may affect acoustic cement evaluation logs and the seal itself. In critical applications the external
coating can be removed.
Compounds are available that are specifically designed for the tube body, or the connection threads. In addition,
hybrid compounds are available. Ensure the proper compound is used for the intended service. Storage
compounds should also not be confused with thread compounds. Many compounds contain elements such as
lead, copper, zinc, arsenic, antimony and molybdenum disulphide that may be harmful to the environment. These
should be used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Further, properties of storage compounds
differ from those of running compounds. Consequently, using a storage compound to make up a connection
could result in a result in a reject make up and even a damaged connection, due to the friction factor & mating
tolerances.
Ensure that any compound being spread on the connection is clean and debris-free. The compound should be
covered at all times by protectors to prevent contamination from foreign materials. (Sand & grit can score the
seal of a connection, rendering the connection unusable.)
Thread protectors
Thread protectors are used for shipping and are not adequate for running operations. Air-operated thread
protectors (Figure CT-7) used to prevent impact damage have an inner diameter that can be made reduced by
clamps or an air bladder to enable the protector to grip the pin. These protectors will also have a shoulder of an
even smaller diameter for the end of the pin to rest on and to align the protector when being placed. They are
applied at the pipe deck and

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CT-14 CASING AND
TUBING
Block or top drive
Link (bails)
Engage
elevators to
D rings pick casing
up off slips, and
disengage slips
Sling
Disengage slips,
then lower
casing V door

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Single
joint elevator

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Power tongs
Power slips
or casing tongs
Figure CT-5: Procedure for running casing or tubing. From left, pick up a joint positioned in the V-door. Next, make up a new joint to
the tubular hanging in the slips. Then engage elevators, release the slips and run the tubular into the hole.
removed just prior to stabbing the pipe. Heavier-capacity versions can also be used to rack stands of pipe.
Running procedure
Casing and tubing may be run by either rig crews or specialty service companies that provide and operate running
equipment, or a combination of both. The general procedure and equipment utilized are illustrated in Figure
CT-5.
Procedures will vary with the type of elevators, spiders, make-up equipment, and other factors. When using bails,
it is important to use a specified length to ensure proper equipment spacing.
General descriptions of each individual component of a casing running system are provided in this chapter. The
crew should refer to the equipment manufacturer’s detailed procedures for rig-up, inspection, and operations for
the specific equipment used to run the casing.
1. Clean all compounds from connections and drift full length. Drifting can also be performed in the v-door to allow
drift to free fall from box to pin end. Take care when removing the pin end protector to ensure the drift does not fall
out;

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2. Pick up casing joint and position the upper box end in the V-Door with tugger line, crane, or mechanical pick-up
machine;
3. Latch single joint elevator below box. If casing does not have a square shoulder box, pick up on pre-installed lift
subs made up in box;.
4. Raise block or top drive to pull casing through V-Door and continue upward until the pin end is above the floor.
Remove the pin protector. Continue raising joint until the casing pin is hanging vertically above the joint in the
spider or slips;
5. Apply thread dope to pin and/or box, as directed by operator's representative;
6. Lower joint and guide pin by hand into the box of the previous joint, ensuring that workers’ fingers are clear of
mating parts and pinch points;
7. If a stabbing guide has been used on the box of the casing joint in the slips, remove it;
8. Swing power casing tongs into position 1-2 ft above the pin and close the side door;

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CASING AND CT-15
TUBING
Figure CT-6: Stabbing guide. Figure CT-7: Inflatable and made of rubber, Air-operated
9. Make up the connection to the appropriate torque, and/ or thread position. See separate discussion of make-up
procedure. Be sure to pull power tong back to a safe area;
10. Slowly lift elevators and check to ensure string load has been transferred;
11. Open spider or lift slips when approved by the driller;
12. Lower the casing string at the planned speed, which may vary with hole conditions or the ability of the hole to
withstand surge pressures. Initiate movement slowly;
13. While the joint is lowered, the single joint elevator hanging from the slings will be caught by the floor hands and
swung out and latched below the box of the next joint in the V-Door;.
14. Continue lowering the string to position the box at the planned working height above the spider and rig floor.
15. Set the spider slip assembly or manual slips and slack off the string weight.
16. Disengage the elevators and pick up to position them a short distance above the floor so that they are in position
to reach the next joint with the single joint elevator.
17. Install clamp-on thread protector or stabbing guide on box in the spider, if one is to be used. Fill up casing joint
with drilling fluid.
18. Repeat the process beginning with Step 1.
Running tools and equipment

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thread protectors are quick to install, and protect tubular pin end threads from damage en route to the drill floor.
bing board requires good communications and constant awareness of the location of the top drive.
Stabbing guides
Stabbing is the action of guiding the pin end of the pipe into the box end of the previous joint in the spider. A
stabbing guide (Figure CT-6) is often used to assist in guiding the pin into the box and to protect the threads of
the box and pin. Stabbing guides are generally funnel-shaped and wrap around the box and extend above it. As
the pin enters the upper section of the guide it is centered and its lateral movement is limited. This prevents
damage to the pin threads, which do not make contact with the box until just prior to engaging the threads. Guides
should be considered for use with premium connections in which the pin end or step shoulders provide a seal
surface that must be protected from damage.
Air-operated thread protector

An inflatable rubber protector is quick and easy to install and remove. They protect the tubular pin end threads
from damage en route to the drill floor (Figure CT-7).
Single-joint elevators
Single-joint elevators (SJE) are used to pick up a single joint of casing through the V-door and position it above
the rotary table (Figure CT-8). They are typically rated for 5 tons and feature a center hinge de-
sign to latch the elevator around the casing below the collar. An SJE is used when a casing pickup machine is
unavailable. With
the SJE, a wire tugger line
Stabbing boards
The stabbing board is a temporary work platform installed approximately 30 ft above the rig floor for the stabber to
stand on while aligning the pipe for make up. The platform

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moves the casing to the rig floor.
Full-string elevators

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Figure CT-8: Single joint elevator.
can usually be adjusted up and down as much as 10 ft to allow for different lengths of pipe. Running pipe with a
stab-

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Full string elevators are used to lift the entire casing or tubing string. These are designed to either pick up against
a square

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CT-16 CASING AND
TUBING
B A C
Figure CT-9a, b and c: From left to right, side-door elevator with a load shoulder for square shoulder connections; center latch
elevator with slips to grip external casing surface. These may also be designed with a load shoulder for square shoulder
connections. Combination elevator spider with powered slips to grip the external casing surface.
connection shoulder if one exists, or they hold the outside of the casing with gripping elements (i.e., slips) if the
casing connection is flush or has a tapered upset. Three types of elevators are shown in Figure CT-9. The center
latch type may be designed to use either a load shoulder or slips.
Lift subs may also be screwed into flush joint or tapered boxes to create a lifting shoulder. There are two types of
lift subs: those for lifting single joints of pipe from the V-door, and those for lifting and running a full string.
Typically, 3-5 lift subs are supplied to run a string of pipe so they can be removed and recycled on the pipe deck
without interrupting operations.
Elevator operating controls can be manual or have pneumatic or hydraulic assistance. In either case, a
crewmember is normally located in the derrick on a stabbing board to position the elevators and operate the
power controls. With power-assisted systems,
remote controls may be located on the floor. If these are used, it is good practice to have visual flags, camer- as,
or pneumatic/hydraulic/electric indicatorsA to ensure the pipe is engaged. Interlock systems will ensure a
further level of secu- rity against dropped pipe.
Pre-job checks
• Secondary latch mechanisms should be present, checked before lifting, and visually verifiable;
• Ensure inserts of slip-type tools are

clean. Recheck during

Manual
• Ensure load-bearing rings in elevators are not deformed. Recheck regularly;
• Tools might require greasing of slip backs. See the OEM manual for instructions. Do not alter the type of grease
and do not use pipe dope or thread compound on slips or elevators. Using the wrong grease can be as
detrimental as using no grease at all.
Casing running tools

The casing running tool (CRT) is essentially a type of elevator that connects directly to the top drive through a
drill string sub, rather than being suspended from bails. This enables fill-up and makeup using the top drive’s
circulation, rotation, and torque capabilities (Figure CT-10a). The connection to the top drive also allows casing to
be rotated as it is run and circulated for conditioning and cementing.
B C
job;

Manual
Figure CT-10a, b and c: From left to right, CRT with link tilt for picking up and presenting a single joint for make up (Figure CT-
10a); CRT with internal gripping system (Figure CT-10b); CRT with external gripping system (Figure CT-10c). Figure CT-10a
courtesy Weatherford. Figures CT-10b and -10c courtesy Volant Products Inc.

Manual
CASING AND CT-17
TUBING
A B C
Figure CT-11a, b and c: From left, Floor mounted casing bowl with manual hand slips, casing bowl with mechanical assist for removal
and insertion of slips, and near-flush mounted spider (FMS) with power slips.
The casing is suspended from the CRT by either internal or external gripping systems, and torque is transferred
through the same device. Internal grippers that extend into the top few feet of the casing (Figure CT-10b) are
used over a wide range of casing sizes, from 4.5 in. to as large as 30 in. In- ternal grippers also include an
elastomer sealing element to allow circulation. External gripping systems are available for smaller casing (Figure CT-
10c) and are well suited for lifting very heavy casing strings, a key advantage of external grips. While they grip the
exterior of the pipe, they must still have an extension that passes inside to seal against the interior to allow
circulation. CRTs may be may be part of a casing running system or standalone elevators.
Since the casing is run and made up with the rig’s top drive when a CRT is used, the driller will play a larger role
in the casing installation than with conventional tongs. Rig-up and operating practices are specific to each casing
running system, and suppliers should provide training for the rig crew and qualified service personnel.
Casing slips and spiders

Manual casing slips or spiders are used to hold the vertical casing load as each connection is made.
Historically, hand slips were placed into bowls inside the rotary table, and backup casing tongs were used to
prevent rotation of the casing in the slips during makeup (Figure CT-11a). For larger diameters and tonnage
combinations, independent bowls may be placed on the rig floor above the rotary table. These may require
additional support plates to properly transfer the load to the drilling rig structure. Independent bowls can use the
same hand slips as used in the rotary if they have the normal 4 in./ft taper, but some independent bowls have a 3
in./ft taper and would require matching slips. The bowl’s normal maximum sizes are 3 1/2 in., 4 1/2 in., 5 1/2 in., 8
in., 10 ¾ in., 13 3/8 in., 16 in., 20
in., 30 in., 36 in., and 42 in. with ratings from 100-500 ton.

Manual
Insert bushings can be used with some bowls to reduce to a smaller size, e.g., a 20-in. by 16-in. reducer bushing
can be fitted to a 20-in. bowl so that 16-in. and smaller pipe can be handled.
Systems are available with mechanical assist devices to lower or lift the slips in and out of the bowl (Figure CT-
11b). They are designed to be removed from the pipe by splitting or removing a section. These are commonly
used with tubing and smaller casing sizes.
Flush-mounted spiders (FMS) are available with power slips that mount within the rotary and project above it by only
a few inches (Figure CT-11c). These are typically equipped with casing slips within the body of the spider that
support the pipe, but they are also available with load shoulders for square shoulder connections if needed. Some
hydraulically operated systems will be able to resist makeup torque when loaded with only the first joint, but other
systems require backup tongs to be used to resist makeup torque until the string weight on the slips is sufficient.
Spiders typically have
Figure CT-12: Combination spider/elevators.

Manual
CT-18 CASING AND
TUBING
Figure CT-13a, b and c: Clockwise B

A
from left, Manual casing tongs used
for makeup or backup, power casing tongs, combination tongs. Figures CT- 13b and -13c courtesy McCoy
Global.
top and bottom guides that are changed for different pipe sizes. Check to ensure centralizers, cable clamps, side
pock- et mandrels, and other larger diameter elements will pass through the guides and power slips.
Combination spider/elevators can be dressed as either an elevator, or the lift eyes may be removed for them to be
used on the rig floor as a spider (Figure CT-12). These are generally external slip type elevators. When used
as a spider, the load is transferred to the rotary table through the bottom surface of the elevator (sometimes
requiring C plates or adapter plates). When dressed as an elevator, the tool will have a bell-shaped guide and
bottom guides to guide it over the top of the pipe. When dressed as a spider, there will be no bottom guide or bell
guide but top guides will be fitted.
Tongs
Tongs are used to apply torque to make up and break threaded connections. They may be manual tongs, power
tongs, or combination tongs (Figure CT-13).
The manual tong (belt tong, rig tong) is essentially a wrench used to make and break casing and tubing connections
(Fig- ure CT-13a). This tong is typically suspended by a cable from the mast and hangs near the rotary. The
tong is latched around the casing and torque is applied by pulling tension on a cable attached to the tong arm.
The tong operator, who can be either a service company employee or a rig crewmember, increases cable
tension on the arm until reching the required makeup torque. The torque in the connection is calculated by the pull
on the cable and the length of the tong arm. It is important to position the cable at 90° from the arm of the tong at
max torque for an accurate. calculation
When manual tongs are used for make up a second manual tong is often used below the connection to hold
back-up torque to resist the makeup torque. This tong is generally fixed to a structural element of the rig via a
chain or cable and remains stationary. The tong's position and suspension

Manual
C
points should be arranged according to OEM installation instructions. Failure to do so could result in an unsafe,
uncontrolled load movement on the rig floor and increased work for the crew.
For hydraulic power tongs, the torque is applied by hydraulics within the body of the tool, rather than by pulling
on an external tension cable (Figure CT-13b). A static snub line is attached to the rig to prevent the tong from
rotating about the pipe during makeup.
Alternatively, combination power tongs may be used that have an assembly that also grips the casing below the
connection and the torque reaction is held within the system (Figure CT-13c).

Manual
CASING AND CT-19
TUBING
Power tongs are installed with a means to account for thread makeup loss. This is typically a spring in series on
the hanging line that will allow the tong to travel up/down as the thread engages on the connection; this is
commonly known as makeup loss/gain. Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the power tong by an independent
hydraulic power unit or the rig’s hydraulic systems.
Power tongs are typically capable of generating high speed as well as excessive torque that far exceed the
recommended limits of the connection being made up. The desired RPM, torque, and clamping/crushing limits
should be considered when selecting the appropriate tong for the application.
For proper handling for safety, the operator of the power tong must be competent in the safe use of the
equipment. Some operational risks are noted below:
• Because power tongs are capable of generating extreme torque, a snub line should be used, even with integral
backups;
• Pinch points should be guarded and indicated on the tong system. Hand placement practices should be
discussed prior to each job. It’s important that only the tong operator place his hands on the tong;
• As with manual tongs, power tongs should be suspended and positioned according to manufacturer’s

Manual
Figure CT-14: Two examples of tong positioning systems. Courtesy McCoy Global.
instruction. Safe work positioning and motion paths should be discussed prior to each job. Do not assume each
member has previous training;
• Ensure open throat tongs include a safety system to prevent rotation when the door is not fully closed. Pre-job
testing and regular inspection of the systems should be scheduled and should follow the OEM instructions. Follow
manufacturer’s lubrication instructions.
Tong positioning systems

The purpose of a tong positioning system is to present the tong to the pipe in the rotary for makeup and breakout
operations without manual handling (Figure CT-14). A tong positioning system allows for a single operator to
control the position of the tong and reduces the number of personnel on the rig floor. As the capability, mass and
size of tongs has increased, the need for tong positioning systems has increased accordingly. The many models
and styles of tong positioning systems range from a simple cylinder that push- es and retracts a suspended tong
to fully rigid power tongs on the floor or attached to the rig structure. These systems must be installed according
to manufacturer’s instruction. Because each functions somewhat differently, it is essential that training be
provided, and that the competency of crew- members be confirmed prior to each job.

Manual
CT-20 CASING AND
TUBING
Torque turn monitoring systems

Torque turn monitoring systems are primarily data acquisition and control systems with the ability to measure
and display connection data acquired during the makeup and break out of tubular products (Figure CT-15).
These systems integrate with power tongs and bucking units and have a primary function to stop torque actions
at a predetermined torque or turns (or combination of) limit as specified by the parameters set at the start of the
job. These systems vary in complexity and features but are fundamentally based around torque vs. turns as a
means to predict appropriate make up. This data is collected and graphed on a display for the operator to
evaluate in order to determine if the connection was made up to acceptable criteria. The graph is shown where
turns are represented on the X-Axis and torque is represented on the Y-Axis. Initial thread engagement,
shoulder point of primary seal, and change in torque from shoulder to peak is displayed. The proper parameters
for the makeup are given by the thread OEM for the connections being used. These systems are used on most
OCTG connections, but are almost always required when running premium connections. Interpretation of the
graph and data should only be attempted by a trained and competent person that has knowledge of the
connections being serviced.
Figure CT-16 is a typical torque-turn graph showing the amount of torque supplied to the casing as the
connections is screwed together. The lower horizontal axis indicates the turns in the pipe, the left vertical axis
indicates the corresponding torque supplied to the casing and the right hand axis indicates the RPM while the
connection is made up. The line between the upper and lower limits is the optimum torque for the connection and
is typically specified by the OEM.
The torque monitoring system is activated as soon as the connection is started. In the beginning of the
connection

Manual
Figure CT-15: Torque turn monitoring systems are primarily data acquisition and control systems with the ability to measure
and display connection data acquired tubular during makeup and breakout.
Courtesy McCoy Global.
make up, the torque supplied to the casing is fairly low and remains low until the casing is screwed in for seven
full turns. At this point the tapered threads on the casing starts to bind with the threads on the coupling and torque
begins to increase until the casing end meets the shoulder in the coupling. The connection has “shouldered”.
When this point is reached, the torque will increase rapidly, as it takes only one-tenth of a turn to apply the final
makeup torque. The casing will not screw in deeper into the coupling but any rotation supplied to the casing will
increase the pressure on the shoulder. The compression of the casing end and shoulder provide the seal and
the structural strength of the connection. As soon as the optimum torque is reached (peak torque), the rotation of
the casing is stopped and the torque reduced to zero.
The connection must be made up to a specific torque to provide a proper seal and structural strength. If the
torque is below the lower torque limit, the connection might not seal properly or achieve the required structural
strength. If the connection is torqued higher than the upper limit, the seal faces might be damaged and the
structural strength com- promised. The equipment used to make up the connection has inertia and cannot be
stopped immediately. Since it takes only one-tenth of a turn to apply the delta torque, the make-up speed of the
connection must be slow enough to enable the equipment to stop within a tenth of a turn. It is important to specify
an RPM that will allow the equipment to be stopped in time, preventing the torque from over- shooting the upper
torque limit and thereby damaging the connection. On the other hand, if the RPM is too low, make up will proceed
too slowly. Figure CT-16 shows make up at a speed of approximately 11 rpm for most of the connection. Once
the shouldering point was reached, however, RPM dropped rapidly to zero.

Manual
CASING AND CT-21
TUBING
Torque (ft lb) RPM

22,000
21,000 Peak torque
Upper torque limit
20,000
19,000
18,000
17,000 Lower torque limit
16,000
15,000
14,000
13,000
12,000 Delta torque
11,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
RPM graph
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000 The connection
2,000 is shouldering
1,000
0
0 1

Manual
2 3 4

Manual
5 6 7

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8
Turns

Manual
9 10

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11 12 13

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40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
14 15
Figure CT-16: Typical torque-turn graph showing the amount of torque supplied to the casing as the connection is screwed
together. The lower horizontal axis indicates the turns in the pipe, the left vertical axis indicates the corresponding torque
supplied to the casing and the right hand axis indicates the RPM while the connection were made up. The line between the
upper and lower limit are the optimum torque for the connection and is typically specified by the OEM. Courtesy Tesco Corp.
Fully remote tong systems

The purpose of a remote tong system is to remove the tong operator from the area of moving equipment. This
differs from tong-positioning systems that still require an operator to function hydraulically or pneumatically
assisted controls at the tong unit. The most common functions of a remote tong system include make/break,
backup clamp/unclamp, door open/close, gear selection, reversing pin location, and, in some cases, tong position.
(See preceding section on tong positioning systems.) These remote systems vary from teth- ered control panels
where the operator is positioned away from the tong to wireless control stations that may, in some cases, be
integrated into the driller’s chair controls.
Fill-up and circulation tools

Fill-up tools are stingers that are run into the top of each joint and through which mud is pumped to fill the empty
joint. This enables the casing to be filled as it is run to eliminate fill-up time, and it allows for circulation of the
casing if an obstruction is encountered downhole. The stinger may be made up directly to a top drive or
suspended below a hook with a a high pressure mud line attached for circulation. Whether it is run below a top
drive or hook, it is long enough to extend down through the center of the elevators so that the sealing element on
the end enters the top of the casing as the elevators are lowered. The sealing element is

Manual
Figure CT-17: Safety clamp.
then expanded to effect a seal on the inside of the pipe and fluid is pumped as the casing joint is being lowered.
Safety clamps
Safety clamps (Figure CT-17) are used with slip-type spiders and hand slips until sufficient casing weight is run to
ensure the slips will seat reliably (typically about 20,000 lb). Safety clamps are not lifting devices and are
positioned far enough above the slips so that they do not make contact with the slips when the slips are set. They
are installed after the string is set in the slips and removed after the string weight is returned to the elevators.
Manufacturing specifications are provided in API Spec 7K and maintenance in API Spec 7B.

Manual
CT-22 CASING AND
TUBING
Figure CT-18: Example dies. Courtesy McCoy Global.
Dies, inserts, jaws

The purpose of dies, inserts, and jaws is to allow a tool (elevator, spider, slips, tongs, etc.) to grip a tubular. The
majority of dies work with teeth that penetrate or deform the surface of the tubular and operate in shear. This die
penetration varies by tooth design, which allows different style dies to penetrate deeper into the OD of the pipe
and provide higher load carrying capacity based on depth of penetration and clamping force (Figure CT-18). Other
dies work by using pressure and surface contact and have lower load ratings than toothed dies.
The manufacturer of the tool that uses dies determines the dimensions of the dies. There are no standardized
sizes, so dies from one tool should not be assumed to be interchange- able with those from another tool.
Instructions on installation and removal of dies are given in operating manuals for their respective tools.
Some key points:

• Use of the manufacturer’s recommended lubricant for the back of dies is critical as this changes with OEM tools
and will affect safe working load (SWL) of the tool;
• When removing stuck dies with impact, wear appropriate PPE as they may shatter;
• Overloaded dies that fail may be fragmented. Inspect them regularly;
• Dies are not repairable;
• Store dies in a manner to avoid impact damage and corrosion.

Manual
Interlocks, zone and elevator management
Interlocks prevent the opening of the elevator before the spider or slips have closed to secure the string and they
prevent the spider or slips from being opened before the elevator has closed. Interlocks can be part of an
integrated drill floor system or supplied by a service company along with hoisting tools.
Installation of interlocks must be done according to instructions provided by manu- facturers of the equipment.
While interlocks are often assumed to be fail-safe, operation of interlock systems should be supported by sound
practical procedures that use human observation to the greatest extent possible. All interlock systems have
some form of override to allow for testing, rig-up, etc. The use of the interlock override should be strictly
controlled, ideally via the permit-to- work system at the worksite. Pre-job testing
and regular inspection of the systems should be scheduled. Often several systems are in use at one time on a rig
site, and these systems do not necessarily exchange information. This should be addressed and shared knowledge
on the rig floor during use.
Pick-up/lay-down tools
There are numerous systems for picking up or laying down casing. On land rigs, these systems are typically
rigged up temporarily for the casing running operation. Pick-up / lay- down systems are more likely to be an
integral and permanent element in offshore pipe handling systems, or on some large land rigs. Pick-up/lay-down
system designs generally fall into one of two major categories. In cable systems, a wire is run from a winch unit
located at the end of the catwalk to an anchor point above the floor. Casing is then picked up by arms that place it
in a trough suspended from a wire rope, and the trough and casing are pulled up the wire to the rig floor.
In the second type, casing is also picked up onto a horizontal trough positioned on the catwalk, but the trough is
supported by hydraulically powered arms that tilt and move it to position the upper end of the casing at the rig
floor. The casing is solidly supported by the catwalk throughout the process, rather than suspended in air by wire.
The hydraulic system is considered more reliable and it is also preferred for larger and heavier casing.
New offshore rigs and large land rigs might be equipped with permanent pick-up systems used for both drill pipe
and casing. These vary from hydraulically supported troughs to

Manual
CASING AND CT-23
TUBING
Figure CT-19:
Horizontal makeup
system. Courtesy
McCoy Global.
more complex armatures or trolleys. The manufacturer’s instructions should be followed for installation and
processes in place to ensure the rig crew is trained in maintenance, operations, and potential pinch points and
handling risks.
Horizontal make-up systems

Horizontal make-up systems are also referred to as bucking units, make/break machines, and offline makeup
units. These may be used to make or break connections offline, outside of the critical path of activity on the rig
(Figure CT- 19). These machines can be used for a range of operations such as stand-building, pre-assembly of
completions, installation of couplings, etc. Bucking units are generally provided in one of two versions. One
version is commonly referred to as a ‘make/break’ unit. This system functions similar to a power tong, in which pre-
turns are applied via spinners, with final torque then applied in incremental bite/turn of the head. The alternate
version has a continuous rotating head and functions similar to a hydraulic power tong, where the makeup is
continuous from initial pre-turns to final torque.
Horizontal pipe handling

Offshore rigs and large land rigs may be equipped with horizontal pipe handling systems. These are typically a
combination of an overhead gantry crane that can pick up and

Manual
move pipe to and from the catwalk and a pickup/laydown machine that then moves it to the V-door.
Vertical alignment systems

Alignment systems are used to ensure that the pin on the joint being positioned vertically for make up or breakout
is aligned with the box to prevent damage to the threads, and to ensure a good make up or break out. There are
two basic types of mechanical alignment systems: those that are capable of returning a joint that has moved out
of alignment back to the correct position and those that simply hold the joint in the correct position. The standard
location on a rig site for stationary equipment is normally the derrick or the top drive assembly.
Follow the installation and operating instructions provided by the manufacturer. Alignment systems operate in
the same path as the travelling block assembly and procedures or interlock systems should be utilized to prevent
collisions. The system should be tested prior to the job and inspected regularly as specified by the manufacturer.

Manual
CT-24 CASING AND
TUBING
References
1. API Spec 8C: Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment.This has replaced API Spec 8A.
2. API RP 8B/ ISO 13534: Inspections, Maintenance, Repair and Remanufacture of Hoisting Equipment.
3. API Spec 8C/ISO 13535: Specification for Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment.
4. API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960: Specification for Casing and Tubing.

Manual
5. API Spec 5CRA/ISO 13680: Specification for Corrosion Resistant Alloy Seamless Tubes for Use as Casing, Tubing
and Coupling Stock.
6. API TR 5C3/ISO 10400: Formulae and calculations for casing, tubing, drill pipe and line pipe properties.
7. API Spec 5B: Specification for Threading, Gauging and Thread Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe
Threads.

Manual
CD
CASING WHILE DRILLING
IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition

Enhancing
operational integrity
by ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation &
Credentialing
www.iadc.org
CASING WHILE DRILLING CD–i
C HAP T E R
CD
he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
Texpertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in
developing the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training,
and equipment maintenance and repair.
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual
drilling company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling
Manual may conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local
rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is
responsible for his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be
aware that technology
and practices advance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If
professional engineering expertise is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought.
Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept,
method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Moji Karimi, Weatherford International
Eric Moellendick, Schlumberger
REVIEWERS
Kyle Graves, Apache
Don Hannegan, Weatherford International
Calvin Holt, Chevron
Dietmar Neidhardt, Tubefuse Technologies
Bill Rehm, Consultant

Manual
CD–ii CASING WHILE DRILLING
Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
International Association of Drilling Contractors 10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760

Houston, Texas 77042 USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-6-2

Manual
CASING WHILE DRILLING Contents CD-iii
C HAP T E R CD

Manual
Contents
Introduction CD-1
Non-retrievable casing while drilling.......................CD-1 Enhanced rig equipment - surface
drive systems ....................................................... CD-4
CwD centralizers ................................................. CD-4
CwD connections, torque rings
and wear bands/sleeves ................................... CD-4 Plastering effect................................................... CD-5
Operations ............................................................ CD-5
Why drill with a non-retrievable
CwD system? ....................................................... CD-5
Typical non-retrievable CwD problems ........ CD-6 Retrievable casing while drilling ............................. CD-6
Locking assembly ................................................ CD-6
Internal duplex stabilizer................................... CD-6 Underreamer ........................................................ CD-7
Operations ............................................................ CD-8

Manual
Why drill with a retrievable CwD system? .. CD-8 Typical retrievable CwD problems CD-8
Liner drilling .................................................................. CD-9
Non-retrievable liner drilling ............................ CD-9 Non-retrievable liner drilling and setting
sequence................................................................ CD-9
Why drill with a non-retrievable liner drilling system? ................................................................ CD-11
Typical problems with a non-retrievable liner drilling system .................................................... CD-11
Retrievable liner drilling .......................................... CD-11 Why drill with a retrievable liner
drilling system?.................................................. CD-12
Typical problems with retrievable liner drilling systems ................................................................ CD-12
Safety and the environment .................................. CD-13 Conclusion .................................................................. CD-13

Manual
IADC
Safety Toolbox
Essential safety alerts and other tools for the crew on the rig floor
IADC SAFETY TOOLBOX

D E S IG NED TO S H A R P E N S AFET Y S K I L LS
Sharpen your safety skills with the new IADC Safety Toolbox.
Available at no charge at www.IADC.org/safety-toolbox, the
searchable IADC Safety Toolbox provides easy access to key IADC
safety information, including safety alerts, safety meeting topics, near
miss/hit forms, safety posters and more.
The IADC Safety Toolbox is easy to use. Users can narrow their
search by type of operation (rigging up, lifting, etc), incident
classification (LTI, equipment damage, etc.), body part, location (rig
type, etc.), incident type (slip, etc.) and equipment.
The Online Safety Toolbox provides a practical, user-friendly resource

that will seamlessly integrate into daily drilling operations. Contents
include:
• 700 IADC Safety Alerts;

• 125 Safety Meeting Topics for JSAs or other meetings;
• Near Miss/Hit Report forms for both drilling and well
servicing/workover;
• 60 IADC Safety Posters.
The Online Safety Toolbox puts critical safety related tools and
resources directly in the hands of the rig crew, and is one of several
IADC initiatives aimed at enhancing safety in the industry. Access it
today!
www.iadc.org/safety-toolbox
CASING WHILE DRILLING CD–1
Introduction
Casing while drilling (CwD) technology uses the casing string as a drillstring so that casing is landed on bottom
during the drilling process, rather than later in a separate installation process. The technology is typically applied
for purposes of increasing drilling performance, putting trouble zones behind CwD, and enhancing the
integrity/quality of the wellbore from the resulting plastering effect.
CwD can be performed using two kinds of systems: non-retrievable and retrievable. The non-retrievable
system’s assembly comprises a drillable casing bit attached to the bottom of the first joint of casing. A float collar
is usually run between the first and second joints. Drilling torque is transferred from the top drive to the casing
string and drill bit via the casing-running tool. The casing-running tool can be a crossover, a CwD spear or a
premium top-drive CwD system. Once the targeted depth is reached, there is no drill bit to recover through the
casing. Since the float collar is also run in the casing string, cementing can begin immediately. After the cement
is set, the next bottomhole assembly (BHA) drills out the shoe track and the casing drill bit.
With the retrievable system, an underreamer and pilot bit assembly is latched below the casing by means of a
retrievable locking assembly. As the assembly drills ahead, the casing is run in the hole, either in a sliding or
rotating mode. Upon reaching TD, the BHA is unlatched and recovered with a special retrieval tool on drillpipe.
Cementing plugs can then be pumped downhole into a landing profile to complete the cementing process.
In this chapter, CwD systems are discussed first, and then liner drilling is covered. The components of non-
retrievable and retrievable systems and their functions are explained in each section.
Non-retrievable casing while drilling

With non-retrievable CwD, the drillable casing bit is attached to the first joint of casing to eliminate the drillpipe
and hence the need for tripping to recover the bit (see Figure CD-1). This process also eliminates the need for
conventional casing running. CwD faced so much resistance initially since it was thought to create problematic
situations such as stuck pipe and higher equivalent circulating density (ECD) due to narrow annulus. However,
once the technology was implemented, it was observed that these situations were not arising. In addition, there
were unexpected advantages due to the special geometry of CwD and the interaction of the large-diameter pipe
with wellbore wall. This interaction is commonly referred to as the plastering effect.

Manual
Figure CD-1: Non-retrievable casing while drilling. Courtesy Weatherford.
The main component of non-retrievable CwD is the drillable casing bit. Figure CD-2 shows drillable casing bits.
The installation of a separate float collar in the casing string allows the cementation operation to begin
immediately once TD has been reached and to be completed as normal. After waiting on cement, the next drill bit
is run and drills through the shoe track and casing bit before entering new formation. Alternatively, it may be
possible to drill out the shoe track with another casing bit on the next casing string.
The drillable bit ought to reach the objective depth in one run; therefore, rock strength and abrasiveness should
be studied before deciding the footage the drillable bit can drill. Figure CD-3 and Table CD-1 provide some
general guidelines on typical rock types (hardness) drillable with non-retrievable casing drill bits. For applications
outside the acceptable zone, the required footage to be drilled must be analyzed further. Of course, for
applications with softer rocks, simpler designs can be used. It is worth mentioning that in cases where the CwD is
the last section of the well (no drill-out required), conventional bits can be used.

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CD–2 CASING WHILE DRILLING
Figure CD-2: Drillable casing bits. Courtesy Weatherford & Schlumberger.

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Table CD-1: Lithology and rock strength

for non-retrievable CwD
Very low < 4,000 Gumbo, shales, soft shales,
strength psi claystones, unconsolidated (very
soft sands)
chalk, shaley and clayey sandstones,
Low 4,000 -
claystones, shales, (soft) evaporites,
strength 8,000 psi
soft silicones
Conglomerates, sandy and chalky
Medium 8,000 -
limestones, marls, medium-medium
strength 16,000 psi
hard sandstones, hard shales
Hard stringers, hard dolomites,
High 16,000 -
crystalline limestones, brittle (hard)
strength 32,000 psi
shales, hard sandstones
Very fine, tight sandstones, chert,
Very > 32,000
Figure CD-3: Application range for casing drillable bits. quartzite, igneous and
high psi
metamorphic rocks, hard siltstones
Device used for

Description Application
CwD
• Short casing strings (less

500 ft);
It is simply a sub with a drillpipe
• Very large casing string,
connection (box) up and a casing
Waterbushing in. or larger;
connection (pin) down that is
Crossover • Jobs where reducing flat
positioned between the top drive
not the primary considera
and the casing string.
e.g., major hole problems
The string can be rota

CwD spear replaces the
circulated at the sam
conventional threaded crossover,
making the modified Cw
reducing connection time and
an ideal upgrade to t
ultimately making the worksite
CwD Spear used for running casin
safer. The tool is simple to operate
spear can be used to
and is field-serviceable.
conventional casing
CwD spear is connected directly
tools such as sp
to the top drive.
elevators and casing fill-u
ICDT operates in the same way as
the CwD spear. The main ICDT can replace the
Internal Casing difference between the tools is the elevator and fill-up tool.
Drive Tool internal gripping slip area. The provides a mean
(ICDT) ICDT slips are significantly larger simultaneous circ
and have a superior carrying reciprocation and rotation
capacity.
The automated casing

system eliminates the
Internal tools grab the casing from man and allows for safe
Top-Drive
inside and external tools from and reciprocation of the
CwD System
outside. string, making drilling wit
possible with high efficien
Figure CD-4: CwD surface drive system. Courtesy Weatherford.
When drilling with casing, flow rate is considerably less than what is used for a conventionally drilled interval of
equivalent hole size. This is necessary due to the reduced annular clearance and to achieve an optimum ECD.
In soft “top-hole”

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formations, the bit is jetted for a large total flow area (TFA) as the best drilling performance is achieved by
maximizing flow rate. In more competent formations, the bit is jetted to achieve the same hydraulic horsepower or
as close as can be

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Rubber liner with

straight flutes
Venting
holes
Figure CD-5: Rotating centralizers for CwD - hardfaced and non-hardfaced. Courtesy Schlumberger.

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Figure CD-6: Non-rotating centralizers for CwD. Courtesy Weatherford.
obtained to conventional best practice without running jets smaller than 12/32.
Drilling parameters when drilling with a CwD system are similar to what are used to drilling a convention interval
with a PDC bit cutting the same size hole (both in terms of WOB and RPM). The casing string is commonly used
to turn the bit in excess of 100 rpm. In order to achieve rate of penetration (ROP) that is equivalent to
conventional operations, it is necessary to provide the same amount of energy towards the destruction of rock
both mechanically and hydraulically.
Enhanced rig equipment - surface drive systems

When drilling conventionally, the drillstring is connected to the top drive by a crossover sub. A crossover from
casing to the top drive is not a standard piece of rig equipment and is probably not available on the rig unless it
has been pre-ordered. Applications engineers will ensure that the crossover is correctly specified to support the
string weight, transmit rotary torque and seal against hydraulic pressure. Non-retrievable CwD can be
accomplished using several methods to rotate the casing string (Figure CD-4).
CwD centralizers
In most vertical surface or intermediate CwD applications, centralization is not a concern. If the CwD or liner
drilling system is deployed in a deviated well, it is critical that the centralizers installed onto the casing are
designed to withstand the harsh drilling environment. One strategy that has been routinely employed is to attach
a solid body hy- dro-formed centralizer to the body of the casing by crimping it in place. The crimping process
ensures the centralizer remains in place both axially and torsionally and also ensures the contact necessary
between the casing and wellbore wall for the plastering effect to occur.
Another method of centralizing casing is using a non-rotating centralizer with an internal rubber lining (see Figure
CD- 6). The centralizer has a solid body, and the rubber lining

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acts as a bearing to eliminate casing wear as well as to reduce friction and potential damage. This type of
centralizer has been shown to effectively reduce the amount of torque required when drilling with casing. But
because it reduces the mechanical contact with the wellbore wall, it must be used with caution in wells that
depend on the wellbore strengthening of the plastering effect.
Spray metal technology can also be used to build centralizers, stabilizers and wear bands directly onto casing
for drilling (see Figure CD-7). The resulting blades, ribs and bands are at least as wear-resistant as steel.
CwD connections, torque rings and wear bands/ sleeves

Casing is designed to be run, not to be drilled with. Hence, certain modifications might be necessary to allow for
drilling with standard casing. These include:
• Premium CwD connections;
• Torque rings for buttress connections in absence of special CwD connections to create a positive shouldered
makeup;
• Wear bands/sleeves to protect the casing/couplings from wear as well as from abrasive environments.
Figure CD-7: Sprayed-on centralizers/stabilizers for CwD. Courtesy Weatherford.

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CwD connections. Courtesy Tenaris.

Manual
CwD connections. Courtesy U.S. Steel.

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the plastering of drill cuttings, the true mechanism is not yet well understood. Pipe size and annular clearance have
been reported as the critical parameters for increasing wellbore strength. The other factors include the casing’s
contact with the wellbore wall, rotary speed, mud type, time, stress anisot- ropy, mud hydraulics, thermal effects and
penetration rate.
Operations
Non-retrievable CwD systems are made up in the rotary table in similar fashion to how casing connection and ac-
cessories are installed into a standard shoe track. The main differences will be in the connection type and the
amount of torque used to make-up all connections in the string (should be 20% higher than the maximum
expected torque required to drill to TD). This may require power tongs. Floats are installed in the string that are
rated for the expected circulating hours that are required to reach TD and cement the interval. The placement of
the floats is as per the operators requirements on the amount of shoe track desired. Any centralization installed
on the string is recommended to be done prior to the arrival of the casing to the rig.
Wear bands/Sleeves. Courtesy TESCO.
Torque rings. Courtesy Premiere.
Figure CD-8: CwD accessories.
Plastering effect
In addition to increasing drilling performance, CwD technology has also shown strong potential for drilling in
weak sections to mitigate lost circulation and wellbore instability problems and reduce NPT in drilling operations,
specifically in narrow pore-fracture pressure sedimentary basins and deep offshore applications. It offers hydraulic
improvements and the ability to plaster cuttings to the wellbore wall, which may restore the wellbore’s hoop stress
by wedging the cre- ated fractures and/or by increasing the fracture propagation pressure. Additionally, because of
the larger pipe-to-annulus size ratio of CwD compared to conventional drilling, the casing rotation forms a better
mud cake (see Figure CD-9). Although the increased wellbore containment is explained by

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The casing is tripped into the hole using the same methods as conventional. It is recommended to fill the string at
regular intervals during the trip. After reaching bottom, drilling can proceed according to the parameters specific
to the bit used and optimized to the specific application. When making connections, time in slips should be
minimized as much as possible. If any positive indication of flow is detected, the well can be controlled using the
casing rams sized to the casing string, in the same way well control is implemented when running casing. After
reaching TD, the well should be circulated till shakers are clean prior to rigging up for cement. Ce- menting
operations are similar to conventional operations.
Why drill with a non-retrievable CwD system?

Advantages include:
• Increased ROP in soft formations (eliminate need for control drilling due to improved hole cleaning);
• Minimize rig time and floor operations by eliminating dedicated casing run;
• Utilize the benefits of plastering effect to:
• Reduce or eliminate the risk of lost circulation;
• Reduce differential sticking while drilling depleted sands;
• Extend casing point to eliminate casing/liner string;
• Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on well.
One key advantage of CwD with a non-retrievable system involves the ability to take advantage of the high ROP
ex- perienced while drilling large outer diameter (OD) vertical top-hole sections. Drilling these top-hole sections
has become an increasingly common practice for offshore wells in multiple locations.

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Figure CD-9: A and B describe two plausible mechanisms of plastering effect to increase wellbore integrity. Courtesy
Weatherford.
Typical non-retrievable CwD problems

• High torque: Because the casing is larger in diameter and heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the
pipe to TD is often much greater;
• Hydraulics: As the casing is larger in diameter than drillpipe, the annulus between the casing and the drilled hole
is much smaller; therefore, the hydraulics must be redesigned. Even with optimal mud rheology and reduced flow,
it is very difficult to plan for CwD intervals deeper than 15,000 ft (5,000 m) due to higher ECDs that become
increasingly hard to manage at greater depths;
• Tripping casing: The bit must make the minimum casing depth in a single run to be successful. If the bit is unable
to drill the planned footage to an acceptable casing point, the only option is to trip the casing to replace the bit.
Retrievable casing while drilling

Retrievable CwD systems provide all the advantages of a non-retrievable system but add the flexibility to
incorporate directional and measuring/logging while drilling (M/LWD) tools to both steer and log the well while
drilling. Whereas a non-retrievable system must guarantee that the entire interval be drilled in a single run,
retrievable systems allow multiple trips to replace the drill bit or any other failed logging or directional component
of the BHA. A retrievable system also assures that the casing can be run to TD, and it captures many of the
savings that have been proven when CwD vertical wells.
The same casing-running systems, centralizers and connections used with non-retrievable CwD are also used for
the retrievable systems. Retrievable CwD systems use a special coupling with an internal profile installed above the
last joint in the casing string.

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The full retrievable CwD will consist of the individual components listed below and shown in Figure CD-10. Also
required will be the casing accessories to provide centralization for cementing and stabilization for drilling.
Locking assembly
The locking assembly must facilitate several requirements in order for the remainder of the assembly to effectively
drill with casing. The assembly must allow:
• Hydraulic isolation: All drilling fluid pumped from surface must be directed from the casing into the locking
assembly, into the drillpipe BHA and ultimately through the bit below;
• Crossover from the casing to drillpipe connection: Engaging the locking assembly in the profile nipple provides a
downward-facing drillpipe connection used to connect the drillpipe BHA to the casing used to drive the string from
surface;
• Weight-on-bit transfer: The locking mechanism must allow weight on bit to be transferred from surface to the
cutting structure;
• Torsional transfer: The locking mechanism must transfer the torque that allows the drillpipe BHA to rotate at the
same RPM as the string is turning at surface;
• BHA retrieval: The locking assembly must be able to be used in tandem with drillpipe, wireline or hydraulic
retrieval tools to convey the drillpipe BHA through the internal diameter (ID) of the casing string on multiple trips.
Internal duplex stabilizer

The internal duplex stabilizer is used to stabilize the drillpipe BHA inside the casing shoe joint below the locking
assembly. This configuration provides lateral stabilization and ensures concentricity of the drillpipe BHA as it
exits the casing shoe joint.

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Figure CD-10: CwD BHA with conventional positive displacement motor. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Underreamer
As all components in the drillstring BHA must be smaller than the drift of the casing to allow conveyance in and
out of the hole, an underreamer must be used to open hole larger than the casing’s outer diameter. With respect
to hydraulics, it is most common to underream the hole to the same size that would be used to drill the interval
conventionally. For instance, when drilling an interval with 9 5⁄8-in casing, a 12
¼-in underreamer would be used in tandem with an 8 ½-in pilot bit.
Successful directional CwD operations require more than simply having directional tools available that can be run
below the casing. BHA response may be quite different when CwD as compared to drilling with conventional
systems. Extensive pre-project planning must be completed, including hydraulics analysis, torque-and-drag
modeling, casing connection analysis and selection, and BHA design. Well- site implementation and successful
execution of operational procedures at the wellsite are critical to success.
Retrievable CwD BHAs are primarily arranged into three categories:

• Directional with conventional positive displacement motor (PDM);
• Directional with rotary steerable systems;
• Short stick-out assemblies (tangents and loss zones).
CwD with a conventional PDM is similar to drilling with a conventional assembly. The motor orientations are ex-
tremely easy when drilling with the casing because there is very little twist between the surface and motor. For ex-
ample, Figure CD-11 shows the toolface for about five minutes during which time the motor stalled, the drillstring
was picked up and the motor restarted. The tool face changed less than 10° when the string was picked up and
returned to its original position when drilling resumed.
For larger sizes of casing, no loss of efficiency occurs while drilling with the steerable tools below the casing,
allowing the operator to take full advantage of the faster tripping and trouble avoidance benefits provided by CwD.
Improved hole

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cleaning while drilling through offshore top-hole intervals has eliminated the standard practice of control drilling
and allowed wells to be drilled significantly faster with casing than with conventional drillstrings. Directional drilling
with smaller casing may sacrifice some drilling efficiency due to the requirement to use smaller motors.
Figure CD-11: Tool face change when CwD
Rotary steerable-based retrievable CwD assemblies, as shown in Figure CD-12, provide a unique synergy by
having both the drilling hazard mitigation benefits of the plastering effect and superior hole cleaning by allowing
the assembly to be steered with continuous rotation. CwD assemblies with conventional PDMs must sacrifice
these benefits over the footage where steering is required.
The drilling hazard mitigation aspects of CwD only occur after the formation drilled comes into contact with the
casing component of the drillstring. For this reason, it is critical to manage the length of drillpipe that projects
below the casing shoe or stick-out. In highly unstable formations or where large amounts of fluids are lost to the
formation, it is critical to begin applying the plastering effect as soon as possible. In these circumstances, a short
stick-out BHA, as shown in Figure CD-13, is a preferred design hold angle while drilling through difficult formations.
It can also be used while drilling vertical intervals where more than one bit trip is required to reach TD.

Manual
Figure CD-12: CwD BHA with rotary steerable system. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Additional advantages specific to a retrievable system include:

• Capability of active directional control [steerable motor or
rotary steerable system (RSS) in BHA];
• Ability to run logging tools in BHA;
• Contingency operations to run
Figure CD-13: CwD with short stick-out BHA. Courtesy Schlumberger.

Manual
subsequent BHAs;
• Eliminate open-hole tripping of
Operations
Retrievable casing drilling BHAs are made up in two sections. First the conventional BHA is picked up and run in
hole. Sec- ondly, the shoe joint is picked up, and the BHA is made up to the first joint of casing. The casing is then
tripped into the hole using the same methods as conventional. It is recommended to fill the string at regular intervals
during the trip. After reaching bottom, drilling can proceed according to the parameters specific to the BHA design
used and optimized to the specific application. When making connections, the amount of time the casing is in
slips should be minimized as much as possible. If any positive indication of flow is detected while drilling, the
well can be controlled using the casing rams sized to the casing string, in the same way well control is
implemented when running casing. If any positive indication of flow is detected while conducting BHA setting or
retrieval operations, a casing circulating tool is used along with the casing rams to secure the well. After reaching
TD, the well should be circulated until shakers are clean prior to rigging up for cement. As cementing floats are
not present in the string, a cement plug is pumped into a landing profile to cement the interval.
Why drill with a retrievable CwD system?

Similar to non-retrievable casing drilling systems, advantages include:

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BHA and risks associated with stuck pipe/LIH.
The same advantages can be obtained by the user whether running a retrievable or non-retrievable casing
system, however, the retrievable CwD system further enables the capability to run any choice of BHA
components (directional and/or M/LWD).
Typical retrievable CwD problems

• High torque: Because the casing is larger [in terms of outside diameter (OD)] and heavier than drillpipe, the torque
required to rotate the pipe to TD is often much greater. This is especially true in directional wells;
• Hydraulics: As the casing is larger (in terms of OD) and the annulus between the casing and the drilled hole is
much smaller, the hydraulics must be redesigned. Even with optimum mud rheology and reduced flow, it is very
difficult to plan for CwD intervals deeper than 15,000 ft (5,000 m) due to higher ECDs that become increasingly
hard to manage at greater depths;
• Stick-out management: The benefits of CwD do not occur until the casing itself reaches the formations of concern.
For example, if the directional/logging BHA extends 120 ft past the casing shoe and the ROP is 40 ft/ hr, three
hours of drilling are required before any benefit of plastering effect (reduction in losses, for example) may be
realized;
• Fatigue management: The fatigue performance of the liner pipe and connections is well understood. The safe
number of total revolutions allowed for any given application is calculated in pre-job analysis, and total revolutions
are also monitored during job site execution to ensure the liner can be used to safely drill to TD. Fatigue
management is most critical when high doglegs are predicted to cause high levels of reversing stresses on the
liner and its connections. The table below shows

Manual
the doglegs limits below which the onset of accumulated fatigue damage to the casing/liner and connections is not
of concern.
Casing Size Dogleg to initiate fatigue

4 ½ in. 8°
7 in. 5°
9 in. 3°
13 in. 1.5°
Wells are commonly drilled with higher doglegs than shown in the table above; however, advanced fatigue
analysis should be performed to ensure the accumulated fatigue is within safe limits.
Liner drilling
Numerous operators have utilized the benefits of CwD to successfully drill through challenging zones, saving both
time and money through increased safety and efficiency, reduced NPT and the inherent ability to keep every ft
drilled. Liner drilling, which retains these advantages, must be used in applications where CwD is not employable
because of hydraulic, torque or well construction limitations. In cases of drilling the liner through incompetent
formations, the wellbore strengthening provided by rotating the liner casing against the open hole is anticipated to
assist in the reduction of losses and hole sloughing, the widening of the pore pressure-fracture gradient (PP-FG)
windows and the potential improvement of the section’s formation leak-off test (LOT), any of which may permit
deeper casing points to be realized as opposed to drilling these sections conventionally.
In some cases of drilling deep wells, where the ability to deploy CwD is limited by the loading of the casing
connections near the surface, a liner drilling system can be adopted because drillpipe is situated from the top
drive to the liner top. This allows the transfer of higher surface loads to the drillstring, as the peak loading is seen
on the drillpipe at the rig floor. The maximum load applied to the liner string is at the casing connection just below
the liner top and is limited to the torsional and axial loads required to rotate and convey the liner pipe alone, as all
drilling loads are transmitted to the BHA via an inner string.
When liner drilling operations are applied in reservoir or intervals with hydrocarbon bearing formations, well
control is of paramount importance. When drilling with the liner, drillpipe will always be positioned across the
BOP and allows for well control operations using the same procedures and equipment as a conventional drilling
scenario.
Objectives for implementing liner drilling systems depend

Manual
on the benefits necessary to complete the section as quickly, safely and efficiently as possible. On the rig floor,
safety and efficiency of casing running and drilling operations are improved by the use of the automated casing-
running system. Below the rotary table, the benefit of always having the drillstring across open hole, even while
tripping BHAs, can assist in reducing NPT associated with open-hole problems, such as sloughing, influx, losses,
and surge and swab. In many cases, improved drilling windows help to mitigate the above issues and potentially
allow for casing seats to be pushed deeper, reducing the number of casing or liner strings required to reach TD.
Due to the fact that during liner drilling operations are most likely to be applied when drilling into the reservoir, well
control is of paramount importance. When drilling with the liner, drillpipe is always positioned across the BOP and
in such allows for well control operations without restrictions. This is a considerable advantage when compared
to normal casing drilling operations, where the casing is positioned across the BOP and might require particular
BOP configurations.
Non-retrievable liner drilling

Non-retrievable liner drilling technology enables drilling the liner into the well across depleted or loss zones or
unstable formations, setting the hanger and packer, and cementing in a single trip. Figure CD-14 shows the
non-retrievable liner drilling system and the components of the assembly.
Non-retrievable liner drilling/setting sequence

The installation sequence shows a premium liner drilling system complete with liner top packer, liner hanger, liner
wiper plug and drill bit (see Figure CD-15). The operation is set up to activate the system from a single setting
ball, cement the liner, set the packer and retrieve the running tools. The time and complexity of the setting
sequence are consistent with that of a conventional liner system.
A top-drive CwD system is used to trip the liner into the hole with the drillable casing bit on bottom. The string is
stabilized using casing stabilization capable of surviving the drilling process. The interval is drilled from surface,
much as in a conventional drilling operation. Attention is paid to managing the narrow annulus between the liner
and parent casing as well as monitoring torque and vibration of the assembly in open hole. After the target depth
of the interval has been achieved, the liner hanger is set and cementation begins. The cementation process ends
with the packer being set and the top of cement being reversed off the liner top. The running tool is then tripped out
of hole.
If for any reason the target depth of the interval is not reached, the liner must be tripped completely out of hole in
order to replace the drillable casing bit. In addition, as no

Manual
Figure CD-14: Non-retrievable liner drilling. Courtesy Weatherford.
Figure CD-15: Non-retrievable liner drilling setting sequence. Courtesy Weatherford.

Manual
CASING WHILE DRILLING CD–
11
Figure CD-16: Retrievable liner drilling. Courtesy Schlumberger.
active directional control is possible, non-retrievable liner drilling assemblies are typically reserved for vertical
applications or short tangent sections.
Why drill with a non-retrievable liner drilling system?

Advantages include:
A key advantage of drilling with non-directional liner drilling systems is the mitigation of drilling hazards through
the plastering effect and the subsequent reduction in associated rig time due to lost circulation and stuck pipe events
that occur when drilling unstable or depleted zones with conventional methods.
Typical problems with a non-retrievable liner drilling system

• High torque: Though the liner is larger in diameter and heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the pipe
to TD is greater, but often not significantly greater than a conventional BHA. This is of course dependent on liner
length and wellbore geometry, but with liner drilling systems, torque is far less limiting that in CwD systems, as the
large diameter tubular extends only a fraction of the distance from TD to surface. As the drilling torque in most
liner drilling systems runs through the liner connections, the connection must be capable of handling this safely;
• Hydraulics: The annulus between the liner and the drilled hole is much smaller, as the liner is much larger in
diameter than drillpipe. This geometrical change requires careful consideration when planning the drilling
hydraulics. The hydraulics are even different from what is seen when CwD; because the liner does not extend to
the surface, superior hole cleaning above the liner top may be difficult to achieve. Careful consideration must be
taken when planning the mud rheology and flow rates to balance the generation of high ECDs with

Manual
sufficient cuttings-carrying capability above the liner. This is critical to manage and becomes increasingly more
difficult when the liner top is set at higher inclinations;
• Tripping liner: The bit must make the minimum liner depth in a single run to be successful. If the bit is unable to
drill the planned footage to reach an acceptable liner point, the only option is to trip the liner to replace the bit.
Retrievable liner drilling

Retrievable liner drilling technology enables the liner to be drilled directionally across depleted or loss zones or
unstable formations while simultaneously logging the well. As the inner string and BHA are designed to drift
through the liner, the operator has the ability to retrieve the BHA to the surface at will. While replacing the BHA,
the liner is temporarily parked in tension anywhere in the wellbore. Additionally, if the liner becomes stuck, the
BHA can still be pulled safely to surface, leaving a usable wellbore through which to drill the next section.
After reaching TD, the liner is permanently hung, and the drill/logging BHA is retrieved to surface before running the
cementing assembly in hole on a second trip. Figure CD-16 shows the component of the retrievable liner drilling
system assembly.
The drilling assembly is composed of six main components:

• Drilling BHA (below liner shoe);
• Inner string (including BHA below liner shoe);
• Liner string;
• Liner drilling tool;
• Liner top equipment.
The drilling BHA consists of the bit, directional tools, MWD tools, the underreamer and any other BHA
components that are positioned below the liner shoe. The drilling BHA provides all functions of steering,
measurement and hole enlargement required to achieve the goals of the planned liner interval.
The inner string in this application is used to transmit the torque and weight on bit from the liner-running tool to the
drilling BHA.
The liner string in this application is removed from the

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torque path between the liner drilling tool and the drilling BHA. The liner string is conveyed from the start of drilling
to the end of the planned interval with minimum torque applied across its length.
The liner drilling tool is used to cross over from the liner string to the drillpipe. It transmits torque and WOB from
surface through the liner and to the BHA below. The liner-running tool is also used to convey the liner top packer
required to isolate the drilled interval after drilling is complete.
The liner equipment includes the liner hanger and the pol- ished bore receptacle (PBR). A liner top packer is
introduced during the cementing run after the retrievable BHA has been retrieved. The liner top packer isolates
the drilled-in liner from the parent casing string and is activated immediately following cementing operations.
Why drill with a retrievable liner drilling system?

Similar to non-retrievable liner drilling systems, advantages include:
Additional advantages specific to a retrievable system include:

• Capability of active directional control (steerable motor or RSS in BHA);
• Ability to run logging tools in BHA;
• Contingency operations to run subsequent BHAs;
• Eliminate open-hole tripping of BHA and risks associated with stuck pipe/LIH.
The same advantages can be obtained by the user whether running a retrievable or non-retrievable casing
system; however, the retrievable casing while drilling system further enables the capability to run any choice of
BHA components (directional and/or M/LWD).
Typical problems with retrievable liner drilling systems

• High torque: Though the liner is larger in diameter and heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the pipe
to TD is greater, but often not significantly greater than a conventional BHA. This is of course dependent on liner
length and wellbore geometry, but with liner while

Manual
drilling systems, torque is far less limiting that in casing while drilling systems as the large diameter tubular
extends only a fraction of the distance from TD to surface. As the drilling torque in most liner drilling systems runs
through the liner connections, the connection must be capable of handling this safely;
• Hydraulics: The annulus between the liner and the drilled hole is much smaller, as the liner is much larger in
diameter than drillpipe. This geometrical change requires careful consideration when planning the drilling hydraulics.
The hydraulics are even different from what is seen when casing while drilling; because the liner does not extend
to the surface, superior hole cleaning above the liner top may be difficult to achieve. Careful consideration must
be taken when planning the mud rheology and flow rates to balance the generation of high ECDs with sufficient
cuttings-carrying capability above the liner. This is critical to manage and becomes increasingly more difficult
when the liner top is set at higher inclinations.
• Stick-out management: The benefits of plastering effect do not occur until the liner shoe reaches the formations of
concern. For example, if the directional/logging BHA extends 120 ft past the casing shoe and the ROP is 40 ft/ hr,
three hours of drilling are required before any benefit (reduction in losses, for example) may be realized.
• Fatigue management: The fatigue performance of the liner pipe and connections is well understood. The safe
number of total revolutions allowed for any given application is calculated in pre-job analysis and total revolutions
are also monitored during jobsite execution to ensure the liner can be used to safely drill to TD. Fatigue
management is most critical when high doglegs are predicted to cause high levels of reversing stresses on the
liner and its connections. The table below shows the doglegs limits below which the onset of accumulated fatigue
damage to the casing/liner and connections is not of concern.
Wells are commonly drilled with higher doglegs than shown in the table above; however, advanced fatigue
analysis should be performed to ensure the accumulated fatigue is within safe limits.
Casing Size Dogleg to initiate fatigue
4 ½ in. 8°
7 in. 5°
9 in. 3°
13 in. 1.5°

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Safety and the environment

The CwD process offers significant improvements related to safety and the environment relative to conventional
casing-running operations. As for safety, the floor becomes crowded on many rigs when the conventional
casing-running equipment is rigged up while drillpipe is racked in the derrick. The casing tongs are often
operated from scaffold- ing set up on the floor as a work platform. A workman is positioned in the derrick to help
align the casing joint in the elevators. The overall result is an increased potential for falls from elevated work
positions as well as for injuries from being caught between pieces of equipment as the casing is picked up, made
up and run.
Due to the reduced flow and standpipe pressure requirements of the CwD process, the rig is able to use
significantly less fuel during the drilling process. This efficiency gain results in a net fuel saving that is not only a
significant cost savings, but also an environmental benefit that reduces the carbon footprint of the drilling process.

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Conclusion
The CwD and liner drilling processes are currently being used by the industry to improve drilling efficiency in
some applications and to provide drilling hazard mitigation in others. These processes must be implemented with
careful attention to ensure that the torque required to reach TD as well as any fatigue accumulated during drilling
does not affect the ability of the casing to secure the wellbore after it is cemented in place. Standard practices
used with conventional drilling must be reevaluated in the context of the narrow annulus and adjusted where
necessary in order to optimize drilling performance.
The current toolbox gives the industry the ability to drill nearly any interval with either a casing or liner drilling
solution. Because of its increased ROP and superior hole cleaning, CwD is fast becoming the standard approach
to drilling top- hole intervals, both vertical and directional, as the process simplifies operations by eliminating the
need to run casing after reaching TD. As more wells are drilled in increasingly unstable or depleted formations,
the technology becomes more valuable, as it provides economical and technical solutions for achieving drilling
objectives. As the understanding of the mechanism for the plastering effect of CwD becomes better understood,
the shift from anticipating a benefit to predicting the benefit as part of pre-planning the well will continue to expand
the value of this emerging technology.

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CE
CEMENTING
IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition

THE IADC LEXICON
DEFI NI NG THE DRI LLI NG SPACE!
IADC Lexicon puts critical definitions at your fingertips.

Imagine thousands of the most pertinent definitions and terms
relevant to drilling, all in a single convenient repository – the
IADC Lexicon. The IADC Lexicon draws from the most critical
legislation, regulations, standards and guidelines worldwide.
The European Union requested that IADC, as the authority in the
drilling space, create the Lexicon to aid in regulation and
understanding our industry. Use the IADC Lexicon as a dictionary
or to quickly and easily identify a relevant standard, guideline or
regulation. Or, use it as a template to develop instructions for
your own company.
www.iadclexicon.or
g
CEMENTING CE–i
C HAP T E R
CE
CEMENTING
he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
Texpertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in
developing the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training,
and equipment maintenance and repair.
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual
drilling company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling
Manual may conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local
rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is
responsible for his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be
aware that technology
and practices advance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If
professional engineering expertise is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought.
Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept,
method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.
AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS

Ron Sweatman, Baker Hughes Kate H. Baker, Consultant Anthony Badalamenti, Consultant Glen Benge, Consultant
Louis Bone, Halliburton
Ramy Eid, Repsol
Barbara Kutchko, U.S. DOE
K.K. La Fleur, Consultant
George Morgan, Derrick Equipment Co.
IADC
Dan Mueller, ConocoPhillips Sam Pickett, Drilling
Chesapeake AlfredoCopyright
Sanchez,©Top-Co
2015 David Stiles, ExxonMobil
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CE–ii CEMENTING
Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
International Association of Drilling Contractors 10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760

Houston, Texas 77042 USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-5-5

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CEMENTING Contents CE-iii
C HAP T E R CE
Conte
CEMENT
ING
nts
Preface CE-1
Cementing and safety .................................................CE-1
Personal safety ........................................................CE-1
JSA topics to consider ...........................................CE-1
Operational risk management ............................CE-1 Introduction ...................................................................CE-1
Relevancy of cementing for the drilling process. CE-2 Well cementing purposes ........................................ CE-2
How cement works in well applications ......... CE-3
Types of cementing jobs and reasons for and types of cementing .......................................................................
CE-3
Primary jobs ............................................................ CE-3 Setting casing strings ........................................ CE-3
Squeeze cementing............................................... CE-3
Plug cementing ...................................................... CE-5
Lost circulation cement squeezes
and plugs ................................................................ CE-6
Cementing through the bit.........................................CE-7 Preparing the well and wellsite
for cementing ................................................................CE-7
Pre-job meeting .................................................... CE-8
Preparing the well for cementing ..................... CE-8 Hole conditioning with casing on bottom ...... CE-8 Rig
personnel support of
cementing operations .......................................... CE-8
Rigging up and pressure testing
treatment lines ....................................................... CE-9
Components of a high-pressure line ............... CE-9 Job design, pumping and
displacing cement...................................................... CE-10
Estimating job volumes (cement, mix water, spacers, displacement) ..................................... CE-11

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Estimating cement volumes................................CE-12
Hole size determination .................................... CE-12 Area experience and excess cement............. CE-12
Addressing lost circulation in cement
job design .............................................................. CE-13
Mix water volumes ............................................ CE-13
Spacer volumes.................................................... CE-13
Water sources and supply................................ CE-13 Estimating displacement volumes.................. CE-14 Hole-
size determination
Job time.................................................................. CE-14
Pump rates and pressures ................................ CE-14 Wait on cement (WOC) time and post-job rig
operations ................................................................... CE-14
Cements and cement additives ............................ CE-14 Conditions and required properties............... CE-14
Cement additives ................................................ CE-15
Cement slurry properties.................................. CE-15
Cementing strings and associated hardware, including casing running tools ............................... CE-16
Casing cementing string hardware ................ CE-16 Guides & floating equipment........................... CE-18 Liner
cementing tools.........................................CE-20
Casing running tools .........................................CE-20
Conventional equipment/tools ....................... CE-21 Next-generation tools ........................................ CE-21
Mechanized equipment.....................................CE-23
Cement evaluation ...................................................CE-23
Outlook ........................................................................ CE-24

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IADC Technical Resources
IADC TECHNICAL
RESOURCES
E N H A N C E S RI G CREW E X P E R T I S E
IADC brings the collective knowledge and experience of the global

drilling industry to the workforce through industry-developed print,
electronic and multimedia tools and resources accessible in one
convenient location.
From books to industry news to manuals and more—IADC is the
definitive source.
The Technical Resources Center contains a variety of items, including:
• IADC Bookstore and e-Bookstore: textbooks, guidelines, checklists,
model contracts and more.
• Online Safety Toolbox: Safety Alerts, safety meeting topics, near
hit/miss forms and safety posters.
• Knowledge, Skill & Ability (KSA) Competencies Database: filter
competencies based on various criteria and generate a unique set of
KSAs for each type of position on a rig.
• Industry news: quick access to Drilling Contractor magazine and
IADC Drill Bits
newsletter.
• Reports: Onshore and Offshore US Federal Regulatory Summaries
and the International Regulatory Summary provide easy to access
updated information on industry regulation.
www.IADC.org/technical-resources
CEMENTING CE–
1
Preface
The Cementing Chapter contains information on the operational aspects and importance of cementing practices
as they relate to drilling rigs. This chapter is intended as resource to help crews conduct safe and effective
cementing operations, enabling wells to be drilled, completed, and operated more safely and efficiently.
Cementing and safety

Regardless of their location or industry, nearly all safety professionals contend that “the potential to cause harm”
is what defines a safety hazard. In the oil and gas industry, a safety hazard often requires a more complete
definition: a condition or activity that, if left unattended or uncontrolled, has the potential to injure workers, harm
the environment or threaten assets.
Whether on land or offshore, the cementing process includes the same basic steps:
• Mobilize resources: equipment and materials;

• Access the well: rig up the equipment;
• Perform the job: cement the well;
• Rig down equipment;
• Demobilize resources (equipment, materials, and personnel).
Cementing is part of the larger drilling process, and drilling is a part of the overall well construction process.
These processes present safety hazards, of which there are two types: personal safety hazards and process
safety hazards. The discipline of personal safety provides methods that enable personnel to work in the safest
manner possible. Process safety, or operational risk management, includes procedures to mitigate operational
risks that have the potential to injure workers and damage material, physical assets and the environment.
Personal safety
Job Safety Analysis (JSA) is widely used by contractors, operators and service companies to identify and mitigate
safety hazards. By co-conducting preliminary job reviews, employees and managers can gain a shared ownership
in a safety program that reduces and helps control risk.
JSA topics to consider

• Driving safety: traveling to land location or offshore load out point;
• Personal protection Equipment: hard hats, safety glasses, gloves, etc;
• Lock out tag out: equipment maintenance;
• Rig-up and rig-down procedures and assignments;

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• Hand tools: equipment maintenance;
• Work permit: hot work, high pressure, noise;
• Confined space: working in pits or tanks;
• Working at heights: rigging up equipment, iron, plug containers;
• Dropped objects: hand tools, service iron;
• Lifting and handling: iron, chemicals, related materials;
• Stop Work authority: when in doubt, STOP;
• Slips, trips and falls;
• Pressurized equipment;
• Chemical handling: movement, mixing of fluids (e.g., drilling mud, cement).
Operational risk management

A sound operational risk management program should enable analysis of operational components: equipment
design and functionality, and operating and maintenance procedures. The resulting assessments will help
mitigate the risk associated with job related tasks and help wellsite personnel guard against the uncontrolled release
of hazardous materials or energy that could harm workers, property and the environment.
Prior to conducting an operation, the answers to several questions should be obtained:

• Have well conditions changed between “designed for and as drilled”?
• Can the equipment being used perform as required?
• Has the equipment been properly maintained and readied for service?
• Do the personnel involved understand the cementing procedure and can it be safely conducted?
• Is the well ready to be cemented?
Operators and service companies have HSE, (health safety and environmental) guidelines that pertain to
personal and process safety. These guidelines should be known, discussed and followed. Maintaining a
disciplined process safety culture increases personnel health, environmental sustainability, and asset integrity.
Introduction
The process of cementing oil and gas wells requires close cooperation between the well operator, the drilling
contractor, the cementing service company and the drilling fluids company. This section of the IADC Drilling
Manual outlines the relevant cementing process concepts as they relate to establishing zonal isolation and
provides insight into the efforts made by the drilling contractor’s personnel to achieve this goal.

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CE–2 CEMENTING
Relevancy of cementing for the drilling process

Safely and efficiently establishing zonal isolation through cementing is one of the most essential operations in well
construction. More recently, in granting approval for drilling permits and for progressive stages of the drilling
process, oil and gas regulators have placed increased emphasis on the importance cementing plans and their
execution. In reaction to this, the API/IADC Joint Industry Task Force recognized cementing as a key part of a safe
drilling process and for- mally proposed this to the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI). As a result, the DOI’s
Bureau of Safety and Environ- mental Enforcement (BSEE) adopted the proposed safe drilling process by
incorporating API RP 65 Part 2 and later API Standard 65 Part 2 (65-2) into a new federal regulation. API
Standard 65-2 includes best drilling practices to improve primary cementing. BSEE now requires that API
Standard 65-2 practices for well cementing be followed as a condition for receiving a permit to drill in waters and
on lands that are held by the federal government.
Regulating bodies in other parts of the world are now adopt- ing or considering similar requirements. New API
publica- tions and revised editions strongly advocate the cementing process as a primary means to safe drilling.
The API RP 96 publication entitled “Deepwater Well Design and Construc- tion” makes many references to API
Standard 65-2 practices, making it a “normative” reference, (e.g., to comply with RP 96 practices, operators
must also comply with practices in API Standard 65-2).
Well cementing purposes

The principal reason for cementing in well construction is to fill the annular space between the casing and the
wellbore with cement over specified formations or depth intervals.
A cemented annulus provides several operational advantages: structural support for casing strings, corrosion
preven- tion, and a barrier to prevent annular flow of oil, gas or water from one subsurface zone to another or to
the surface.
The principles and processes for establishing and maintaining cement as a barrier are central to providing well
integrity. Establishing a barrier is especially important when the wellbore is constructed across certain intervals:
• Fresh-water aquifers that hold usable sources of water;

• Potential flow zones: permeable formations or those that can be fractured;
• Hydrocarbon-bearing zones;
• Between production zones that might become drawn down or over pressured relative to one another during the
life of a field;

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• Across naturally occurring pore pressure ramps to prevent interzonal flow.
Placing cement across and at sufficient height to be above potential flow zones should be considered, as it will
ensure these areas of the well are isolated and the annular cement is providing a barrier. It is very important to
preserve isolation between subsurface sections that have, or are expected to develop, different pressure gradients.
This may require proper placement of cement across impermeable zones to ensure the wellbore does not
become a leak point through the natural pressure barrier.
A properly cemented annulus prevents formation fluids from flowing into the annular space. Formation brines are
often highly corrosive to the steel used in tubulars. Accord- ingly, preventing such fluid movement will help protect
casing from corrosion. A properly cemented annulus can also provide the structural integrity to endure certain
stresses:
• Axial loads arising from the suspended weight of subsequent casing strings, liners, BOPs or marine risers;
• Axial loads from thermal expansion and contraction during drilling operations that may result in buckling or
extensional yield;
• Subsidence-induced strains associated with hydrocarbon extraction;
• Side loads arising from mobile formations or geologic faults that may result in shear failure;
• Stresses associated with completion operations such as hydraulic fracturing, thermal stresses anticipated during
production and injection operations or unanticipated drilling and production operations issues that may result in
burst or collapse failure.
Cement may also be placed in an open-hole for several reasons:
• Plugging back for abandonment of a hole section to achieve zonal isolation and prevent flow to and from an
abandoned borehole;
• Plugging back to sidetrack a well in which the cement plug must also provide enough integrity to enable the bit
and bottomhole assembly to establish the new wellbore trajectory;
• Squeezing or pumping cement into the formation exposed in the open-hole section making remediation necessary,
lost circulation, to repair leaks, or strengthen the exposed casing shoe.
Cement is also used in applications presented in other sections of this chapter.

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CEMENTING CE–3
How cement works in well applications

Because cement can be mixed with water to create a slurry, it can be circulated into the well with pumps and
directed to the required location where it transforms into solid mass that forms a barrier in the well. The hardening
process is called cement hydration, which is a series of chemical reac- tions that change the cement particles into
hydrated compounds. These materials form crystalline structures that interlock and give the set cement strength.
This process is shown in the electron microscope images in the Figure CE-1 below.
Figure CE-1: Example Cement hydration showing initial mixing to growth of crystal structure that gives cement its strength.
Reasons for and types of cementing

The following sections describe the most common types of cementing jobs and the reasons why these jobs are
conducted for well construction, well integrity remediation, and well abandonment. Some reasons may have been
previously described in section 3; others may be conducted for well-specific conditions.
Primary jobs
Primary cementing is the process of placing cement at the required location in an annulus between the wellbore
and casing or liner pipe string. Figure CE-2 (following page) illus- trates the process of mixing and pumping the
cement slurry into the well, separating the cement with wiper plugs, and placing the cement into the annulus with
displacement fluid.
Setting casing strings

• Conductor casing provides structural support for well and completion equipment and is often the first pipe string
installed in wells and is not typically designed for pressure containment.
• Surface casing is run to protect fresh water aquifers and provides an attachment point for diverters or in some
cases blow out preventer (BOP) equipment. Surface casing also provides structural support for the remaining
casing strings.
• Intermediate casing or liners are set for various reasons: enables drilling ahead with a mud weight between pore
and fracture pressures, seals formation pore pressures while drilling deeper and provides wellbore stability.
Several intermediate casing strings may be used depending on well conditions, and these strings may have

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higher pressure integrity than those run previously, especially when the next hole section must be drilled through
formations characterized by abnormal pressures.
• Production casing or liners are set across the reservoir interval within which the primary completion components
are installed. Production casing or liners are most often set with cement, although isolation is sometimes achieved
using external casing packers which may or may not be cement filled.
Squeeze cementing
Squeeze cementing is the most common type of remedial (secondary) cementing operation. The process
involves placing a cement slurry into all necessary wellbore entry points (perforation, holes or split in casing,
cement channels, etc.) under sufficient hydraulic pressure to dehydrate or “squeeze” water from the cement
slurry, resulting in cement that will harden and seal the voids.
Application
Repair faulty, primary cement jobs:
• Repair a weak or wet casing shoes;
• Seal mud or gas channels formed in the cement during primary cementing operations;
• Complete annular cement fill in casing or liner tops.
Repair casing damage:

• Repair split or parted casing;
• Patch holes in casing or tubing;
• Seal eroded or corroded casing.
Alter well production characteristics:

• Reduce oil/water ratios;
• Change gas/oil ratios.
Isolate/Seal formation intervals:

• Seal lost-circulation and thief zones;
• Seal off depleted zones from production intervals;
• Prevent fluid migration between zones;
• Permanently abandon nonproductive zones;
• Temporarily abandon a production zone.
Common squeeze cementing techniques

Generally there are three squeeze cementing methods:
• Bradenhead or low pressure method is typically performed under formation fracture pressure and without using a
casing packer. The cement is placed in the wellbore using tubing or drillpipe. The pipe is then repositioned above
the top of cement, the casing-pipe annulus is closed and hydraulic (pump) pressure is applied to squeeze the
cement into the targeted area. Using this method makes accurate cement placement difficult, and usually more
than one squeeze job is required.
• Squeeze-packer or high-pressure method uses a casing

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CE–4 CEMENTING
Figure CE-2: Primary cementing process.

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CEMENTING CE–5
packer to isolate the squeeze area from the rest of the well. This method enables closer control of the entire
squeeze cementing process and permits a more efficient placement of the cementing slurry into targeted zone.
• Top-down annular casing squeeze method is typically used to force cement to surface when it failed to do so
during the primary cement job. These squeeze jobs are normally performed by pumping cement down the casing
annulus by an outer casing valve or installing a small tubing string into the targeted annuli and pumping cement
through this tubing. Monitoring the pressure of the inner casing pressure and the annular pressure in which the
cement is being pumped is necessary to prevent casing damage caused by collapse (inner casing) or rupture
(outer casing).
Common squeeze cementing packers:

• Squeeze-cementing casing packers (tools) are used to control the placement of job fluids and isolate wellbore
pressures during cement squeeze operations. Squeeze- cement packers are classified as either drillable or
retrievable. The type of packer used is dependent on the squeeze job objective(s), casing and tubing condition, and
formation parameters.
• Drillable-casing packers (retainers) are designed and manufactured to be drilled out of the casing when required.
Drillable casing packers can be set using conventional work strings in compression or tension, or by electric
wireline operations. These tools typically incorporate a “sliding” or “poppet” valve, which closes when the work-
string stinger is pulled out of the retainer following the squeeze job. The retainer contains the pressure below,
which is beneficial in many cement squeeze operations.
• Retrievable-squeeze packers are designed and manufactured using high-strength steel to provide a higher
pressure rating than drillable casing packers. These retrievable packers also feature a fluid bypass system, which
reduces formation surge and swab pressure events during installation and removal from the well. Additionally, the
packers have mechanical and hydraulic casing slips, which anchor the packer to the casing wall. And, because
they have a larger internal diameter, casing perforating tools and other diagnostic tools can be used during well
operations. Since these packers feature high-strength steel, fluid circulation ports and casing slips, it is very
important to monitor fluid volumes, casing and work string pressures, and pipe movement during operations to
prevent the these packers from becoming “stuck” in the well. Removal of “stuck” retrievable squeeze packers
usually requires extensive milling, which if unsuccessful may result in loss of the wellbore section or even the
entire well.

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Job design
To design an effective cement squeeze plan, the well operator generally works with the cementing service
provider to select the casing packer type, cement placement method (hesitation, stage or continuous pumping)
and the cement slurry design. To make their selections, well operators and cement service providers use several
variables:
• Job objective;
• Well and operational risk and safety;
• Well operations and production history;
• Casing size, age and pressure rating;
• Drillpipe or tubing size and pressure rating;
• Formation properties;
• Pore pressure;
• Permeability;
• Fracture gradient;
• Fluids types (oil, gas, water, combination);
• Diagnostic logs (Cement bond, temperature, noise);
• Well fluids and type;
• Rig capabilities;
• Field history and previous squeeze job results.
Plug cementing
Plug cementing is another remedial cementing technique and refers to the method of placing the cement slurry
into the wellbore to create a solid wellbore seal or “plug”. The general plug cementing process involves selecting the
location for the plug, positioning the end of the work string at the bottom of the desired plug depth, mixing and
pumping a cement slurry down the work string (drillpipe or tubing) into the wellbore, removing the work string from
the cement column and allowing the cement slurry to harden in the wellbore.
Applications
Well or zone abandonment:
• Seal a dry hole;
• Seal depleted zones;
• Seal non-commercial zones or wellbores;
• Temporary well or zone abandonment.
Zonal isolation or well stability:

• Isolate one pressure zone from another;
• Prevent zonal fluid communication;
• Stop lost circulation events;
• Enable drilling through fracture or weak formations.
Directional drilling (kick-off plugs):

• Support controlled changes in well trajectory (whipstock operations);
• Sidetrack operators around a “fish”.

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CE–6 CEMENTING
Formation testing:
• Creates a base for open-hole formation test tools.
Common plug techniques

Listed below are the four most frequently used cement plug placement methods:
• Balanced-plug method is the most often used method to install or set a cement plug in the wellbore. It works by
means of the “balanced hydrostatic pressures” concept. “Balanced” describes a condition in which the top of
cement and spacer outside the work string are at the same height as the top of cement inside the work string at
the end of pumping. To help achieve this balance, it is important that the well is in a fluid static state, the wellbore
and drilling mud are prepared to receive cement, the spacers/flushes volumes and densities meet design
requirements and the cement slurry is designed to ensure safe cement placement and removal of the work string.
Rig operations should be prepared to begin removing (pulling) the work string from the cement at the design rate
as soon as the cement is in place and surface pressure has been released.
• Two-plug method uses wiper plugs or rubber balls to isolate the cementfrom well fluids (preventcontamination) in the
drillpipe and provide positive surface pressure events, which are used as an indication of cement placement in the
wellbore. Once the lead cement spacer or flush has been pumped into the work string, the bottom wiper plug or
ball is released into the work string, the cement volume is mixed and pumped, the top wiper plug/ rubber ball is
released and drilling mud is used to displace the cement. When the bottom plug/ball lands in a receiving tool,
a positive surface event occurs that indicates the position of the leading edge of the cement slurry. Additional
surface pressure is applied to release the bottom wiper plug/ball, enabling the cement to be pumped into place.
The top wiper plug lands in the wiper plug/ball receiving tool, indicating that cement is in place. Surface pressure is
then applied, causing the top wiper plug/ball to be sheared out of the tool, which re- establishes work string
circulation. The work string is then pulled from the cement column at the designed rate; rig operations should be
prepared to conduct this step as soon as the cement is in place and surface pressure has been released.
• Dump bailer method incorporates the use of a cylindrical fluid container, which is run into the well with wireline.
When the bottom of the dump bailer reaches the desired depth, an electrical or mechanical trigger is used to open
the bottom of the cylindrical fluid container, thereby releasing the cement slurry into the well bore. Typically, this
method requires multiple runs, because fluid container’s limited capacity.
• Mechanically supported plug method is a variation of the

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balance plug method that incorporates a mechanical tool to provide a bottom for the cement column and prevent
migration of the cement column down the wellbore. This method allows for a choice of several mechanical tools:
inflatable packers, cement baskets, tools that use expandable membranes, which open when positioned in the
wellbore. Once the mechanical tool is in the wellbore at the designed depth, the work string is positioned above
the tool and the balance plug or two-plug method is used to place the cement column in the wellbore.
Job Design
When designing a cement plug that will meet the required objectives, the well operator will work with the
cementing service provider to select the appropriate plug setting technique and the cement slurry design. To
formulate a design operators and cement service providers consider a number of variables:
• Job objective;
• Well and operational risk and safety;
• Well operations history;
• Casing size, age and pressure rating;
• Hole size and hole enlargement;
• Well stability;
• Drillpipe or tubing size and pressure rating;
• Cement plug setting tools;
• Well fluids and type;
• Rig capabilities;
• Field history and previous plug job results;
• Hole angle.
Lost circulation cement squeezes and plugs

In some cases, controlling lost circulation during drilling operations may call for a cement squeeze or plug job to
minimize or stop drilling fluid losses and help regain full returns of the circulation fluids to surface. The formation
interval into which fluids are lost is commonly called the “thief zone.”
Losses may be halted and well circulation restored by spotting a cement plug across the thief zone and, after
waiting on cement (WOC), drilling back through the plug. This operation can sometimes be less costly than a
squeeze-cement job. Spotting plug cement in open-holes across thief zones with smaller diameter tubing has the
advantage of less risk for drillpipe sticking issues and better cement placement. The tubing is often called a
“stinger pipe” which can be installed below the drillpipe. However, many plug and squeeze-cement jobs are
pumped “through the bit” due to the time required to trip out and back into the well with a lost-circulation treatment
bottomhole assembly (BHA).
Low-pressure or depleted “thief zones” that steal well fluids drilling fluids can sometimes be sealed by a squeeze-
cementing job. In severe cases, more than one job may be

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CEMENTING CE–7
required. A combination squeeze-and plug-cementing job may be needed when losses occur after drilling out the
casing shoe. This can sometimes improve cement placement in the annulus between the open hole and the
shoe track including some distance above the shoe track. For deeper thief zones, drillpipe is pulled up above the
top of the cement plug and, if needed, above the open-hole; applying squeeze pressure at this stage will force some
plug cement into the thief zone. By placing the end of the drillpipe inside the casing shoe, the risk of stuck drill
pipe can be eliminated.
Cementing through the bit

Conducting cementing operations when a drill bit is in the well, is a very high risk operation and requires an
additional level of pre-job planning including both Job Safety Analysis (JSA) and risk assessments. When
precautions were taken, cement slurries have been successfully pumped through the drilling BHA, including motors,
without prematurely setting. One key condition for successful jobs is making sure the hole (motor, BHA, DP,
annulus, etc.) is cooled by circulating enough drilling fluid. The BHA tools temperature readings should be used
for test temperatures used in cement’s laboratory thickening time tests. When no temperature data is available,
thermal modeling computer software can be run to determine how long it takes the circulating drilling fluid to cool
the recently drilled “hot” hole section and BHA. The start of the cement squeeze or plug job can then be delayed
until the hole and BHA (motor, etc.) is cool enough to prevent shorter than designed pump times. When needed,
add retarder in the cement slurry based on lab testing with higher temperatures.
Other recommendations are listed below:

1. Total bit nozzle flow area and other flow restrictions in the BHA should be sufficient for the designed pump rate
and is sometimes specified to be greater than 0.5 sq. in.;
2. The backside surface pressure is continuously monitored to check if cement is circulated up the annulus. This is
intended for placing plug cement, but not for squeezing cement;
3. For shoe squeezes, the bit and BHA are spotted inside the last string of casing one or two pipe stands above the
shoe;
4. Open hole squeezes to control lost circulation, place the bit one or two pipe stands above the lost circulation
zone.
5. Run a lab-tested, compatible spacer ahead and behind the cement slurry. Spacer volumes are determined based on
conditions;
6. Do not stop pumping with cement inside the drill pipe (DP). When the spacer reached the bit, close the choke
manifold to begin bullheading cement into the zone of interest;
7. A DP swivel is installed above the rotary table and DP is rotated either intermittently or continuously to check for

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any increase in TOB that may indicate that cement is in the annulus;
8. If TOB increases during the job, further action is taken to keep the DP free such as immediately PU one stand
and check that TOB decreases before continuing the squeeze.
9. If TOB doesn’t decrease and hook load increased during PU, immediately shut down the squeeze and take
further action such as POOH to prevent planting DP;
10. After all cement slurry has cleared the DP, pull five stands or 500 ft of DP and continue checking TOB;
11. When the designed squeeze pressure is achieved, circulate drilling fluid to clear the annulus of any cement
slurry. Continue to WOC until cement is set and rig is ready to continue drilling operations.
Preparing the well and wellsite for cementing

Pre-job meeting
The service company supervisor should hold a pre-job meeting with his crew, the rig crew and all other involved
personnel in cementing the well to review responsibilities and coordinate the operations to be performed. Safety
should always be the top priority.
That meeting may cover a number of topics:

• Roles and responsibilities - It is important that everyone involved understand their role during the cement job;
open communication is essential. The pre-job meeting is a means to establish everyone’s role and to discuss
potential risks and contingency plans to deal with any issue that may develop.
• Rigging-up and pressure testing of treatment lines should be discussed.
• Job procedure – Every step of the cement job should be covered. Volume calculations of cement, mix water,
displacement, expected pit gains should have been independently verified by at least two members of the team.
The pressure to bump the plug calculation should also be independently verified. Depending on job specifics,
there may be other pressure, volume or rate calculations that need to be performed and verified before the job.
Equipment and material checks should be also be independently verified by two or more people.
• Potential events to discuss – Unplanned issues include lost circulation, excess gas, well control issues, equipment
failures, abnormally high or low pump pressure limits, slow mixing rates, cement volume shortages, lack of
cement density control, failure of plug to bump on time and floats to hold.
• Contingency plans – Circulating the job out and starting over criteria and switching from cement pumps to rig
pumps in order to circulate out, dropping the top plug and

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CE–8 CEMENTING
displacing without pumping the planned job volume and a complete list of standby equipment on site.
• Weather conditions – Considerations include how extreme heat, cold, or offshore sea state conditions might affect
personnel, equipment and materials. Extreme temperatures may introduce conditions different from the cement
job’s design conditions (ambient) that could cause compromise the job. For example, in the Middle East, on
several occasions cement has prematurely set inside the batch mixer as a result of prepumping and variance in
ambient temperature used by the design from lab: 120-140°F. The possibility of these effects should be discussed
together with measures to mitigate the adverse effects of extreme weather conditions.
Preparing the well for cementing

Hole and mud conditioning for cementing operations should begin prior to tripping the drillstring out of the hole for
the purpose of running casing. While the wellbore may be clean enough to enable trouble-free tripping operations,
the presence of cuttings beds, fill on bottom, or mud with undesir- able properties make running and cementing
casing difficult. Even though the well will need to be circulated and conditioned again after casing is run to
bottom, the hole should be clean and the drilling fluid should have the desired mud properties before casing is
run.
The drilling program should outline the hole-cleaning procedures to be followed for each hole section. The
procedures should specify guidelines for flow rate, pipe reciprocation, pipe rotation, cuttings and gas monitoring
as well as drilling fluid property specifications. Hole cleaning practices will differ between vertical or near vertical
wells, and extended reach high-angle or horizontal wells. For wells with greater than 30° to 40° of inclination,
torque-and-drag monitoring is recommended to help determine when the hole is clean. Torque-and-drag can be
monitored by using work string pick-up and slack-off weight indicator readings and rotating torque measurements.
Torque-and-drag monitoring can be used during hole cleaning and tripping operations to gauge the quality of the
hole. This applies to tripping the drillstring or casing.
Hole and mud conditioning becomes imperative in the following situations:
• Liner cement jobs run with tight tubular/annular clearances, when the liner hanger is set the annular flow
path becomes more restricted and prone to plugging with cuttings, debris or gelled mud;
• All wells with tight annular clearances;
• Wellbores with small mud weight margins between the minimum mud weight needed to control formation
pressure and the mud weight that results in mud losses to the formation, resulting in loss of returns caused by

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bridging or plugging off with cuttings in tight clearances, and high equivalent circulating density (ECD) from the
frictional pressure drop while circulating;
• During casing or liner running, surge and swab pressures can result in losses or formation fluid influxes if the
tripping speed is not controlled. The drilling program should specify the running speed to minimize surge effects.
Computer programs are available to aid ECD management and to determine the proper tripping speed to minimize
surge and swab forces. In very close-tolerance situations, “auto-fill” float equipment can be used to minimize surge
pressures by allowing mud to flow up the inside of the casing while casing is run in the well. The “auto-fill” float
equipment can be converted to conventional float equipment when needed. Surge pressures can also be
minimized by controlling the mud properties so that they have non-progressive gel strengths and overall viscosity
readings as low as practical for hole cleaning. Depending on well conditions, the well should be circulated at
prescribed intervals while running in the hole to help break gel strengths and ensure the well is stable.
Hole conditioning with casing on bottom

Once casing is on bottom, the well should be circulated until well conditions are stable and the wellbore is free of
excess gas. Mud properties in and out should be the same and within specifications. Between bottoms-up and
the casing volume, a minimum of the larger of the two should be pumped. Pumping a minimum of one casing
volume will indicate if there are any foreign objects in the casing that might plug up the float equipment. Pumping
bottoms-up will reveal if there have been any influxes into the well during casing running operations. Other factors
that may need to be considered for circulating with casing on bottom are the need to cool the wellbore down,
cleaning the wellbore of cuttings and maintaining the optimum rheology for mud removal by cement. In general,
the pump rate should be as fast as possible without inducing lost circulation.
Rig personnel support of cementing operations

Drilling rig personnel may be assigned a number of cementing operation support activities:
• Identifying the location of mix water, drilling mud or both supply lines that furnish cementing equipment (cement
pump/batch mixer) with mix water and drilling mud;
• Ensuring there is sufficient cement mix water, drilling mud or both to mix and displace the cement and
communicating and facilitating the method of fluid transfer (centrifugal pump, gravity feed, etc.);
• Identifying the barite supply lines that furnish cementing equipment (cement pump/batch mixer) with bulk barite
– typically for spacers;
• Facilitating the movement of liquid additives (drums,

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CEMENTING CE–9
totes, etc.) from the storage area to the liquid additive system and the pneumatic transfer of cement from the rig
tanks to the cementing unit during cementing operations that take place offshore or at remote sites;
• Informing the cementing service providers of any restrictions on the placement of the cementing equipment on
location;
• Monitoring returns at surface for change in flow rates and presence of pumped fluids (spacer and cement slurry)
and diverting contaminated fluids from the active system;
• Many operations require the rig pump to take over displacement – in this case rig personnel should coordinate
closely with cementing personnel regarding volumes, rates and returns.
Rig personnel should be cautious when working in or near the cement pumping unit, cement bulk equipment,
liquid additive systems, process controls, batch mixers, flow/mass meters, densitometers, temporary bulk/liquid
transfer lines, bulk manifolds and electronic cabling. Rig personnel should always be aware of the location and
service state (not in service, pressure testing, in operation, etc.) of the high pressure discharge iron from the
cementing unit to the rig floor as well as the status of pressurized bulk tanks, lines and hoses. During foamed
cementing operations, care should be exer- cised around the cryogenic nitrogen storage tanks, nitrogen pumps
and nitrogen discharge/vent lines.
Cement dust
Well cementing operations utilizes equipment designed to prevent the escape of cement dust into the
atmosphere. However, in the event that personnel are exposed to `cement dust, hazard mitigation procedures are
used to prevent injuries or health issues. Local regulators may publish these procedures to help prevent HSE
incidents and require them to be posted on bulletin boards or included in the rig’s safety manuals at the wellsite.
For example, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OHSA) guidelines are shown below:
• Hazard: Exposure to cement dust can irritate eyes, nose, throat and the upper respiratory system. Skin contact
may result in moderate irritation to thickening/ cracking of skin to severe skin damage from chemical burns. Silica
exposure can lead to lung injuries including silicosis and lung cancer.
Solutions:*
• Rinse eyes with water if they come into contact with cement dust and consult a physician;
• Use soap and water to wash off dust to avoid skin damage;
* Reference: OSHA 3221-12N 2004

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• Wear a P-, N- or R-95 respirator to minimize inhalation of cement dust;
• Eat and drink only in dust-free areas to avoid ingesting cement dust.
Rig personnel may also provide support in the preparation of washes or spacers used in the cementing operation.
The mixing of spacer fluids should be conducted using instructions provided by the cementing service company
or, in the case of more complex spacer systems, under the direct su- pervision of the service company personnel.
Rig personnel should always be mindful of the exposure and respiratory hazards associated with the handling and
mixing of materials used to prepare washes and spacers. As such, rig personnel involved in the mixing of
spacer fluids should always abide by the same personal protection equipment requirements as those used by
the cementing service provider.
Mixing cement slurry during the cementing operation is the responsibility of the cementing service company.
However, rig personnel may be asked to provide assistance to the cementing service supervisor or other
cementing personnel on certain occasions:
• Assisting the cementing service providers with obtaining samples of cement slurry, bulk materials and liquid
additives;
• Providing a tally of materials being consumed, additives, mix water, etc;
• Managing fuel and air supply for cementing equipment and ensuring that the air supply is dry;
• Helping the cementing service company manage the rig bulk material supply system;
• Measuring and recording slurry density using pressurized mud balance;
• Assisting in efforts to repair cementing equipm
Rigging up and pressure testing treatment lines

In preparing for cementing and pumping operations, service company personnel rig up and use a high- pressure
treatment line often referred to as a cement service line. They may ask the rig crew to assist them in this
operation. High-pressure pumping requires managing hazards and risk. In addition, all personnel must comply
with local regulations. Examples can be found under OHSA rules in North America, DNV in Norway or ANP in
Brazil.
Components of a high-pressure line

• Chiksan/swivel joint is a high pressure articulating hardline used to make connections adjustable by rotating
and a swiveling them. A double chiksan enables an easier rig up for spacing and flexibility, regarding vibrations
and pump pulsations during operations.
• Pressure relief (pop-off) valve is a safety device that protects contained systems from over pressuring. In most

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CE–10 CEMENTING
Figure CE-3: Diagrams of incorrect and correct combinations of pressure unions. See p CE-10.
cases, it works by the tripping of a spring or shear pin that was set at a prescribed safe level, allowing unplanned
high-pressure events to be vented or relieved into a lower- pressure or non-pressured destination source.
• Plug Valves are high-pressure capable valves designed for a wide range of standard and sour gas drilling,
production and well-servicing applications. These valves come in single- and dual-body designs in pressure
ratings up to 20,000 psi. Depending on the pressure rating of the value, they range in size from one to four inches
and are equipped with hammer unions or flange connections. They feature a two-piece floating plug/stem, and
are capable of handling fluids with solids intermixed. This plug valve is used throughout the industry in temporary
setups such as flowbacks, coiled tubing, well testing, fracturing and cementing operations.
• Mismatched connections or pressure unions are potentially one of the most dangerous situations faced by rig and
service personnel. For example, in Figure CE-3 a 1502 union will make up to a 602 or 1002 thread, but it will fail
once the pressure rating of the lower union is exceeded.
• Line restraints may be required by some operators or governmental regulators. Ratings of lines are determined

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by line size, pressure and line service, liquid or gas.
• Pressure testing should be conducted once the service line has been rigged up in accordance with all applicable
operator, contractor or service company safety guidelines. The line should be tested to the expected working
pressure, plus an agreed on safety factor.
Job design, pumping and displacing cement

Optimizing a cement job for proper placement begins with defining the objectives of a particular cement job.
Whether the job is designed for casing support, wellbore isolation, formation isolation or providing a plug for
directional operations, properly understanding the objectives of the job is a prerequisite to successful design.
The next step in the design process is identifying the operating envelope for the job, which includes identifying the
pore pressure and frac gradients in a well, temperatures, wellbore architecture and formations to be cemented.
Once these parameters are identified, a cement slurry and job design can be developed to meet the objectives of
a cement operation using industry recognized laboratory standards and methods.
In planning a cement job, slurry density, rheology and pump rate are optimized to the particular well conditions.
The slurry design will take into account the required density, rheology and pump time required for cementing.
The design may be as simple as cement and mix water, or it may require a more complex system with several
additives, or systems containing nitrogen gas to foam the slurry to a specific density.
The slurry’s density provides the necessary weight for well control, but it must be light enough not to fracture the
well. During placement, the friction generated by the various fluids introduced into the well impact the ECD and
must be controlled to prevent fracturing the well, resulting in lost circulation. Slurry densities, rheologies and pump
rates are used to manage ECD.
To optimize slurry placement, job design is based on various well parameters: frac gradient, pore pressure,
formation type, wellbore architecture, etc. and the rig’s equipment capabilities and any logistic challenges. The final
design should be a representation of all of these variables to achieve an optimized operation.
A primary goal of any cement job is to replace the drilling mud in the well with uncontaminated cement. To
achieve this, the drilling mud must be completely removed from the annular space. Contamination of cement by
drilling mud can be detrimental to the final cement properties. Dilution of the cement by drilling mud can result in
lowered strength, and if there is excessive contamination, the cement slurry may

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CEMENTING CE–
11
never gain measurable compressive strength. To completely minimize contamination, several good cementing practices
are recommended.
One of the keys to good cementing is centralized casing. De- pending on the size of the casing and the open-
hole, the degree of eccentricity that can be tolerated will vary. Larger annular spaces are more tolerant to
eccentricity than smaller annuli. This is because there is less of a difference in fluid velocities for fluids flowing
on the narrow or wide side of the annulus.
With the casing properly centralized, the drilling mud should be conditioned prior to cementing. Pumping at least
the volume of the annulus (bottoms up) is a common recommen- dation, though some work has shown that this
should be a minimum volume and larger volumes are often beneficial.
Optimizing mud displacement requires bulk and chemical removal of the mud. Bulk removal is conducted by
“putting energy” into the well. This can be done in two ways: high pump rates and casing movement. Pump rates
will be limited by the fracture pressures in the well, and the viscosity of the fluids being pumped. High rates may
not be achievable in all cases, but the design should use the highest rates prac- ticable, while taking the ECD into
consideration.
Pipe movement, either reciprocating or rotating, will put energy into the well; both invite additional risks.
Reciprocation can be effective; however, consideration must be given to the surge and swab pressures in the
well.
There is also a risk of sticking the casing off-bottom if the casing cannot be lowered completely to bottom at the
end of a cement job. Casing rotation can also be effective, although using this technique may require replacing
the casing couplings to ensure they can withstand the increased torque on the connection. Additional equipment
may be required on the rig to enable casing rotation, adding some degree of operational complexity.
Centralization, pipe movement and pump rates and use of bottom wiper plugs are used in bulk drilling fluid
removal. Equally important in this process are spacers or other fluids to separate the drilling mud from the
cement. Many drilling fluids are not compatible with cement slurries, and mixtures of fluids can form a mass that
cannot be pumped. To guard against this, spacers and washes (or flushes) provide a buf- fer between the cement
slurry and drilling fluid in the well.
Cement spacers, which are viscosified and can be weighted, also help prevent cement degradation caused by the
mixing of cement slurries with drilling muds; reducing or preventing cement degradation can minimize formation
damage.

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Flushes are used reactively to flush ahead of the spacer and cement slurry to improve mud displacement, control
fluid loss, and alleviate lost circulation during cementing. Flushes are not generally viscosified and cannot be
weighted. Types of flushes include water, brine and base oil. Spacers and flushes should be prepared according
to instructions from the cement service provider.
Regardless of the spacer or flush (or combination of the two) selection, sufficient volume of these materials must
be used to provide sufficient separation of the drilling mud from the cement. A minimum of 500 annular feet of
fluid should be used with preference given to 1,000-1,200 ft. Additional work has shown that a minimum of 10
minutes contact time may provide sufficient volume of fluid for wellbore cleaning.
Once the slurry and job design are completed, and the well has been prepared for cementing, the on-site quality
control for the job remains a key step in proper cementing. During the mixing of the cement slurry, careful
attention must be paid to density control of the slurry. Optimally, cement slurry should be mixed to within +/- 0.2
lb/gal of the laboratory design. Mixing cement to the proper density is more important than attempting to achieve
a particular mixing rate. While mixing rate is a consideration, density control is crucial to cementing success.
When the cement has been mixed, the displacement of the cement begins. Normally this is preceded by dropping
the top plug followed by introducing the displacement fluid. Once the top plug is dropped, the only variable that
can be controlled is the pump rate. As noted earlier, optimizing the pump rate for proper mud removal while
maintaining ECD control in the well is a key consideration regarding the job design.
The cement is displaced until the top plug lands out on the float equipment, the landing collar or when a specific
volume of displacement fluid has been pumped. Once the calculated volume of displacement fluid has been
pumped, if the plug has not bumped, the pre-job plan should make it possible to identify the amount of “over
displacement” that is to be pumped. Depending on the well requirements and plans, this volume might range from
zero to half the shoe track volume. In cases where equipment must be pressured up to function, as with
hydraulically activated packers, the plug must be displaced until it lands on the float equipment.
Estimating job volumes (cement, mix water, spacers, displacement)

Many different volume estimates are required to achieve a good cement job. Cement displacement volumes depend
on the pumping schedule and are tracked by cementing company personnel as the job progresses. The volume
of ce-

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CE– CEMENTING
12
ment needed depends on the hole size and the desired top of cement in the wellbore-casing annulus. Water
requirements depend on the volume and density of cement needed and the specified volume and composition of
spacers and flushes. Having enough makeup water on hand is essential, and the rig crew may need to provide
this by ensuring sufficient tankage for hauled water or by securing a sufficiently plenti- ful water sources: surface
water or aquifers.
Estimating cement volumes

Accurately determining the necessary cement volume depends on several factors:
• If there is a loss zone that must be covered, it is important to bring the cement top just above the loss zone, but
not so high that the hydrostatic head from the cement causes lost circulation;
• In some cases it is imperative that the cement top be placed near the previous casing shoe, but not above the
previous casing shoe where annular pressure build up in a trapped annulus could cause casing failure;
• For foam cement jobs, the density and actual volume of cement placed is highly dependent on accurately knowing
the hole size in each interval of the open-hole;
• There are also regulatory and many other factors that may need to be considered.
The first step in estimating cement volumes calls for determining the hole size in the interval where cement is to
be placed. The second step involves determining the interval or length of hole section that needs to be covered
with cement. The interval is usually defined by the top of cement (TOC) and the base of the cement. The planned
TOC should be in the drilling plan and must meet regulatory and wellbore integrity related issues.
Hole size determination

• Bit size can be used to determine the hole size as it will provide an approximation for calculating cement volumes.
However, the average hole size is usually larger than the bit size because of wellbore instability. Stresses in the
earth can cause areas of the borehole to collapse and break off which enlarges the hole. When there is an
appreciable difference in the direction of the geomechanical forces acting on the wellbore, the enlargement will
usually be in the direction of the higher forces, causing an oval shaped hole. The magnitude of the enlargement
depends primarily on the magnitude of the stresses in the earth, the formation strength and the density of the
drilling fluid. Higher density fluids can help stabilize the wellbore, but there are risks, such as fracturing the
formation (lost returns) and differential sticking, to consider before increasing the mud density. Wellbore
enlargement can also be caused by interactions

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between wellbore fluids and the formation. It is also possible to have a hole size less than bit size because of filter
cake buildup on permeable formations. If filter cake buildup is an issue, the drilling fluid can be treated to mitigate
the problem.
• Four-arm wireline calipers normally provide the highest amount of accuracy, especially when the wellbore shape
becomes more oval, rather than a perfect circular shape. In an oval-shaped hole, a two-arm caliper tends to
measure the maximum diameter of the oval, while a three- arm caliper will tend to measure the minimum diameter
of the oval. In a perfectly round hole, all caliper types will measure the hole size accurately. There are also non-
mechanical acoustic type tools available that produce a hole caliper log. Multifinger calipers with 12 to 80 fingers
are normally run in cased holes to inspect tubulars.
• Fluid calipers provide an estimate of the circulating volume of the hole, but not necessarily the true volume of the
hole. Fluid calipers are usually less reliable than wireline calipers since the circulating volume may be less than
the true volume of the hole due to fluid bypassing of static mud pockets in enlarged sections of the wellbore. A
fluid caliper also gives an average hole size over the entire open-hole interval. If there are enlarged whole
sections in specific intervals, there may a problem with placing cement accurately. In situations where accurately
determining the hole size in each interval of the hole is imperative, such as foam cementing, a fluid caliper may
not provide the needed accuracy unless experience in the area can also be factored in.
A fluid caliper is performed by pumping “marker” material down the drillstring and recording the volume of fluid
pumped for the marker to be pumped around to surface in the annulus. The annular volume is calculated by
subtracting the internal volume of the drillstring and the volume of steel in the drillstring.
Using this volume, further calculations can be performed to estimate an equivalent hole size for the open-hole to
estimate cement volumes. The marker can be paint, dyes, lost circulation material, carbide or any other
pumpable material that can be easily detected at surface. Several consecutive fluid calipers should be run to
increase accuracy.
Area experience and excess cement

Experience in an area helps to more accurately determine the cement volumes needed. Cement volumes can be
based on a gauge hole (bit size) or caliper volume with an excess volume added. The excess volume is calculated
by using the cement volume calculated from a gauge hole or caliper, multiplied by an excess factor, which is
usually expressed in percentages. Excess cement is usually pumped for the following reasons:

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CEMENTING CE–
13
• In order to ensure cement is placed at or above the planned cement top;

• In cases where cement is pumped to surface, pumping excess cement minimizes the volume of potentially
contaminated cement due to intermixing with the spacer or mud with the leading edge of cement.
Addressing lost circulation in cement job design

Cement alone is usually not effective at stopping losses during primary cementing. If possible, losses should be
under control prior to the cementing process. In the event this is not possible, lost circulation material (LCM) is
almost always added to the cement blend. Common types of LCM include: cellophane flakes, ground coal and
gilsonite. There are some fibrous materials that can be used, but they introduce more operational complexity
since they must be added directly to the mixing tub instead of being pre-mixed in the cement blend.
Lost circulation can also be mitigated by designing a cement system with the lowest density slurry that still meets
all the well requirements. Lower density systems can be designed using low density materials such as Pozzolan,
fly ash, bentonite, hollow spheres or by foaming the cement with a gas such as nitrogen.
Two-stage cementing may also be a viable alternative to prevent losses while cementing. The first stage of the
cement is pumped to place the top of cement just above the loss zone. The stage tool is placed just above the
loss zone.
If losses are expected, the volume of cement available should be adjusted accordingly.
Mix water volumes

Once the cement volumes have been determined, the mix water volume requirements can be calculated. To
ensure sufficient mix water is available for the job, excess volumes should be ordered to account for un-useable
tank volume below the suction line, filling the lines, and wash-up after the cement has been mixed.
Spacer volumes
A spacer or wash fluid is usually pumped ahead of the cement. The spacer or wash fluid volume should be
included in the drilling procedure for the well. There are a number of computer programs available to aid in the
design (density, rheology, volume and other properties) of the spacer. Pre- job testing should be conducted to
ensure that the spacer is compatible with the drilling fluid and cement systems. The spacer or wash can improve
the cement job by serving several purposes:
• Prevents contamination of the mud and cement which could lead to gelation problems;

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• Aids effective mud removal and increases displacement efficiency to provide a better cement seal;
• Wets the casing and formation with water ahead of the cement to improve cement bonding when non-aqueous
(oil-based) fluid is in the well prior to cementing.
Water sources and supply

An essential component in making any cement slurry is the water. Water quality, volume, temperature and supply
rate can all impact the ability to mix the cement to the proper density and the slurry properties in the well.
Water quality is a key concern in cementing. Generally potable water is preferred for cementing, though sea wa-
ter, brines or other types can be used. The key to success in cementing operations is to test the cement slurry in
the lab with the water that is to be used at the wellsite during the actual job. In that way, any contamination of the
water can be taken into account for the design. Inadvertently using sea water rather than fresh water, for
example, can shorten thickening times and result in job failures.
If sea water was used in the original design, the same sea water or water that is as close as possible to it should
be used to mix the cement. Generally, this is only a concern for rigs located near river outlets where rain events
on land can change the composition of water flow from the river, because such events have the potential to
change the salinity of the sea water. In some cases, the impact of large rain events on land can reduce the
salinity of the water to near fresh and may add lignins, which retard cement setting. Ad- ditionally, withdrawal
points for sea water on the rig must be deep enough to avoid surface changes in sea water quality while high
enough to avoid incorporating bottom sediments.
Another important aspect of job execution is ensuring that sufficient water is available for the job and can be
delivered to the cementing unit at the rate required for the cement job. Insufficient water supplies mean the
volume of cement mixed on the job could be insufficient for the well requirements. Inadequate supply rates can
reduce mixing rates, which will extend the time required to mix the needed volume of cement, potentially leading
to a job failure.
Finally the temperature of the mix water is important. Very hot water can lead to premature setting of the cement,
while very cold water can impact the ability to mix the cement to the proper density. Hot water is a common
problem on locations where the mix water has been stored in tanks exposed to direct sunlight. During summer
months the water in these tanks can be quite warm, at times exceeding 120°F. If the water must be stored in
tanks or high temperatures are anticipated, the lab testing of the cement should take the high-water temperature
into account.

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CE–14 CEMENTING
Very cold water, coupled with cold cement can lead to mixing problems. Hydration of the cement particles is
impaired, and achieving the proper cement slurry density can be difficult. In cold climates it is common to heat
the mix water to counteract very cold and dry cement temperatures. If these conditions are anticipated on
location, the laboratory testing can be adjusted to account for the temperature extremes.
Estimating displacement volumes

Displacement volumes can be calculated using the internal diameter of tubulars. If the cement plug does not
bump after pumping the calculated cement volume, a plan should be in place to determine if additional volume
above the calculated volume should pumped.
Job time
Changes in planned cement volumes directly affect job time. Ensure that the cement thickening time is adequate
whenev- er there is a major change in cement volume. Since cement begins to react the moment it comes into
contact with water, job time begins when cement mixing starts. Job time is estimated by calculating the time to
mix and pump cement, drop cement plugs after cement mixing begins, plus the time to displace the plug to the
float collar or baffle. A safety factor is added to the job time to estimate the thickening time or pump time needed
for the cement. This safety factor enables slower than planned pump rates or unplanned shut- downs. The
safety factor for thickening time requirements on cement will vary based on several factors: overall size of the job,
job complexity and equipment on location. Safety factor policies vary, but it is common to see a one hour safety
factor for cement job times that are one to three hours, with the safety factor increasing for larger or more
complex jobs.
Pump rates and pressures

Planned pump rates and expected pump pressures should be included in the drilling procedure for the well.
Comput- er simulation programs are available to help optimize pump rates and estimate pump pressures during a
cement job. Pressure limits should be established for the cement job based on casing-burst and surface-
equipment ratings. Of- ten, the cement head has the lowest pressure rating.
Wait on cement and post-job rig operations

Wait-on-cement (WOC) time allows cement to develop the compressive strength necessary to continue with rig
operations in a safe manner without affecting the cement’s ability to perform its necessary functions over the life
of the well. Many regulatory agencies have requirements for WOC periods. Regulatory requirements may
specify the time to reach a minimum compressive strength, a minimum time interval

Manual
or a combination of the two. There may also be regulatory limits on the type of activity allowed during the WOC
period.
The WOC period begins when the cement displacement ends (plug bump), and the cement is allowed to stand in
a static state. For most wells the hydrostatic head of the cement column in the annulus is greater than the
hydrostatic head of the displacement fluid in the casing. When the pressure is bled off at the end of the
displacement, the float equipment is checked to ensure that it holds the cement column in place by preventing
backflow of cement from the annulus into the casing. If the float equipment does not hold, pressure must be
maintained inside the casing until the cement has reached sufficient compressive strength to support its own
weight. At this point, the pressure should be bled off the casing to minimize the chance of a micro-annulus
forming.
During WOC time, the well should be monitored to ensure that there is no flow from the annulus or the casing.
There is a potential for the well to flow from either area until the cement has obtained sufficient strength to form a
barrier.
The cement’s compressive strength development should be lab tested as per procedures in API RP 10B-2 to
determine WOC time periods that achieve the following values for the listed operations:
• 50-psi cement compressive strength before removing the BOP or other well barrier;
• 500-psi cement compressive strength before drilling out the casing or liner shoe;
• 2,000-psi cement compressive strength before running cement evaluation logs or minimum 48 hours as per API
Technical Report 10TR1.
Cements and cement additives

Conditions and required properties
Cement used in oil wells is subjected to a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions. Accordingly, the
use of a single-cement type is impractical; therefore, different types of cements and cement additives have been
developed to meet a variety of conditions.
A number of cements are available in the industry and include both ASTM and API cements:
• Class A: Common cement used for shallow casing strings, similar to ASTM Type I;
• Class C: Fine ground cement similar to ASTM type III, useful for low temperature cementing applications;
• Class G: Most common oil well cement, universally used for all well conditions;
• Class H: Coarser ground cement than a Class G, only available in certain regions of the United States.

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CEMENTING CE–15
Table CE-1:Common families of additives and their effects on the slurry
✓ = Major Effect; ✗ = Minor Effect; [blank] = no or insignificant effect
Gas Migration Agents

Sand and silica flour
Extenders (Bentonite,
Free Water Control

Additive Type or Effect
Weighting Agents

Pozzolans, etc.)
Cement Property Affected
Accelerators
Dispersants

Retarders
Effect
LCM
Increase ✓ ✓ ✓
Density
Decrease ✓
More ✓ ✓ ✗
Water Requirement
Less ✓
Higher ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓
Viscosity
Lower ✗ ✓ ✓
Longer ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗
Thickening Time
Shorter ✓
More ✓
Early Strength
Less ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗
More ✓
Ultimate Strength
Less ✓
Better ✓ ✓ ✗
Durability
Worse ✗
Improved ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓
Fluid Loss
Worse
Less ✗ ✓
Free Water
More ✓ ✓ ✓
There are also a number of cements used that may not carry an API or ASTM rating. These include blends of
Portland cement and other additives inter-ground or blended at the cement manufacturing site.
Regardless of the cement type, the final cement slurry, with the appropriate additives, must be designed and
tested for the expected well conditions. Portland cement by itself has a very limited range of properties, and
requires the addition of cementing additives to alter its performance. Additives are used to alter the working time
(or thickening time) of the cement, alter the rheology, enhance the fluid loss or alter other critical properties of the
cement slurry.
Cement additives
Cement alone has a very limited application range. Because of the various conditions in the wellbore, the cement
must be modified to enable it to be properly placed in the well and remain stable over time.

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Table CE-1 lists several common families of additives and highlights their main function in the slurry. The table is
not exhaustive and is intended only as a guide.
Many additives when used together can enhance the properties listed. Additionally as the concentration of
particular additives increases, the effect on slurry properties can change. For example, many fluid additives work
better in conjunction with dispersants. The synergistic effect of various combinations of additives is common in
cementing.
Cement slurry properties

There are three basic properties inherent in every cement slurry. These are the desired weight or density to which
the slurry is to be mixed, the amount of water required per volume of dry cement to achieve that density and the
resulting yield of the final slurry. Units for these properties are listed below (Table CE-2).

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CE–16 CEMENTING
The basic calculation for cement slurry properties is:
Total of all material mass

Manual
can
Tablebe CE-2:
manually
Unitsorfor
remotely
density,operated. Drillpipe
water content and wiper- plug containers are used in deepwater applications to set
subsurface
yield plugs using balls or darts through the drillpipe.
• Casing-- wiper-plug systems areMetric
Oil Field used to wipe the casing
ID and separate cement
Density from the drilling
lb/gal fluids.
kg/cu m Generally, a plug system consists of a bottom and top plug.
Bottom plugs
Specific Gravity are hollow
SG and are used or
g/ml launched ahead of the cement slurry. The bottom plug lands on a baffle
or float collar, a diaphragm in the bottom plug ruptures and cement moves through the plug and into the annulus.
Water Content gal/sack l/metric tonne
A top plug is run or launched behind the cement to wipe the casing ID and separate the cement slurry from the
Yield cu ft/sack cu m/metric
drilling fluids. The top plug is a solid and signals a positive pressure indication when landing on the baffle or float
tonne
collar once displacement is complete. Some casing plugs
Density =

Manual
Total of all material volumes

Manual
are equipped with a non-rotating feature that aids in drill out; teeth or slots on these plugs lock the plugs together
and to the float collar. In this case, the compatibility
The yield and water content of the slurry are used to determine how much cement is required to perform a
particular cement job, and the amount of water required on the rig to mix that volume of cement slurry.
Bulk volume vs. cement volume

Dry cement is delivered with air to the cement mixing unit from the bulk system. A bulk tank with a 1,000-cu ft vol-
ume capacity will not hold 1,000 sacks of cement, due to air entrainment within the dry cement or bulk additives
blended in the cement. The bulk loading factor for a cement system must be considered when determining the
amount of rig bulk storage. This varies with different cement systems, particularly those containing ultra-
lightweight additives, silica or both.
Cementing strings and associated hardware, including casing running tools

Casing cementing string hardware
Cementing head equipment
• Circulating swages (casing swages) are temporary crossovers that facilitate circulation of the casing string
prior to reaching casing TD. They can be threaded to match the casing or have an adaptor that attaches around a
casing collar. The casing can be circulated using the rig pump or cementing unit. “Washing casing to bottom” is
one function of a swage.
• Wiper-plug container (cementing head) is a pressure
chamber or device that attaches to the casing or drillpipe to allow circulation in the casing, the pumping of cement
slurry and the dropping of wiper plugs or subsea plug activators. Casing wiper-plug containers can be single or
double, enabling them to hold one or two wiper plugs, and

Manual
between the plug and the float collar should be confirmed.
• Conventional casing plugs are normally composed of five wiper fins and made from an elastomer molded to a hard
core; they are launched from a casing wiper-plug container. These plugs are color coded and come in two types:
• Top-casing wiper plugs are typically black and desig-
ned not to rupture;
• Bottom-casing wiper plugs are typically red, yellow or orange and are hollow with a rupture disk.
• Subsea/liner casing plugs are attached to the subsea casing-landing string and actuated using balls, darts or
both through a drillpipe wiper plug container.
• Casing centralizers Casing centralizers are mechanical devices attached or molded to the casing to increase
casing stand-off, allowing better mud removal and cement placement. Several types of casing centralizers exist. The
most common type used in vertical wells is the bow spring centralizer. Bow spring centralizers are in-stalled with
an uncompressed diameter typically larger than the hole size (overgauge) to accommodate — to a certain extent —
variations in hole diameter. The centralizer’s restoring force (representative of bow spring strength) will dictate the
resulting stand-off at a particular point in the wellbore. Centralizers are selected for specific casing/hole size
combinations. They also have a minimum compressed diameter. It is important to confirm that the smallest
restriction in the well is larger than this number. Special bow spring models are also available for close-tolerance
applications. Other types of bow spring centralizers include spiral bow for bridging key seats, and “turbolizers”
with fins to promote fluid agitation. Semi-rigid or double- bow spring centralizers offer higher restoring forces and
are commonly used in inclined wellbores. Commonly, though not always, these centralizers are run close to gage
(uncompressed diameter equal to hole diameter).

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CEMENTING CE–
17
Table CE-3: API Ratings for float equipment (Specification 10F, Draft as of 1 May 2014, Glen Benge,
personal communication )
FLOW DURABILITY TESTS
Flowing Time Reverse Flowing Time* Flow Rate

Category Total Flow, hours Category Reverse Flow, hours Category Flow rate, b
D8 8 AF4 4 R6 6
D12 12 AF8 8 R10 10
D24 24 AF12 12 R20 20
D36 36 * For casing fill-up equipment
FLOW DURABILITY TESTS
Category Temp. °C (°F) Category Pressure, kPa (psi)

T200 93 (200) P1.5 10 300 (1 500)
T300 149 (300) P3 20 700 (3 000)
T400 204 (400) P5 34 500 (5 000)
T500 260 (500) P10 68 950(10 000)
Installation of bow spring centralizers require placement around a limiting device, a stop collar or casing coupling.
This allows the centralizer to be pulled in either direction, passing through tight spots without being pushed.
Pulling a bow spring centralizer reduces its OD size and pushing it, increases its OD. This action will require a
larger amount of pushing force when there are restrictions in the wellbore. Hinged bow spring centralizers can be
installed by lacing them over the casing coupling when flush or semi-flush connections are not being used, or over
a stop collars. The hinged types are the simplest and quickest to install. Some semi-positive designs cannot be
installed over casing couplings, because the coupling will not allow the springs to fully compress (Figure CE-
4).
Solid body centralizers can be attached or molded onto the casing body. These centralizers are slightly smaller
than the wellbore – often referred to as under gauge – and are used in deviated and horizontal wells. Rigid
centralizers will support the weight of casing against the wellbore.
Rigid centralizers are also available in special low-coefficient friction materials, such as polymer, and are designed
specifically for horizontal and extended reach wells where drag reduction is needed, resulting in significantly
reduced friction that aids getting the casing to bottom. Solid body centralizers are attached to the casing using
set screws located on the collar or between two stop collars, depending on casing rotation and its purpose
(Figure CE-5).
Deepwater and tight-clearance applications often require integral centralizer subs, which are pieces of casing with
a built-on centralizer (Figure CE-6). These subs are useful

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when centralizers must pass through a restrictions before opening to provide standoff in a larger hole size, such
as un- derreamed well sections.
Centralizer placement programs enable the successful selection of equipment for applications and ensure
proper placement for a quality primary cement job. An effective centralization program can contribute to getting
casing to TD, obtaining complete zonal isolation, and establishing long term wellbore integrity. Spacing
simulations identify what type of centralizers should be used in certain wellbore sections, their number and
placement to achieve the in-
Figure CE-4: Bow spring centralizer types: Hinged welded, Double bow, Spiral bow and Turbolizer.
Figure CE-5: Solid body centralizer types.

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CE–18 CEMENTING
Figure CE-6: Internal centralizer subs. Figure CE-7: Float shoe and
nose types.
tended standoff results. Following a recommended program is paramount in obtaining a good primary cement job
and reducing mud channeling, thereby eliminating the need for costly remedial cement work.
• API Specification 10F* for float equipment testing outlines several categories of equipment that are available.
When purchasing or evaluating float equipment, it is important to fully review all five categories outlined in Table
CE-3. The combination of all five categories describes the durability and capability of the valve. Valve
performance is measured in terms circulating time, flow rate, back pressure, and temperature. Therefore, it is
important to match the performance of the float equipment to well- specific actual casing running and cementing
operations.
Guiding and Floating Equipment:

Guide shoes are tapered, rounded often bullet-shaped casing attachments placed at the bottom of the casing.
When casing is being run into a well, the guide shoe helps direct it to the center of the wellbore. The outer body of
the shoe is made of steel, usually to the same specifications as the casing. The internal body of the shoe is
usually made of concrete or a plastic material to allow it to be drilled out. A guide shoe is opened ended and
lacks a check valve.
A Float shoe is a type of guide shoe with an integral check valve to prevent cement from U-tubing when it’s
pumped in the well. The check valve may have a flapper valve or spring-loaded poppet valve assembly. The outer
body of the
* At print time, API Specification 10F had not been released; the specifications listed may have changed.

Manual
shoe is made of steel, usually to the same specifications as the casing. The internal body of the shoe is usually
made of concrete or plastic to allow it to be drilled out. Float shoes are available with many options including
down jets, up jets, side ports, and a variety of nose types (Figure CE-7).
Down jets provide the ability to circulate while running in hole and a means of washing to seat if required.
Up jets allow cement to be pumped through them for optimum placement and to improve circulation, which pro-
motes wellbore cleaning. Side ports enable circulation to be established when casing becomes plugged during
running or when landed on bottom. A float shoe can also assist in floating the casing to TD and reduce casing
hook load by controlling the rate and amount of fluid used to fill the casing (see automatic fill).
• Float Collars are similar to float shoes but have a short piece of casing with a threaded box and pin that contains
a check valve and provides a landing area for the cement wiper plugs. The check valve may have a flapper valve
or spring-loaded poppet valve assembly. Single-valve or double-valve configurations are available in float
equipment (Figure CE-8). Double valves act as additional backup when sealing high pressures from below. Double
valves are a good option for reliability when longer than normal circulating times are expected or large amounts of
abrasive solids must be circulated.
• Automatic fill up equipment is one type of float equipment that reduces surge pressures while running casing by
allowing some of the mud to flow up through the inside of the casing Once the casing reaches TD, the float valve
is converted from auto-fill mode back to a conventional

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CEMENTING CE–19
Figure CE-8: Float collars.
check valve mode by pumping fluid at a predetermined rate or by mechanical means, such as dropping a ball.
• Shoe track (shoe joint, float joint) is a length of casing
between the landing collar. The shoe is left full of cement after a cement job to ensure quality cement around the
casing shoe and reduces the risk of over displacing the casing string by such factors as fluid measurement or
capacity calculations. The length of the shoe track is planned by the well designer and is usually as long as two or
three casing joints.
• Inner-string cementing involves cementing large diameter
casing strings and eliminates the need to displace internal capacity and volume of the casing during cementing
operations. Inner-string cementing usually requires a special sealing float shoe rather than the conventional guide
shoe and float collar (Figure CE-9).
Once the casing has been run, the inner-string cementing equipment (generally tubing or drillpipe) with a special
seal adapter attached on the end, is run and stabbed into the float shoe. The seal adapter seals against the seal
bore of the float shoe.
Drilling mud is then circulated around the system to ensure that the stinger and annulus are clear of any debris.
Next, the cement slurry is pumped with fluid liquid spacers ahead and behind the cement slurry. Cementing plugs
are not typically used in this type of cementing operation. The cement slurry is generally underdisplaced,
purposely left in the inner string and allowed to fall out on top of the float shoe. Underdisplacement ensures that
the cement, not the spacer and drilling mud, is left in the casing on top of the shoe. Af- ter the cement has been
displaced, and the float shoe has been checked for backflow, the work string is removed from the well. Inner-
string cementing is suitable for 16-in. casing diameters and larger.
Stage cementing tools (multistage cementers) are used when two or more separate sections behind a casing
string

Manual
Figure CE-9: Inner-string cementing equipment: latch-down drillpipe wiper plug, stab-in latch in drillpipe stinger, inner-string float
shoe
need to be cemented. Applications for this include situations when the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column
needs to be reduced as much as possible to prevent breaking down weak formations, encountering lost
circulation zones that require cement to be placed above and below the zone or when the length of a string is too
long to cement and the pumping pressure necessary to lift the column to surface would be excessive.
Stage tools are installed at a predetermined point in the casing string above the float collar and can be operated
hydraulically or mechanically. Note that casing, or any other type of tongs, should not be used on any part of the
stage collar body during installation. Stage tool collars can be ordered for two- or three- stage cement jobs. These
collars feature one or more internal sleeves that shift during stage cementing operations. These sleeves can be
shifted open with hydraulic pressure or by dropping a dart that will land in the

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CE–20 CEMENTING
Figure CE-10: Stage cementing tool positions (left to right) neutral, mechanically opened and closed.
opening seat by gravity for mechanical operation. It is important to note that free fall opening darts can only be
used in wellbore deviations of less than 20° from vertical. Stage collars can be field set to open mechanically or
hydraulically at different opening pressures by adding or removing shear screws from the tool.
• Stage collars are closed by pumping a closing plug behind second stage cement and applying pressure after
displacementis complete. Differentplug setconfigurations can be used depending on whether the tool will be
operated hydraulically, mechanically, or both (Figure CE- 10).
Liner cementing tools

Liner cementing tools are available in multiple configurations and are categorized by means of activation,
amount of weight they can support or other features or abilities:
• Mechanical hangers consist of a mandrel, j-slot, cones/ pads, slips and drag springs or both. These hangers are
set by manipulation of the work string. In general the number of cones impacts the weight rating of the hanger.
• Rotating or non-rotating hangers have a bearing that
allows the liner to be rotated after the hanger slips have been energized. The liner’s rotating action improves
cement placement.

Manual
• Protective slips are recessed in the hanger body and protected while the liner is run into the wellbore, usually for
drilling or reaming liner applications.
• Hydraulic hangers are set by using differential pressure, usually a ball and ball seat configuration. These hangers
are used in high-angle wells or deep liner depths. Hydraulic hangers do not have drag springs and can be rotated.
Circulation pressures before setting the hanger are usually limited to 50% of the liner’s shear pressure.
• Currently, there are two types of expanablee liner-hanger
systems. The first type incorporates a section of expandable casing that is connected to the top of the liner pipe
string. The expandable pipe section has an elastomer bonded to the outside surface, which is used to hang
(support) the liner string and seal the liner/casing annulus in the “liner lap” (top of liner inside the previous casing).
After the primary cementing operation is complete, the hanger is activated or “set” by using an expansion tool to
expand the elastomer on the expandable hanger section of the liner. Since the expanded elastomer suspends the
liner pipe string and also seals the “liner lap” annulus, the need for a liner top packer is eliminated.
• The second type of hanger uses two different expandable
pipe sections: one for the expandable slips and another for the expandable elastomer. The hanger is set to
suspend the liner pipe string by expanding the expandable slips before the primary cementing operation. The “liner
lap” annulus is later sealed after the primary cementing operation and when the cement WOC time has expired.
This action also eliminates the need for a liner top packer.
• Liner top packers are compression set packers run in conjunction with mechanical or hydraulic set hangers. After
the cementing is completed, these packers are weight activated and locked in place.
Casing running tools

Casing was run the same way for over 50 years, using the same principles, only slightly influenced by a few
changes in tool shapes and the sporadic implementation of additional features. These tools are commonly known
as conventional tools. Some years ago it became evident that the industry needed a new way to run casing and
the technology was amended to serve one of the most important activities in the drilling industry. Taking
advantage of the increasingly popular use of top drive technology a new generation of automated casing
running tools were developed, providing higher safety and quality standards while also adding new capabilities
that increased efficiency and reduced costs. At the same time, conventional tools have evolved into mechanized
tools to provide a safer and more efficient environment.

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CEMENTING CE–21
1: Main mandrel connected to top drive

2: Torque reaction bracket
3: Torque measurement system
4: Hydraulic bails
5: Compensation system
6: Hydraulic components (actuator)
7: Clamping system
8: Hydraulic spider
Figure CE-11: The tool is made up to the top drive by means of a top connection on the main mandrel. The torque reaction bracket
is a required accessory, installed from the tool body to the top drive rails or pipe handler. It has the specific function: reacting to
the friction of the swivel of the tool, avoiding the tool bails and housing to rotate when making up the pipe or rotating the casing
string. The torque measurement system is located in the tool and measures the torque applied by the top drive and transferred
by the casing running tool to the casing. This system also contains a radio frequency module that receives a signal from the tool
and sends it to the computer to display a torque-turns graph in real time. The bails (hydraulically actuated from the control
panel) manipulates the pipe from the V-door to the well center and enables stabbing of the joint pin into the box prior to making
up the connection. The compensation system is a set of hydraulic cylinders incorporated in the tool to cushion the weight of the
tool and casing joint, helping to preserve the threads and
enable higher quality makeups. The clamping system can be internal or external depending on the casing size being run. Internal
gripping is mostly used for bigger casing sizes where the pipe is clamped from the ID of the pipe. External gripping, on the other
hand, is mostly used for smaller pipe sizes in which the OD of the pipe is clamped, similar to conventional elevators. Courtesy
Weatherford International.
Conventional equipment/tools
Conventional tools have been used for many years and have become recognized as the most common way (and for
many years the only way) to run casing. Conventional equipment consists of several different tools. The hydraulic
power tong (powered by a diesel or electric power unit) used to makeup or break out joints of casing. The tong is
usually controlled manually by an operator who activates the levers located to one side of the tool, enabling him to
control the speed of rotation and the application of torque. The tong operator works with a stabber who is
positioned on the casing board (about 40 ft above the rig floor) and is in charge of aligning the casing joints being
made up, making it easier to engage the pipe threads.
To run the casing, an elevator and spider are also needed. The elevator is installed in the bails of the top drive while
the spider is located on the rotary table. Both can be pneumatically or hydraulically activated (can be done
manually) depending on the rig conditions and the requirements of the job. Other

Manual
tools that are part of this equipment are the single-joint elevator (SJE); used to manipulate each joint from the
catwalk and V-door to the well center, the stabbing guide; used to easily insert the pin into the box of the joint
prior to make up, and the torque-turn monitoring system which is usually an ex-proof computer used to track and
record, in real-time, the makeup process to ensure the pipe manufacturer’s criteria is followed to achieve an integral
connection.
Next-generation tools
These tools are designed to take advantage of the rotational capabilities of the top drive. These automated casing
running and drilling tools come in different sizes and complexity levels to fit every application. From powerful
triple rigs in offshore environments to super-single rigs onshore, covering a wide range of operations. These
advanced casing running and drilling tools enhance safety and increase performance by adding several features
to the casing running operations.
• Safety – Statistics have proven that tubular handling is an

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CE–22 CEMENTING
1: Connection to top drive

2: Hydraulic bails
3: Single joint elevator (SJE)
4: Service loop (hydraulic hoses)
5: Internal clamping system
6: Packer cup
7: Centralizer
8: Mud saver valve (MSV)
9: Remote control panel
Figure CE-12: Most casing-running tools also incorporate a fill-up and circulation tool which is used to fill up or circulate mud
throughout the casing string and the wellbore. Courtesy Weatherford International.
activity with one of the highest incident rates in the drilling industry. The latest casing running tools greatly reduce
risks, because they usually combine several conventional tools into one, which can be remotely operated to keep
personnel out of hazardous areas, resulting in a safer work environment.
• Efficiency and performance – Conventional equipment
has been used to run casing successfully for many years. However, the equipment has certain limitations,
specifically when there are difficult hole conditions due to formation restrictions, tight spots, trouble zones, or
when or when casing must be run in a deviated wells. When these conditions arise, it is particularly helpful to
have a tool with the capabilities to rotate, reciprocate (move the pipe up and down), and push down the casing
string while circulating. The combination of these capabilities will highly increase the chances to land the casing at
the intended TD. Most of the latest casing running tools incorporate these features.
Casing running tools can be either mechanical or hydraulic. Each category has different features available,
depending on the tool model, size, manufacturer, and the application. Figure CE-11 shows a typical hydraulic
tool with the main components are identified.

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All casing running tools, mechanical or hydraulic, are connected to the top drive saver sub or the lower internal
blow out preventer (IBOP) by means of the top connection on the tool mandrel (a cross over is commonly used in
between). The main requirement to use any of these tools is a top drive; otherwise the use of this technology is
not possible because the tool takes advantage of the rotational capabilities of the top drive to transfer torque to
the pipe. The tool can rotate using an incorporated swivel. The casing is clamped by slips/ grapples that can be
hydraulically or mechanically activated depending on the tool used. The clamping mechanism can be internal or
external. Some tools also provide a compensation system and a torque measurement system that are specially
required to monitor and record the torque-turn real time behavior of the makeup when working with premium
connections, ensuring connection integrity by following the pipe manufacturer’s criteria.
Most of these tools also incorporate a fill-up and circulation tool which is used to fill up or circulate mud
throughout the casing string and the wellbore (Figure CE-12). The mud flows through the ID of the mandrel of the
tool to the pipe. The fill-up tool contains a centralizer (used to guide the fill- up tool inside the pipe), a packer cup
(a rubber that seals against the walls of the pipe allowing pressure build up to

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CEMENTING CE–23
Figure CE-13: In addition to automated casing running and drilling tools, technology has developed a new generation of casing
equipment Conventional tools have evolved to a mechanized phase that provides different levels of automation, depending on
the needs of the customer and application. These tools can be controlled remotely through pneumatic, hydraulic or even
electronic automation.
circulate the mud, and a mud saver valve (a valve used to avoid mud spillage when the tool is removed from the
pipe).
Mechanized equipment
In addition to automated casing running and drilling tools, technology has developed a new generation of casing
equipment (Figure CE-13). Conventional tools have evolved to a mechanized phase that provides different levels of
automation, depending on the needs of the customer and application. These tools can be controlled remotely
by means of pneumatic, hydraulic or even electronic automation. Some of this equipment can be integrated into
the control systems of a rig and operated from the driller’s cabin. Higher grades of automation and larger
equipment are deployed in offshore environments where there is often more space on the rig floor, and the
safety requirements are usually the highest in the industry.
Cement evaluation
The objective of cement evaluation is to confirm the cement has been successfully placed around the casing
and the goals of the cement job have been met. To properly perform a cement evaluation, the objectives of the
cement job must be understood, and a decision made regarding how the

Manual
success of the operation will be determined. The goal of a cement job may be casing support, zonal isolation,
pressure isolation (associated with a successful shoe test) or other criteria. It is important, before cementing
operations begin, to establish and document the goals of a cement job, the methods to be used to evaluate the
job and the criteria to be met to ensure the job was successful.
Regardless of the cementing objectives, and even before any testing is performed, the job history provides strong
indica- tors regarding successes or problems. Assessment of a cement job is based on many factors:
• Accurate displacement volumes and surface pressure measurements, and the agreement of measured values
with those in the pre-job plan;
• Adequate circulation and cleaning of the hole prior to cementing;
• Centralization;
• Casing movement during circulation and cementing;
• Using a properly designed spacer and cement slurry;
• No lost returns;
• Mud properties, including gas units, on breaking circulation and CBU on resuming operations after cementing fall
within expected range;

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CE–24 CEMENTING
• Hard cement drilled out or evidence of cement softness that might indicate contamination;
• Wiper plugs released and seated normally;
• Was the top wiper plug observed leaving the cement plug container?
• Did the plug land at the expected displacement volume, did the float(s) hold?
• Were one or more bottom wiper plugs used?
• Were the plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) of the mud reduced prior to cementing?
• As applicable, did fluid returns at surface occur at the appropriate displacement volume?
• Was the planned cement slurry density target met?
• Was a mud/spacer/cement slurry density and rheology hierarchy followed, was the spacer compatible with the
cement slurry and the drilling fluid?
• Was the differential (lift) pressure measured during the cementing operation consistent with the calculated value?
• Were the cement slurry properties determined at the appropriate test conditions?
• After drilling out of the shoe track, was the formation integrity test or leak-off test result within expected values?
The most common reason for setting cement is to achieve zonal or pressure isolation. Because pressure and fluid
containment is process-safety crucial, it is good practice and frequently a regulatory requirement to verify that
isolation has been achieved. This may be done by several pressure tests:
• Casing pressure test: Any time prior to drill out, the casing is pressure tested for integrity;
• Liner top test: A positive or negative pressure test used to ensure liner top integrity;
• Formation integrity test (FIT): Conducted after the shoe is drilled out, pressurizing up to a predetermined
equivalent mud weight at the shoe, this tests if the shoe and the annulus immediately above it are well cemented
and have the integrity to allow the next section of hole to be drilled;
• Leak-off test: Conducted after the shoe is drilled out, this tests formation strength by pressuring up to the point of
leak off, into a permeable zone or by fracture initiation.
The actual conducting of pressure testing and the proper interpretation of formation integrity testing are beyond
the scope of this chapter.

Manual
Another common goal of cementing is casing support. Cas- ing support requires the presence of any solid
material in the annulus, but not necessarily 100% circumferential coverage of the casing. Sand, barite, hematite, or
other settled solid material can provide casing support providing it occupies the annulus. Collapsed formations can
also provide casing support. In horizontal or high-angle wells, casing support can be established by the casing
being in contact with the formation.
If there is doubt about cement placement in the annulus, or doubt about the cement quality, a cement bond log
(CBL) may be necessary. The CBL actually measures acoustic coupling; the presence of mechanical coupling
between the cement, formation and pipe is inferred from the ability sound waves have to travel through the
interface between materials. A fluid-filled annulus will show up as a high amplitude on the CBL, because there is
nothing to dampen the vibration of the casing set up by the tool. Similarly, contamination of the cement with mud,
other wellbore materials or both decreases its density and strength, and changes its acoustic properties,
decreasing the ability of the cement sheath to control the “ringing” of the casing during logging. Interpreting
cement bond logs requires engaging an expert. In one case, a sonic log can show “bonding” to a formation when the
casing is simply laying against the formation, thus making a path for the sound. Conversely, the perception of “no
cement” or “poor cement” can occur if testing is conducted prior to cement being set, which can occur for several
reasons:
• Over-estimation of the well’s bottomhole temperature;
• Over-retardation of the cement slurries;
• Underestimation of time required for a wellbore to heat up to bottomhole temperature after cement placement.
The cement in the annulus will appear not to be set or deemed poor quality because of the low strength of the ce-
ment at the time of logging.
Outlook
Advances in the development of more effective cement sheath evaluation techniques continue to be made.
Proper use of the newer techniques, incorporated with a clear concept of cement slurry design and strength
development, demonstrate improved cement sheath quality and quantity. Correct application of the available
cement evaluation tools and techniques requires an understanding of the measurement principles involved and
the developmental stages of cement structure.

Manual

B8. Casing and Cementing

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IADC Drilling Manual • Copyright © 2015

IADC brings the collective knowledge and experience

he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by

While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of

CONTRIBUTORS and REVIEWERS

This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.

Copyright © 2015 International Association of

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CASING AND TUBING

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IADC Lexicon puts critical definitions at your fingertips.

Types of casing and tubing

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Drilling liners may be installed to:

Production casing and tiebacks

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Table CT-1: The six materials used for OCTG manufacture

13% Cr Martensitic API 5CT/ ISO 11960 Sweet corrosion (CO2)

API 5CRA/ ISO13680

Seamless tube manufacturing

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• Cross-roll Piercing and Pilger rolling process: 250-660 mm (10-26.0 in.);

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Table CT-2: Casing and tubing tolerances

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Standard drift dimensions are given in the Tables CT-4 and

Inside diameter (ID)

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Weight tolerances are:

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Casing and tubing lengths

Casing and tubing strength

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Table CT-6: API 5CT grades, YS range and tensile strengths

Grade Type min. max. ksi

N80 Q 80 110 100

R95 95 110 105

Group 2 L80 13Cr 80 95 95

C90 1 90 105 100

T95 1 95 110 105

C110 110 120 115

Group 3 P110 110 140 125

Group 4 Q125 1 125 150 135

Table CT- 7: Range length for API RP 5CT tubulars

Min 18 ft (4.88 m) 28 ft (7.62 m) 36 ft (10.36

Casing* Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.6

Variation 6 ft (1.83 m)) 5 ft (1.52 m) 6 ft (1.83

Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58

Tubing** Max 24 ft (7.31 m) 32 ft (9.75 m) 42 ft (12.8

Variation 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61

Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58

Variation 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61

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Table CT-8: Range length for API 5 CRA Tubulars

Min 16 ft (4.88 m) 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36

Casing or tubing Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.6

Variation 5 ft (1.83 m) 5 ft (1.52 m) 5 ft (1.83

Table CT-9: Pup joint length tolerance